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Carbon is the twelfth most common element in the earth, making up less than 1% of the
crust.
Without carbon, life would not exist.
The source of carbon in the carbon cycle is carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Only about 0.04% of the atmosphere is carbon dioxide.
Green plants take carbon dioxide and water, combining them together to form glucose and
oxygen. This process uses energy from the sun and is called photosynthesis.
The word equation for photosynthesis is carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
Carbon dioxide dissolves in water (mainly seawater), where it is used by animals ( to make
their shells) and plants (in photosynthesis).
The plants are eaten by animals, in which they gain the carbon from.
Animal and plants die and rot away, or are buried, and slowly (over millions of years) are
fossilised
Tiny sea creatures die and their bodies fall to the bottom of the sea, where they slowly
(over millions of years) change to limestone.
Animals and plants breath out carbon dioxide when they respire food.
The process of respiration uses oxygen from the air, and releases carbon dioxide.
The word equation for respiration is oxygen + glucose carbon dioxide + water
When plants and animals decay after death, carbon dioxide is produced.
Wood can be burnt. This combustion produces carbon dioxide.
The word equation for combustion is carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide
Fossilised plants and animals form fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas). These produce carbon
dioxide when they are burnt.
Limestone produces carbon dioxide when it is heated in industry and when it moves back
below the earth's crust.
Carbon dioxide leaves the atmosphere by photosynthesis and by dissolving in water.
Carbon dioxide is put back into the atmosphere by respiration and combustion.
A problem we face is balancing the amount of carbon dioxide added and removed in the
atmosphere.
The atmosphere
Clean air has 79% nitrogen, 20% oxygen, 0.9% argon and 0.1% other gases (including
carbon dioxide, water vapour, neon and other noble gases).
Nitrogen is used in the manufacture of ammonia and fertilizers in the Haber process. It is
also used where an unreactive gas is needed to keep air away from certain products (eg:
used to fill bags of chips to ensure that it does not get crushed or gets rancid )
Liquid nitrogen is used in cryogenics (storing of embryos and other types of living tissue at
low temperature).
Oxygen is used in the production of steel from cast iron. It is also used to make the high
temperature flames needed to cut and weld metals (oxy-acetylene torches). It is used in
hospitals to aid the breathing of sick people.
Argon is used to fill light bulbs to prevent the tungsten filament burning away. It does not
react with tungsten even at very high temperatures.
Other noble gases are used in advertising signs, as they glow in different colours when
electricity flows through them.
Before any of the gases in the air can be used separately they have to be separated from
the air in the atmosphere.
They can be separated using fractional distillation, which works because the gases have
different boiling points.
The fractional distillation involves two stages. First, the air must be cooled until it turns
into liquid. Then the liquid air is allowed to warm up again. The various gases boil off one
at a time at different temperatures.
Nitrogen dioxide causes acid rain and can combine with other gases in very hot weather to
cause photochemical smog, which can cause breathing problems.
Carbon monoxide is a very toxic gas. It combines with the hemoglobin in blood and stops it
from carrying oxygen. Very small amount of carbon monoxide can cause dizziness and
headache. Larger quantities cause death.
Lead is a toxic metal and cause learning difficulties in children, even in small quantities.
The body cannot easily get rid of lead, so small amounts can build up to dangerous levels
over time.
Catalytic converters can be attached to the exhaust system of cars. They convert carbon
monoxide and nitrogen dioxide into carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
If there is lead in the petrol being used, the catalyst becomes poisoned and will no longer
work.
Methane, carbon dioxide, water vapour and oxides of nitrogen are causing global warming
due to the greenhouse effect.
The atmosphere helps to remove the heat from the sun
Global warming will cause the glaciers and polar ice to melt which will cause a rise in the
sea level. The surface temperature will increase and hurricanes and flooding will become
more frequent.
Carbon dioxide and methane are the two main problem gases.
