Biscuits,HardTack,andCrackers

inEarlyAmerica
byStuartWier
Boulder,Colorado
July2014

IllustrationbyCharlesMRussell:"CampCook'sTroubles"
In early America, biscuits, crackers, and hard tack were similar, all made from wheat flour
withoutyeastorleavening.Hardtackwasverysimple.Biscuitwasawordforavarietyofbaked
goods,rangingfromsomethingplainandclosetohardtack,toluxuryitemslikesmallcakesor
cookiestoday. Crackerswereessentiallythin, and hard, plainbiscuits. OvertimeAmerican
biscuitsandcrackersevolvedintotheformsweknowtoday.Biscuitistheoldestwordincommon
use;nextcamehardtack(replacingship'sbiscuit),andthencracker.

True hard tack is the simplest of all these, consisting of only whole wheat flour, water, and
sometimessalt. Hardtackwasmadeinlargequantitiesfornavy andarmyusebycommercial
bakersusinglargebrickbakeovens.Oldtimebakerssometimesbakedhardtacktwice,ordried
itinawarmoven,apparentlytohastenthefinalhardanddrystagesoitcouldbepackedand
shipped.Hardtackwasmostcommonlycalledshipsbiscuituptothemidnineteenthcentury.It
willlastnearlyforeverwhenkeptdry.ThereisalegendthattheU.S.Armyinthe1890sissued
hardtackbakedfortheCivilWarthirtyyearsbefore;oralternatelythathardtackmadeforthe
MexicanWarin1846waslaterissuedintheCivilWar.Hardtackneverhasanyshorteningor
sugar,oreggsormilk,anyoneofwhichwillcauseittospoilwithtime.

1
HereisarecipeforhardtackfromtheBritishRoyalNavalMuseumLibrary :

ShipsBiscuitsTheNavalHardtack

Toproduceaplainshipsbiscuit,amediumcoarsestonegroundwholemealflourshouldbe
used. Most flour used today is milled from North American wheat or similar hard grain
cereals.Itwouldbedifficulttoproduceanhistoricallyauthenticbiscuitfrommodernrefined
flour.

Addwaterto1lbwholemealflourandozsalttomakeastiffdough.Leavefor1/2hourand
thenrolloutverythickly.Separateinto5or7biscuits.Bakeinahotovenapprox.420degrees
Ffor30minutes.Thebiscuitsshouldthenbeleftundisturbedinawarmdryatmosphereto
hardenanddryout.

Arecentrecipeforhardtackusessomerefinedwhiteflourwhichwillmakethehardtackalittle
2
lessdense :

Combine2cupsofwholewheatflour,2cupsallpurposeflour,andonehalftooneteaspoon
saltinabowl.Slowlystirinoneandhalfcupsofwater[moreorlesswatermaybeneeded
dependingonyourflour]. Kneadthedoughforaboutfiveminutesoruntilsmooth. Letthe
doughrestforabouttenminutes.Rolldoughintoarectangleaboutonehalfinchthickona
greasedbakingsheet.Scoreat3inchintervals.Prickwiththetimesofafork.Bakeat325for
about50minutes,oruntillightlybrowned.Makes15biscuits.

Rightafterbaking,theseareeasytochew.Theytastelikewholewheatbreadandareappealing
toeat.Asweeksgobytheydryandbecomeharderandharder,eventuallyreachingtheclassic
toothbreakingdegreeofhardness,andthencanbecarved,sawn,ordrilledlikewood.Ifforcedto
eathardtackinthisstate,shaveoffshavingsintohotcoffeewithaknife,orgrinditintosoup.
One often associateshardtackwiththeageofsail,including perhaps theAmericancolonial
periodthroughtheNapoleonicwars,butIhavenotfoundanymentionof"hardtack"earlierthan
1812.Thefirstappearance,in1812,isinJohnLuttig'sJournalofaFurTradingExpedition3:

"...IsawtheSiouxoftheMississippi,intheEveningtheydancedandwegavethemsome
Biscuit hardtack and 1 Carrot Tobacco they bought plenty Meat with them and gave
plentytotheBoats."(July23,1812)

ThisprecedesthesupposedlyfirstuseofhardtacklistedbytheOxfordEnglishDictionaryby
30years.Before1860,biscuitorshipsbiscuitwasclearlymorecommoninEnglishusagethan
hardtack,atleastinprint.Manyearlyjournalsmentionbiscuitinacontextwheredurable
hardtackisindicated.

Thetwowordformhardtackwascommon,incontrasttosofttackwhichmeantnormalbread.
After1860theonewordformhardtackincreasedinusage,andbecamedominantby1900.The
first commonuseofboth namesforhardtackaroseduringtheAmericanCivilWar. Reading
journalsofthemountainmen(ca.18231840)makesclearthatbiscuitmeanthardtack,while
hardtackorhardtackisalmostneverseen.Thereis,asyet,nosignthatthenamehardtack
wasusedbefore1812.Shipsbiscuitorshipsbreadwasthenameforthisfooditem,eveninland
settings.

TheAmericanhoecake,johnnycake,orjourneycakewasanothersimpleflatbread,something
likehardtack,consistingofonlyflourandwater,andsaltifavailable. Usuallycornmeal,not
wheatflour,wasthemainingredient.Unlikehardtack,itwasbakedon,orinfrontof,anopen
fireandeatenonthespot. TroopsatValleyForgemadecrudebreadfromnothingbutwheat
flourandwaterbakedonflatstones.Suchprimitiveformsofunleavenedflatbread,suchasthe
tortilla,bakeddirectlyonafire,notinanoven,arefoundtheworldover.Thatisanothertopic!

Biscuits

BiscuitsinearlyNorthAmericabeganassomethinglikehardtackincomposition,onlyalittle
richer,andsimilartothecrackersofthetime,tendingtobeflatandcrunchyoratleastchewy.
Noneofthethreewererisenbreads.TodayAmericanbiscuitsaresoftandlightduetoleavening
providedbybakingpowderorbakingsoda,andoftenincludeeggsandsugarandsometimesfruit
orcheese.Somemodernbiscuitswouldhavebeenregardedasteacakesasrecentlyasacentury
ago.

Thereweresweetbiscuitsaswellasplainbiscuitsinthe18 th centuryandearlier.Thesweet
biscuitshavemorecomplexrecipes,withsuchthingsasalmondsandcarawayseedsandinafew
cases more sugar than flour. They appear in recipe books of the period alongside fancy
confections,andtheingredientsshowtheyweretreatsfromthewealthykitchen,notsomething
ofthebastion,camp,ortrail.

Hereisonesuch sweet biscuitrecipe,from TheFrugalHousewifeorCompleteWomanCook by

SusannahCarter(Boston,1772;NewYork,1792,1803;Philadelphia,1796,1802,1803):
Thiscollectionwasoriginallypublishedin1765inLondonandDublin.Therecipesareclearlyfor
thewealthy,havingitemssuchaslemonsforflavoring,and"apoundoffinepowderedsugar."
ThemanyAmericanreprintingsindicateademandforthiskindofcookingin the earlyUnited
Statesaswell.

Andtherewereintermediateformsofbiscuit,with,forexamplesomesugarorbutter,orboth,
andevenspices,withoutattainingthegrandeurofthemostexoticrecipes. TheTavernbiscuit
recipebelowisanexample.

Biscuitcoveredaverywiderangeofbakedgoodswhichhadincommonbeingsmallindividual
formsofbread,richerandmorerefinedthanhardtackwhilelessdurable,andneverbeingrisen
withyeast(well,notnormally).Ontheotherhand,theywerenotasthinandhardascrackers.
IncidentallybiscuitisanoldFrenchwordmeaningtwicecooked,anotherconnectionbetween
hardtackandbiscuit, probablydating fromwhentheywerenearlythesamething.Oddlythe
Frenchtermforthetwicecookedbread, shipsbiscuit, moved totheAmericanbiscuit, whichis
nevertwicecooked.