Carbon dioxide enter the air by respiration and burning and is removed by plants. Burning
more fuel and cutting down forest increases the problem.
Methane is produced by animals. It is a by-product of digestion. It is also produced by the
decay of food and other dead organic matter.
Water from rivers and lakes, and from underground, can contain dissolved salts, solid
particles and bacteria.
The water purification process is used to remove the solid particles and bacteria.
Water treatment involves filtering the water to removed solid particle and adding chlorine
to kill bacteria which could cause disease.
Sea water can be made drinkable by desalination (taking the salt out). This can be done by
distillation or by forcing the water through special membrane using high pressure.
Water is used in industries to cool down reactions, to transfer heat from one part of a
factory to another or as a solvent for other substances.
Limestone is used for making glass, building and roads, concrete, cement and mortar. It is
also used in the manufacturing of steel and for neutralising acidic soils and lakes.
Limestone can be heated strongly to produce lime (quicklime, calcium oxide).
A few drops of water is added to lime. The solid flakes and expands to form slaked lime.
This reaction is strongly exothermic.
If more water is added to the slaked lime, an alkaline solution (limewater) is obtained.
The cycle can be completed by bubbling carbon dioxide into limewater. A white precipitate
of calcium carbonate (limestone) is formed.
This is called the limestone cycle.
Chemical reactions
Chemical reaction and equation
In physical change, the substance present remain chemically the same. No new
substances are formed.
Physical changes are often easy to reverse. Any mixtures produced are usually easy to
separate.
The major feature of a chemical change, or reaction, is that new substances are made
during the reaction.
Many reactions are difficult to reverse.
During a chemical reaction energy can be given out or taken in.
When energy is given out, the reaction is exothermic
When energy is taken in, the reaction is endothermic.
There are more exothermic reactions than endothermic reaction
Decomposition reaction have just one reactant, which breaks down to give two or more
simpler products.
Decomposition reactions are endothermic. They require heat energy.
Decomposition caused by heat energy is called thermal decomposition.
A few salts can be made by synthesis reaction. But majority of the salts are made by either
neutralisation or by precipitation.
Neutralisation reactions involve acids.
When acids react with bases or alkalis, their acidity is destroyed. They are neutralised and
a salt is produced.
This is known as neutralisation reaction
Precipitation reactions involve the formation of an insoluble product.
Precipitation is the sudden formation of a solid either when two solutions are mixed or
when a gas is bubbled into a solution.
Precipitation reactions are very useful in analysis and are also used in paint industry for
making insoluble pigments.
Displacement reactions are useful in working out the patterns of reactivity of elements of
the same type.
A displacement reaction occurs because a more reactive element will displace a less
reactive one from a solution of one of its compounds.
Combustion reactions are of great importance and can be very useful or destructive.
Combustion of a substance involves its reaction with oxygen and the release of energy.
These reactions are exothermic and often involve a flame.
Combustion in which a flame is produced is described as burning
Substances which undergo combustion readily and give out a large amount of energy are
known as fuels.
Electrolysis
Splitting up of ionic compound into negative and positive ions is called electrolysis
Electrolytes can conduct electricity
Electrolyte undergoes chemical change
Carbon in the form of graphite is the only non-metallic element to conduct electricity.
For a solid to conduct electricity, it must contain free electrons that are able to flow
through it.
There is no chemical change when an electric current is passed through a metal or
graphite.
An electrical conductor is a substance that conducts electricity but is not chemically
changed in the process.
Many power cables are made of copper because it is a very good electrical conductor.
Overhead power cables are made from aluminium because it conducts electricity well and
has a low density. It is also very resistant to corrosion. The cables then strengthened with
a steel core.
Leakage of power from overhead cables is prevented by using ceramic material.
Molten salts, solutions of salts in water, solution of acids and solutions of alkalis are
electrolytes.
The negative electrode is called the cathode and the positive electrode is called the anode.