In early America the key ingredients for plain biscuits were shortening, milk, and flour.
Comparedtohardtack,milkreplaceswater,andshorteningisadded.Theseingredients,richer
thantheingredientscomposinghardtack,madeamoreappealingfarethanhardtack,butthe
resultisunlikeourmodernbiscuits.Hereisarecipepublishedin1817 4:

HardBiscuits.Warmtwoouncesofbutterinasmuchskimmedmilkaswillmakeapoundof
flourintoaverystiffpaste,beatitwitharollingpin,andworkitverysmooth.Rollitthin,and
cutitintoroundbiscuits;prickthemfullofholeswithafork.Aboutsixminuteswillbake
them.

Sixminutesis very fast;indicatingthatthebiscuitswererolledthin. Evenifthebiscuitsare

rolledtohalfaninchthickandtheovenat450,twelveminutesmightbetoolittle.If'thin'meant
about an eighth or a quarter of an inch, and the oven was hot enough to bake them in six
minutes,theresultprobablywouldbeclosertowhatwecallcrackers. Iexpectthisrecipeis
representativeofearlyAmericanplainbiscuits,beginningtoevolveawayfromhardtack.
Sometimes,butnotalways,saltoreggswereincludedinearlybiscuits,suchasthebiscuitrecipe
withanegginAmeliaSimmonsAmericanCookeryof1796:

Noideawhat"break...inthesameproportion"means.Nomentionofhowthickthesewere,nor
howhardtheywerebaked. MariaElizaKetelbyRundell's ANewSystemofDomesticCookery,
1807,hasarecipeforplainbiscuitswithaneggyolk,butnobutterorothershortening:

Rolledverythin,andandbakeduntilquitedryandcrisp:againthisisclosertocrackersthan
modernbiscuits.Notethesimilarityofthethreerecipesaboveforplainbiscuits.

MaryRandolph's TheVirginiaHousewife of1824has aTavernBiscuitrecipe,below,which

includes more ingredients: sugar, spices, and brandy. These are very appealing, somewhere
betweenmodernbiscuitsandcookies:

Iuse4cupsofflour,3ouncesofbrandy,andageneroustspmaceandtspnutmeg,andbake
at420degreesforabout15minutes. Thismakesabout40twoinchbiscuits. Inagroupthey
generallyarealleaten,withenthusiasm. SusannahCartermighthaveused onewholegrated
nutmegjudgingbysomeofherrecipes;theysometimesusedalotofnutmeginbakedgoods.

Speakingoftaverns,travelersonthefrontierinearlyAmericamentionbiscuitasacommonfood.
HenryBrackenridge'sJournalofaVoyageupTheMissouriRiverin1811describesthedailyfare
8
oftheboatmen :
 Inthecourseofthisevening,hadasmuchreasontoadmirethedexterityofourCanadians
andCreoles,asIhadbeforetocondemntheirfrivolity.IbelieveanAmericancouldnotbe
brought to support with patience the fatiguing labors, and submission, which these men
endure.Atthisseason,whenthewaterisexceedinglycold,theyleapinwithoutamoment's
hesitation. Their food consists of lied corn homony for breakfast, a slice of fat pork and a
biscuitfordinner,andapotofmushforsupper,withapoundoftallowinit.Yetthisisbetter
thanthecommonfair;butwewereabouttomakeanextraordinaryvoyage,theadditional
expensewasnotregarded."

JohnBall(AcrossthePlainstoOregon,1832)describesfrontiercabinlife:

...whenwecalledatthecabin,themostwereconstructedoflogs,wewerehospitablyreceived
andlodgedandfedintheirbestmannerandataveryreasonablerate.Astotheirmodeof
cookery I noticed one thing to me peculiar, they cooked thin bread as well as meat and
vegetablesateachmeal.ItwasacornhoeorJohnnyCakeorwheatflourbiscuit,andthe
JohnnyCakemadeonlywithsaltandwater.SomethinksuchisnotgoodbutIdo.between
JeffersonandLexingtonontheMissouriRiver.

TheearlywesternartistGeorgeCatlindescribesasolitarycrossingoftheGreatPlainsin1834:

So,onefinemorning,Charleywasbroughtupandsaddled,andabearskinandabuffalorobe
beingspreaduponhissaddle,andacoffeepotandtincuptiedtoitalsowithafewpoundsof
hardbiscuitinmyportmanteauwithmyfowlingpieceinmyhand,andmypistolsinmybelt
withmysketchbookslungonmyback,andasmallpocketcompassinmypocket;Itook
leaveofFortGibson...ThedistancefromFortGibsontotheMissouri,whereIstrucktheriver,
isaboutfivehundredmiles,andmostofthewayabeautifulprairie,inawildanduncultivated
statewithoutroadsandwithoutbridges,overagreatpartofwhichIsteeredmycoursewith
myPocketcompass,fordingandswimmingthestreamsinthebestmannerIcould;shooting
prairiehens,andoccasionallycatchingfish,whichIcookedformymeals,andsleptuponthe
groundatnight.

"Hardbiscuit" surelywasshipsbiscuitorhardtack,butregardlessofthat,Catlin'sunhurried
crossingofhundredsofmilesofplainsmusthavebeenawonderfulexperience,atleastforthose
wholovetorambleacrossunlimitedAmericainitsnaturalstate.

CrackersinEarlyAmerica

Crackerlikehardtackappearstohavebecomecommonplaceinthe19 th century,atleastin
print.Apparentlyearlycrackersweremuchlikethebiscuitsofthetimeasfarasingredients
went,butwererolledthinnerbeforebaking,onequarterinchthick,orperhapsalittleless.Air
dryingafterbakingwouldmakethembrittle,hencethecrackincracker. Likehardtack,they
musthavebeenprettyhardandfairlyimperishable.Truehardtackwasmadewithwholewheat
andwaterandnoshortening;whilecrackerscouldhaveshorteningandmilk,andusuallywere
madewithbolted(white)flour.Crackerslikebiscuitshadnoleaveningagentsuchassodauntil
the1830sattheearliest.

Hereisanearlystylecrackerrecipefromamoderncollectionofoldrecipes (11).Thesugarmay
beamodernaddition,andcertainlymaybeomittedandstillmakeanhistoriccracker.
 4cupsallpurposeflour 1/4cupbutter
2Tablespoonssugar 1cupmilk
1teaspoonsalt
Sifttogetherflour,sugarandsalt.Cutinbutterwithtwoknivesuntilmixturelooksmealy.
Stirinenoughmilktomakeastiffdough.Rollabout1/4inchthickonalightlyflouredboard
andcutwithalargeroundcookiecutter.Pricksurfaceinmanyplaceswithforktinesand
brushlightlywithmilk.Placeonanungreasedbakingsheetandbakeina425degreeovenfor
15to18minutesoruntillightgoldincolor.Makestwodozenormore.

Thisisaninterestingrecipe.Exactlyasdescribed(anduseaslat1/4inchthickasagage,toget
thethicknesscorrect),theresultisalargethickwafer,oftenalittlechewy,asclosetoabiscuitas
toamoderncracker.Astheydrywithtime,theybecomealmostcrunchy.However,ifyoucutthe
sugarbyhalformore,rollthedoughto1/8inchthick,cutintosquaresabout11/2inchacross,
omitthebrushingwithmilk,andbakeuntilbrown,theresultisalotlikeamoderncracker,
crunchyrightputoftheoven.

Theoldtimecrackerbarrel,openinthegeneralstore,insuredthatcrackershadtimetodry.I
suspectthecrackersmadefromtheaboverecipeareclosetowhatwasinthecrackerbarrel.