Positive ions move towards the cathode (negative electrode) and are called cations
Negative ions move towards the anode (positive electrode) and are called anions
The metal is always formed at the cathode
The non-metal (except hydrogen) is always formed at the anode
Oxidation takes place in the anode and reduction in the cathode.
The apparatus in which electrolysis is carried out is known as electrolytic cell (or electro-
chemical cell)
A electrolytic cell has two electrodes (cathode and anode), electrolyte and an external
current supply.
Electrolysis of a solution of salt has different products from those obtained by electrolysis
of the molten salt. This is because water itself produces ions.
The molecule of water can split into hydrogen ions (H) and hydroxide ions (OH)
Not enough ions are produced for pure water to conduct electricity very well.
During electrolysis, the hydrogen and hydroxide are able to move to the electrode.
They compete with the ions from the salt t be discharged at the electrode.
The more reactive a metal, the more it tends to stay as ions and not be discharged. The
hydrogen ion will accept electrons instead. Hydrogen molecule will be formed at the
cathode.
The ions of less reactive a metal will accept electrons and form metal atoms at the
cathode.
If the ions of a halogen are present in a high concentration, they will give up electrons and
molecules of the halogens are formed at the anode.
If no halogen ions are present, the hydroxide ions will give up electrons to form oxygen.
Universal indicators
Its another commonly used indicators
Universal indicator is a mixture of indicator dyes.
The idea of a universal indicator mixture is to imitate the colors of the rainbow when
measuring acidity.
It is useful because it gives a range of colors (a spectrum) depending on the strength of
acid or alkali.
Different acids produce different color. Same acid with different concentration will give
different color.
Strong acid turns universal indicator bright red. Weak acid turns it to orange-yellow.
Strong alkali turns universal indicator to violet and weak turns it to blue.
pH scale
pH scale is the most useful measure of the strength of an acid solution.
It was worked out by the Danish biochemist Sren Srensen who worked in the
laboratories of the Carlsberg breweries and was interested in checking the acidity of beer.
The scale runs from 1-14
Acids have a pH less than 7. the more acidic a solution, the lower the pH
Neutral substances have a pH of 7
Alkalis have a pH greater than 7
Acid and alkali solutions
All acids contain hydrogen.
Acids conduct electricity. They also conduct it better than distilled water.
This conduction of electricity shows that the solution contains ions.
Water contains very few ions
In pure water, the concentration of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions are equal.
All acids dissolve in water to produce hydrogen ions meaning that all acid solutions contain
more H ions than OH ions .
The pH scale is designed for the fact that acid solution has this excess of hydrogen ions
The term pH is taken from the German 'potenz H(ydrogen)' which means the power of the
hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.
Alkalis also conduct electricity better than distilled water.
All alkalis dissolve in water to produce hydroxide ions and contain an excess of OH ions
An indicator is affected by the presence of H or OH ions
The characteristic properties of an acid and an alkali is shown when dissolved in water.
Both acid and alkali can be used in concentrated or dilute solutions.
When a large volume of water is added to a small amount of acid or alkali, it becomes
dilute.
When less amount of water is added it becomes concentrated
Metals that are quite reactive (not very reactive) can be used to displace the hydrogen
from an acid safely. Hydrogen gas is given off.
Metal + acid salt + hydrogen
It is unsafe to try this reaction with very reactive metals because the reaction is too
violent.
No reaction occurs with less reactive metals.
All carbonates give off carbon dioxide when they react with acids.
Acid + metal carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide
When ammonium salts react with alkali solutions, they produce ammonia gas. A damp red
litmus paper turns blue when ammonia gas passes though it.
Salts
All common sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are soluble.
All nitrates and ethanoate are soluble.
Most chlorides and sulphates are soluble. Silver chloride and barium sulphate are
insoluble.
Almost all carbonates are soluble.
The energy change in going from reactants to products in a chemical reaction is known as
the heat of reaction. It is given the symbol H. means change in. the energy given out
or taken in is measured in kilojoules (kJ). It is usually calculated per mole of a specific
reactant or product.