Intherecipeabove,themainingredientsarethoseofearlybiscuitsaswellascrackersflour,
shortening,milk,andsalt. Theclosesimilarityofbiscuitsandcrackerslastedalongtime. A
1901recipeforsodacrackers(12)describeswhatmostbiscuitmakerswouldcallsouthernbeaten
biscuits,basedoningredientsandhandlingthehandlingbeingbeatingthedoughforhalfan
hour. Howeverunlikebiscuitstheyarerolledtoonly1/8inchthicknessbeforebaking.The
recipessaystobakeinamoderateoventilltheyarehardandcrisp,butnotbrown.Thenhangin
amuslinbagforabouttwodaysuntilthoroughlydry.Afterthat,theymusthavecrackedorat
leastcrunchedwheneaten.

Beatenbiscuitsinvolvedbeatingthedoughwitharollingpin(ora"heavymallet"!)forasmuchas
halfanhour.Iassumethiswastodeveloptheglutentoaidrisingbeforebakingsodaappeared.
Biscuitsusingsodaorbakingpowder,incontrast,shouldbekneadedaslittleaspossible.

ArecipeforShakerCrackers,inthe BetterHomesandGardensHeritageCookBook (1975)

whichincludesrecipesfromallperiodsofU.S.history,isalmostidenticaltotheBakingPowder
BiscuitsintheBostonCookingSchoolCookBook(1941).Bothrecipeslistthesameingredients,
inthesameorder,withslightlydifferentproportions. Theessentialdifferencebetweenthese
crackersandbiscuitsisthatthecrackersarerolledto1/4inchthick,whilethebiscuitsare
rolledto3/4inch.Theuseofbakingsodaandbakingpowdershowsthattheserecipesmustbe
th
fromthesecondhalfofthe19 century,attheearliest. Thisisanindicationoftherelation
between crackers and biscuits, though not definitive since these editions may have altered
earlierrecipes.
TheBeginningsofModernBiscuitsandCrackers

Pearlash,BakingSoda,andBakingPowder

The American biscuits and crackers we know today descend from American inventions in
leaveningagentsmadeinthelate18thand19thcenturies.

"PerhapsthesinglemostimportantinnovationinAmericanCookerywastheuseofpearlash
asachemicalleaveningfordough,anAmericanpracticewhichhasinfluencedworldwide
bakingmethods.Priortothelate1700s,thepreferredlightnessinbakedgoodswasattained
bybeatingairalongwiththeeggs,oraddingyeastorvariousspiritstoproducealeavening.
ButbythefirstpublicationofAmericanCookery,Americanswereaddingpearlash(arefined
formofpotash,animpurepotassiumcarbonateobtainedfromwoodashes,andacommon
householdstapleintheearlyAmericankitchen)totheirdoughstoproducecarbondioxide
quickly.Thiswastheforerunnerofmodernbakingpowderswhichweresoontorevolutionize
bothhomeandcommercialbaking,hereandelsewhere."
from"FeedingAmerica:TheHistoricAmericanCookbookProject"13.

"AmericanCookery,ortheartofdressingviands,fish,poultry,andvegetables...",byAmelia
Simmons(Hartford:1796)wasthefirstcookbookwrittenbyanAmerican,andemploysAmerican
ingredients.Itwaswidelyreprinted,andcopied.

Inthe1830sbakersbeganusingbakingsoda,thencalledsaleratus,toleavendough.Reacting
withanacidicingredientindough,suchasvinegar(aceticacid)orsourmilk(lacticacid),baking
sodareleasesbubblesofcarbondioxide,thegasthatmakessodapopfizz. Thiswasalltothe
good:ratherthantakingthetroubleandtimetomakeayeaststarter,ordowithoutleaveningat
all as had beenthecaseuntil thenfor biscuits and crackers, bakers hadasourceof instant
leavening,rightinthedough. Biscuitscouldbelightandmoreappealing,andtheybecamea
commonpartofAmericancooking. Thenewcrackersmadewithbakingsodawerecalledsoda
crackers,andcrackersbegantheirevolutionintowhatweknowtoday.

Hereisanearlysodacrackerrecipe. Theacidicreactantforthebakingpowderisprovidedby
sourmilk,somethinglikeourbuttermilk:

Sourmilk 1teaspoonbutter,softened
1/2teaspoonbakingsoda 1teaspoonlard
3cupsflour salt
Mixenoughsourmilk,inwhichthesodahasbeendissolved,intotheflourtomakeaverystiff
dough. Knead well working in butter and lard, and roll out very thin. Cut, shaping the
crackersasyouwish,sprinklewithcoarsesalt,andpricktheminpatternswithafork.Bake
thesodacrackersinamoderateoven(350degrees)untiltheyarecrisp.(2030minutes)

Thisrecipemakesnicethicksodacrackers,especiallyafterdryingafewdays.Sodawasanew
andvaluableadditiontobaking,anditcontinuesinusetoday.However,therearetwoproblems
with baking soda. One is that sources of acid are not always of uniform strength, yielding
differentamountsofleaveningmosteverytimeyoutry. Theotheristhattheleaveninggas
appearsinthedoughimmediately;howmuchremainsinthedoughwhenbakeddependedon
howthedoughishandledbeforebaking,anotherirregularfactor. Forsomerecipes,suchas
buttermilkpancakes,therapidgenerationofbubblesinthedoughisjustwhatyouwant,solong
asyoudonotstirthedoughmuch,afterthebubblesappear.

TheSodaBiscuit

Biscuitsaswellascrackersbenefitedfrombakingsoda.HereisaearlysodabiscuitbyAliceKirk
Griersonofthe10th U.S.Cavalry,ofTexasandArizona, written inthe1880s(publishedas An
ArmyWife'sCookbookWithHouseholdHintsandHomeRemedies,1972):

1quartflour,2heapingtablespoonfulslard,2cupssweetmilk,oryoucantakecanmilk,1
teaspoonfulsoda,2teaspoonfulscreamoftartar,1teaspoonfulsalt.Rubsodaandcreamof
tartar into flour dry. Next the lard. Lastly the milk. Work with as little handling as
possible.Thedoughshouldbeverysoft.Cutmorethanhalfinchthickandbakeinaquick
oven.

Hereisasimilarsodabiscuitrecipe,simplytoshowhowrecipesforbiscuitsnaturallyvary.This
isfrom TheUniversalCookeryBook byGertrudeStrohm(NewYork:WhiteStokesandAllen,
1887).

Thefirststeptoimproveuseofbakingsodawastouseareactantforthesodaofconsistent
strength,creamoftartar,whichwasinthe1830sabyproductofwineproductioninFranceand
Italy.

Hereisasodacrackerrecipewithcreamoftartar.

7oz.flour 1cupshortening
1teaspoonsalt 1teaspoonbakingsoda
2teaspoonscreamoftartar 11/2cupcoldwater
Mixflour,salt,andcreamoftartar,thenrubinshortening.Dissolvesodaincoldwater.
Mixallingredients.Rolloutandbakeinaquickoven(about400degrees).

Thisislikearecipeforpiecrustorpuffpastry,plusleaveningandsalt.Forbestresultschillthe
shorteningbeforeuse,andusereallycoldwater.Lardmakesmoretendercrackers ,butbutter
hasabetterflavor.
Mixinginthesodawiththewateratthelaststepdelaysthegenerationoftheleaveninggasas
longaspossible.Thisrecipeuseswaterinplaceofmilk.Watercrackersaremadewithwater
ratherthanmilk,sothisisbothasodacrackerandawatercracker.