If the reactant gives out heat to the surrounding, it has lost energy. It is an exothermic
reaction. An exothermic reaction has a negative value of H
If the reactant takes in heat to the surrounding, it has gained energy. It is an endothermic
reaction. An endothermic reaction has a positive value of H
Although the vast majority of reactions are exothermic, only a few are totally spontaneous
and begin without help at normal temperatures. For example, sodium or potassium
reacting with water.
Energy is usually required to start a reaction. This is called activation energy (E). It is
required because initially some bonds must be broken before any reaction can take place.
All reactions require some activation energy. For the reaction of sodium or potassium with
water the activation energy is low.
Reactions can be thought of as the result of collisions between atoms, molecules or ions.
In many collision, the colliding particles do not have enough energy to react and just
bounce apart.
A chemical reaction will only happen if the total energy of the colliding particles is greater
than the required activation energy of the reaction.
Rates of reaction
Rate of reaction = reactants consumed time taken or products used time taken
Rate of reaction is the ratio of reactants consumed divided by time taken
The rate of reaction depends on five things. The surface area of any solid reactant, the
temperature of the reactant, the concentration of the reactant, they use of a catalyst and
the influence of light o some reactions.
The more finely powdered (or finely divided) the solid is, the greater is the rate of reaction.
Reactions involving solids take place on the surface of the solid.
A solid has a much larger surface area when it is powdered than when it is in larger pieces.
An experiment to demonstrate this is the reaction between limestone or marble chips and
dilute hydrochloric acid.
Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
CaCO + 2HCl CaCl + HO + CO
Two samples of marble chips are used. (A) has large pieces of marble chips and (B) has
small pieces of marble chips. Both the samples have the same mass.
The experiment will be carried out twice. Once with A and the other with B. the volume
and concentration of the hydrochloric acid is same in both the experiments.
A flask is kept on a balance. The marble chips and hydrochloric acid are added to the flask
with a loose cotton wool on top to prevent the liquid spraying out but allows carbon
dioxide gas to escape.
As the reaction starts, the flask will lose mass during the reaction.
Balance reading are taken at regular time intervals and the loss of mass can be worked
out.
A mass against time graph can be plotted. Both experiments are plotted and compared. B
will be more steeper than A. this means that the gas is being produced faster in B.
The total volume of gas released in the end of both experiments are the same.
The rate of a reaction increases when the surface area of a solid reactant is increased
Reactions that produce gases are also very useful in studying of the effect of concentration
on the reaction rate.
The reaction between marble chips and acid could be adapted for this.
Another reaction is the one between magnesium and excess dilute hydrochloric acid.
Two experiments will be conducted. One with C and the other with D
The acid is C is twice as concentrated as in experiment D
Apart from the concentration of the acid, everything else is the same.
The gas produced in the experiment is hydrogen and it is collected in a gas syringe.
The volume of the gas produced is measure in regular time intervals.
A graph can be plotted for both the experiments and it can be compared.
The curve for C is steeper than for D
The total volume of hydrogen at the end of both the experiments is the same.
The rate of reaction increases when the concentration increases.
A small amount of catalyst can produce a large change in the rate of reaction.
Since they are unchanged at the end of the reaction, they can be reused.
Transition elements and their compounds make good catalysts.
Catalytic converter is used to reduce the polluting effect of a car exhaust fume.
Car exhaust fumes contain gases such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen monoxide and
unburnt hydrocarbons.
The catalytic converter converts these gases to less harmful products such as carbon
dioxide, nitrogen and water.
2CO + O 2CO
2NO + 2CO N + 2CO
2NO N + O
Hydrocarbons + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
The converter contains a thin coating of rhodium and platinum catalysts.
These catalysts have many tiny pores which provides a large surface area for reaction.
The presence of lead in the petrol would poison the catalyst.