Americanspersistedinseekingimprovementstobakingsoda,andby1859bakingpowderwas
developed. Baking powder includes baking soda plus other materials to provide the needed
reactantwhenmixedindough,pluschemicalsthatproduceleaveningwhenheated,notwhenthe
doughismixed,andadryingagentsuchascornstarchtopreventreactionsinthepackage.No
longerdidarecipeneedanacidiccomponent,andsomeoralloftheleaveningactionoccurred
whenbaked,notwhenthedoughwasbeinghandled.

HereisaShakerrecipeforcrackersusingbakingpowder.

1cupallpurposeflour 1/4cupbutter
1teaspoonbakingpowder 1/4cupmilk
1/4teaspoonsalt
Stir together thoroughly the flour, baking powder, and salt. Cut in butter until the
mixtureresemblescoarsecrumbs.Addmilk;stiruntilthemixtureformsaball.Turnout
doughontoalightlyflouredsurface. Kneaddoughgentlyeighttotenstrokes. Rollthe
doughto1/4inchthickness. Dip21/2inchbiscuitcutterinflour;cutdoughwithit.
Placedoughroundsongreasedbakingsheet. Bakeat400degreesfor10minutes.Split
thecrackerswithaknife. Returntoovenandbakeuntilgoldenbrown,4to6minutes
longer.Makes24crackers.

Thesearebasicallywhatwecallbiscuits,butsplitinhalfandtoasted.

QuickbreadsusingbakingsodaorbakingpowderbecameastandardofAmericancooking,and
weresomething ofa noveltyforEuropeanvisitorstoAmerica.Youcouldmakefreshbiscuits
whenorderedbyrestaurantguestsalreadyseatedatthetable,andofcoursebiscuitsbecame
commonplaceforranchers,miners,andfrontiersmen,infact,everyoneinAmerica.

TheAmericanBakingPowderBiscuit

CertainlynobreadinAmericahasbeenmorepopularoveralongertimethanbakingpowder
biscuits.Infact,inmanyhomestheywerebakedthreetimesadayingreatquantities,and
wereeatenhot,withbutterandhoneyorpreserves,alongwitheverymeal.
JamesBeard

YoucanfindbiscuitsusingbakingpowderorbakingsodainmostAmericancookbooksforthe
pastcenturyandahalf. WiththebakingpowderbiscuitwereachthemostfamousAmerican
biscuit,thebiscuitknownsincetheCivilWar,thebiscuitoftheoldwest,ofminingboomtowns,
and farms, of fishing ports and hunting camps, of the cattle trail and the cavalry patrol, of
TheodoreRooseveltintheDakotas,JohnMuirintheYosemite,andJackLondoninAlaska.The
next recipe includes the customary ingredients for the baking powder biscuit, and shows the
commonproportionsfoundinseveralhistoricbiscuitrecipesandthevariationsamongthem.
 TheGenuine,AllAmerican,Ranch,Camp,andTrailBakingPowderBiscuit

3cupsallpurposeflourorbreadflour
3to4teaspoonsbakingpowder;usually3teaspoons
to1teaspoonssalt;usually1teaspoon
3to8tablespoonsbutterorothershortening;mostcommonly6tablespoons
1cupmilk,orhalfmilkandhalfwater;alittlemoreinathedrywesternclimate.

Siftdryingredientsintobowl.Cutinshorteningwithaforkortwoknivesuntilfinemeal.
Mixwell.Makeawellinthecenterofthemixtureandgentlyaddallthemilk.Stirquickly
withforkuntildoughpullsawayfrombowlsidesandfollowsfork. Doughshouldbevery
soft. Donotaddsomuchmilkitmakesastickyball. Turndoughontoalightlyfloured
surface.Kneadgently10or12strokes;youcankneadasmuchasaminuteifyouusethe
fullamountofbakingpowder.Rolloutorpattotoinchthickness;aslittleasinchfor
thincrispbiscuitsortoinchforhighsoftbiscuits.Cutasroundsorsquares.