All alkalis metals react spontaneously with water to produce hydrogen gas and metal
hydroxide.
The reaction is exothermic. The heat produced can melt sodium and potassium as they
skid over the surface of the water.
Lithium does not melt as it reacts.
Lithium is the least reactive and caesium in most reactive.
The reaction with water is the same for all the group I metals
Metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen
Aluminium
Aluminium is the most common metal in the earth's crust.
Aluminium is a light, strong metal and has good electrical conductivity.
Aluminium is alloyed with other metals such as copper and is used in aeroplanes.
It is used in overhead power lines because it has a low density ad is a good conductor of
electricity.
Aluminium is useful because it is protected from corrosion by a stable layer of aluminium
oxide that forms in its surface.
The protective layer stops aluminium from reacting. This makes aluminium foil containers
ideal for food packaging as they resist corrosion by natural acids.
Aluminium is also used for external structures such as window frames as they resist
weathering.
Aluminium is used to extract metals from their ores because of its high reactivity.
Aluminium can be used to produce iron form iron(III) oxide.
The aluminium and iron(III) oxide are powdered and well mixed to help them react.
The reaction is powerful, exothermic and produces iron in molten state. Because of this,
the reaction is used to weld together damaged railway lines.
This reaction is an example of a redox reaction and is known as the thermit reaction.
The iron produced in the blast furnace is called pig iron or cast iron and it is not pure.
The iron contains about 4% carbon, and other impurities.
The carbon makes the iron brittle which limits the usefulness of iron.
Iron is added to a bessmer converter to remove the impurities
The iron contains carbon, sulphur, silicon and phosphorus
Oxygen is added and reacts with the impurities to from carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide,
silicon dioxide and phosphorous pentoxide. This is called the basic oxygen process
Carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide being gases escape through the mouth of the vessel.
Lime (calcium oxide) is added to the furnace and reacts with silicon dioxide and
phosphorous pentoxide to form slag which floats on top of the molten iron.
Chromium, manganese, tungsten or other transition metals can be added to make
different types of steel. These metals prevent corrosion and make steel harder.
Lime (quicklime) is calcium oxide and is produced by roasting limestone in a lime kiln.
The limestone decomposes by heat
CaCO CaO + CO
Lime is used in agriculture to neutralise acid soils and to improve drainage in soils that
contain a large amount of clay.
Lime is used with sodium carbonate and sand in making glass.
Large amounts of lime are converted into slake lime, which is calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH))
Slaked lime is used in making bleaching powder, in making glass and for water
purification.
Slaked lime is mixed with sand to give mortar. When mixed with water and then allowed to
dry, mortar sets into a strongly bonded material to hold bricks together.
Organic chemistry
The unique properties of carbon
Carbon is unique in the variety of molecules it can form.
Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon-containing compounds.
Carbon atoms can join to each other to form long chains. Atoms of other elements can
then attach to the chain
The carbon atoms in a chain can be linked by single, double or triple covalent bonds.
Carbon atoms can also arrange themselves in rings.
Only carbon atoms can achieve all these different bonding arrangement to the extent that
we see.
There are more compounds of carbon than of all the other elements put together.
Alkanes
One of the simplest types of organic compound is the hydrocarbons
A hydrocarbon is a compound that contains carbon and hydrogen only.
Some hydrocarbons are saturated. These molecules contain only single covalent bonds
between carbon atoms.
Saturated hydrocarbons are known as alkanes.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. Molecules of these compound contain only single
bonds between the carbon atoms in the chain.
The simplest alkane contains one carbon atom and is called methane.
Each molecule increases by a CH
The general formula for alkane is CH (where x is the number of carbon atom)
As the length of the hydrocarbon chain increases, the strength of the weak force of
attraction between the atoms is increased.
The melting and boiling point of the alkanes increases as the chains become longer.
The first for members of the alkane are gases, from 5 until 16 are liquids and 17 and above
are waxy solids.
All alkanes burn very exothermically and they make good fuels.
When alkanes are burned in a good supply of air, the products are carbon dioxide and
water vapour.
Alkane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
Methane forms the major part of natural.
Propane and butane burn with very hot flames and are sold as liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG). They are kept as liquids under pressure but they vapourise easily when that
pressure is released.
Cylinders of butane (calor gas) are used in portable gas fires in the home. Butane is also
used in portable camping stoves, blow-torches and gas-lighters
The family of alkanes has similar chemical properties. Together they are an example of a
homologous series of compounds.
Alkenes
The ability of carbon atoms to form double bonds give rise to the alkenes
The alkenes are another family of hydrocarbons or homologous series.
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons. Molecules of these compounds contain a carbon
double bond somewhere in the chain.
The general formula for alkenes is CH (where x is the number of carbon atoms)
Alkenes are unsaturated because it is possible to break the double bond and add extra
atoms to the molecule.
The simplest alkene contains two carbon atoms and is called ethene.
The boiling point of the alkenes increases as the chains become longer.
Alkenes are similar to other hydrocarbons when burnt. They give carbon dioxide and water
vapour when they are burnt in a good supply of air.
Alkene + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
The presence of the carbon double bond in alkene makes it more reactive than alkanes.
Other atoms can be added to alkene when the double bond breaks.
The carbon double bond (C=C) is the known as the functional group of the alkenes.
If an alkene is shaken with a solution of bromine in water, the bromine loses its colour.
Bromine has reacted with the alkene producing a colourless compound. The double bond
on the alkene breaks open and forms new bonds to the bromine atom.
When a double bond breaks open and adds two new atoms is known as an addition
reaction. In addition reaction, two substances are added together to form a single product.
An alkane would give no reaction with bromine water. The solution would stay orange-
brown.
When alkene is added to acidified dilute solution of potassium manganate(VII), it turns
from purple to colourless. An alkane would produce no change.
Molecules with the same molecular formula can have different structures. The same
number of atoms can be connected together n a different way. This is known as
isomerism.
The properties of compounds in isomers are quite similar. The difference shoes itself
mainly in their melting and boiling points.
All alkanes and alkenes with four or more carbon atoms posses isomers.
Isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structural
formula.
Alkanes burns in a good supply of oxygen or air to form carbon dioxide and water
If the air supply is limited, then the poisonous gas carbon monoxide is formed.
Carbon monoxide is the product of incomplete combustion.
Alkane + oxygen carbon monoxide +water
Carbon monoxide is toxic because it interferes with the transport of oxygen around our
bodies by our red blood cells.
Incomplete combustion can also produce fine particles of carbon itself. These have not
even reacted to produce carbon monoxide.
The fine carbon particles (or soot) which can glow yellow in the heat of a flame. They give
a candle flame or the safety flame of a Bunsen burner their characteristic yellow colour
Another important addition reaction is the one used in the manufacture of ethanol. This is
known as hydration.
Ethanol is an important industrial chemical and solvent. It is formed when a mixture of
steam and ethene is passed over a catalyst of phosphoric(V) acid at a temperature of
300C and a pressure of 60 atmospheres.
Alkene + steam alcohol
Ethene + steam ethanol
This reaction produces the ethanol of high purity needed in industrial organic chemistry
Alcohols
The alcohols are a homologous series of compounds that contain -OH as the functional
group.
A functional group is a group of atoms in a structure that determines the characteristic
reactions of a compound.
The simplest alcohol contains one carbon atom and is called methanol.
The general formula of the alcohols is CHOH and they be referred to as the alkanols
The industrial method of making ethanol involves the addition reaction of hydration.
Ethanol is an important solvent a raw material for making other organic chemicals. Many
everyday items use ethanol as a solvent. These include paints, glues, perfumes,
aftershave, etc
Ethanol and carbon dioxide are the natural waste products of yeasts when they ferment
sugar.