Tobakeinanoven,placebiscuitsonungreasedbakingsheet,wellseparatedforcrunchy
sides,orhavebiscuitsnearlytouchingonthesheetforsoftsides.Bakeat450degreesfor12
to15minutes.

Forcampcooking,usea12to14inchdutchoven.Preheatlidandbottom. Use78coals
underthebottomand1618coalsonthelid.Bake10to15minutes.Rotatelidandbottoma
quartercircle,inoppositedirections,every4or5minutesforevenheating.

Splitandeatwithbutter,honeyorjam.Makes12to30biscuits,dependingonthicknessand
size.

MilkwasavailabletocowboysonthetrailsinceAmericanshadalsoinventedcannedmilkinthe
midnineteenthcentury,butthatisanotherstory. Ifyoufindanoldoriginalrecipeforbaking
powderbiscuits,itmayuseanoldfashionedtartrateorphosphatetypebakingpowder,which
requirestwiceasmuchasmodernbakingpowder.Thatmuchistoomuchmodernbakingpowder.

Theseareplainbiscuits;goodifeatenassoonasdoneandratherblandlater.Butter,syrup,jam,
ormolassesaretypicaltoppings.ThisisthebasichistoricAmericanbakingpowderbiscuit.

Hereismyfavorite modern biscuitrecipe,usingbakingpowderandbakingsoda. Buttermilk

addssomeflavor.ThisrecipeisbyAndreaRutledge,awinnerinaPowderMilkBiscuitcontest
heldabout1985byapublicradiostationinColorado.AllIhavenowisawornnotecard.

AndreaRutledge'sPowderMilkBiscuits

2cupsplus2Tablespoonsunbleachedflour
2teaspoonsdoubleactingbakingpowder(above5000feet,2teaspoons)
teaspoonbakingsoda
teaspoonsalt
1/3cupbutter(textureisbestbestiffrozen)
3/4cupbuttermilk.Mayneedmoreinadryclimate.

Sifttogetherdryingredientsinbowl.Cutbutterintomixture.Blendinbuttermilkuntil
doughstickstogetherloosely,butisnotaheavystickylump.Kneadonboardafewtimes
 untilsmooth. Rollouttoinchthickness.Cutwithjellyglassanddiptopsinmelted
butter.Cookonagreasedcookiesheet15minutesat450degreesFahrenheit.

Inallrecipesinthisarticle,theamountofliquidneededdependsonyourflourandonhowdry
yourclimateis.

Sources

1. RoyalNavalMuseum,Ship'sBiscuitsTHENAVALHARDTACK,http://
www.royalnavalmuseum.org/info_sheet_ship_biscuit.htm.accessed2010.
2. MaryGunderson,TheFoodJournalofLewisandClark(Yankton,SouthDakota:History
Cooks,2003).
3. JohnC.Luttig;StellaM.Drumm,ed.JournalofaFurTradingExpeditionontheUpper
Missouri,18121813.(St.Louis:MissouriHistoricalSociety,1920).
4. Anon., The New Female Instructor; or, Young Woman's Guide to Domestic Happiness
(London:ThomasKelly,1817)
5. AmeliaSimmons,AmericanCookery(Hartford:Hudson&Goodwin,1796).
6. MariaElizaKetelbyRundell,ANewSystemofDomesticCookery(London:JohnMurray,
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Boulder,Colorado2014

March28,2011;revised2013,Feb.2,2014,andJuly82014.

Copyright2011,2013,2014StuartK.Wier

Reproductionreuseorretransmissionprohibitedwithoutpriorwrittenconsentbytheauthor.
Individualsarewelcometoprintacopyfortheirownpersonal,noncommercial,use.Manyorall
oftherecipesarehistoricalandarenotcopyrighted,sofarasIcantell.

Parts of this article were published earlier in Biscuits, Hard Tack, and Crackers in Early
America,JournaloftheEarlyAmericas,1,no.1,2011,pp1721.