Sugar is present in all fruits and grains, and in the sap and nectar of all plants.
Yeasts are found everywhere. They are single-cell, living fungi. They ferment sugar to gain
energy; by anaerobic respiration.
As ethanol is toxic to yeast, fermentation is self-limiting. Once the ethanol concentration
has reached about 14%, or the sugar runs out, the multiplying yeast die and fermentation
ends.
The best temperature for carrying out fermentation is 37C.
The reaction is catalysed by enzymes in yeast
Glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide
CHO 2CHOH + 2CO
Alcoholic drinks such as beer and wine are made on a large scale in vast quantities in
copper or steel fermentation vats.
Beer is made from barley, with hops and other ingredients added to produce distinctive
flavours. Beer contains about 4% of ethanol
Wine is made by fermenting grape juice. Wine contains between 8 to 14% ethanol.
Stronger, more alcoholic drinks like whisky, brandy and vodka are made by distillation
Fermentation can be carried out in the laboratory using a fermentation vessel. The air-lock
allows gas to escape from the vessel but prevents airborne bacteria entering
Vinegar is a weak solution of ethanoic acid (previously called acetic acid). It is produced
commercially from wine by biochemical oxidation using bacteria (Acetobacter). Wine can
also be vinegary if it is left open to the air.
The same oxidation can be achieved quickly by powerful oxidising agents such as warm
acidified potassium manganate(VII). The colour of changes from purple to colourless
Ethanol + oxygen ethanoic acid + water
CHOH + 2[O] CHCOOH + HO
Ethanol can be dehydrated to produce ethene. This is a way of preparing ethene in the
laboratory.
Ethanol vapour is passed over a heated catalyst. The catalyst can be aluminium oxide or
broken pieces of porous pot.
Ethene is not soluble in water.
Alcohols react with organic acids to form sweet-smelling oily liquids known as ester. This is
known as esterification.
Carboxylic acid + alcohol ester + water
Sulphuric acid is added to a catalyst for this esterification reaction
Carboxylic acids will react with alcohols, in the presence of a few drops of concentrated
sulphuric acid, to produce an ester. This is known as esterification.
Esters have strong and pleasant smells.
Many esters occur naturally.
Esters are responsible for the flavours in fruits and for scented flowers.
Esters are used as food flavourings and in perfumes.
The prefix in first part of the name in esters belongs to the alcohol and the prefix in the
second part belongs to the carboxylic acid. Eg methanoic acid reacts with ethanol to form
ethyl methanoate.
Animal fats and vegetable oils are esters. They are liquids or solids, depending on the size
and shape of the molecules present. They are esters of glycerol, an alcohol with three
hydroxyl (-OH) groups.
Fats and oils are an essential part of our diet and, although they are quite complex
molecules, they are not polymers.
Each -OH group forms an ester with a molecule of a carboxylic acid. These acids tend to
have long chains (sometimes called fatty acids).
Stearic acid (CHCOOH) is one acid that occurs in animals fats.
A complex molecule can be formed from glycerol and three molecules of stearic acid. This
is the type of molecule present in fats and oils.
Vegetable oils tend to have long-chain acids that are more unsaturated than those in
animal fats.
Soap is made by heating animals fats or vegetable oils with sodium hydroxide solution.
The reaction involves hydrolysis of ester links in the fats or oils.
The esters present are broken down to glycerol and sodium salts of acids.
Fat + sodium hydroxide soap + glycerol
This process is known as saponification
Petrochemicals and polymers
Petroleum
Fossil fuels were formed in the earth's crust from materials that was once living.
Coal comes from fossil plant material.
Petroleum (or crude oil) and natural gases are formed from the bodies of marine micro-
organism.
The formation of fossil fuels took place over geological period of time (many millions of
years)
These fuels are non-renewable and finite recourses.
The three major fossil fuels are coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Larger molecules from the heavier fractions can be broken into smaller, more valuable,
molecules. This process is called catalytic cracking.
Cracking takes place in huge reactor. In the reactor, particles of catalyst (example silica,
alumina and zeolites) are mixed with the hydrocarbon fraction at a temperature around
500C. the cracked vapours containing smaller molecules are separated by distillation.
All cracking reactions give either an alkane with a shorter chain than the original, and a
short-chain alkene or two or more alkenes and hydrogen.
Addition polymerisation
All living things contain polymers.
Protein, carbohydrates, wood and natural rubber are all polymers.
Plastic is a synthetic polymer.
Polymers are large organic macromolecules.
Polymers are made up of small repeating units known as monomers joined together by
polymerisation.
Some polymers are homopolymers which contain only one monomer.
Other polymers are copolymers which are made of two or different types of monomer.
Alkenes take part in addition reaction where the double bond is broken and other atoms
attach to the carbons to form a large molecule. This is known as addition polymerisation.
Poly(ethene) is a chemically resistant material that is very tough and durable, and a very
good electrical insulator.
Poly(chloroethene) or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is stronger and harder that poly(ethene) and
is good for making pipes for plumbing
Poly(tetrafluoroethene) or polytetrafluoroethylene or Teflon or PTFE is very stable at high
temperatures and forms a very slippery surface.
Poly(propene) is easy to shape by melting and moulding. It is used to make sturdy plastic
objects such as crates. It can also be drawn into long fibres for making ropes.
Condensation polymerisation
Nylon is a copolymer of two different monomers, a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid.
Each monomer consists of a chain of carbon atoms but they can be just drawn as boxes.
At both ends of the monomer are functional group.
An amine group (-NH) reacts with a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) to make a link between
the two molecules.
Each time a link is made, a water molecule is lost
NH + COOH NHCO + HO
This type of polymer is known as condensation polymerisation.
Because an amide link (or peptide link) is formed during polymerisation, nylon is known as
polyamide.
The linkage of nylon is similar to that of proteins
Plastics are light, cheap and corrosion resistant and they can be easily moulded and dyed
bright colours.
Most plastics are not biodegradable which causes a problem because there are no micro-
organisms that can break them down.
Some modern plastics are suitable for reuse.
Proteins are what cells are made of. All tissues and organs of our bodies are made up of
protein.
Enzymes, which are responsible for controlling the body's reactions, are proteins.
Proteins are built from amino acid monomers.
There are 20 different amino acids used
Amino acids contain two functional groups -NH and -COOH
Glycine and alanine are two of the simplest amino acids. When they react together, an
amide linkage or peptide linkage is formed to produce a dipeptide.
When this is repeated many times using different amino acids, a polymer is formed.
Shot polymers (up to 15 amino acids) are known as peptides
Chains between 15-100 amino acids are known as polypeptides.
Chains involving more than 100 amino acids are called proteins.
Proteins can be hydrolysed(broken down) to amino acid by heating in concentrated
hydrochloric acid. This is the reverse of the condensation process.
The mixture of amino acids can be separated by chromatography.
Amino acids are colourless substance so a locating agent is used.
The locating agent reacts with the amino acid to produce coloured spots
Tables
Boiling points of the gases in the air
Gas Boiling point Proportion in
mixture
Carbon -32 0.04
dioxide
Xenon -108 -
Krypton -153 -
Oxygen -183 20
Argon -186 0.9
Nitrogen -196 79
Neon -246 -
Helium -249 -
Common acids
Type Name Formula Strong or Where found or used
weak
Organic Ethanoic CHCOOH Weak In vinegar
acid acid
Organic Methanoic HCOOH Weak In ant and nettle strings
acid acid Used in kettle descaler
Organic Lactic acid CHCCH(OH Weak In sour milk
acid )
COOH
Organic Citric acid CHO Weak In lemons, oranges and other citrus
acid fruits
Mineral Carbonic HCO Weak In fizzy soft drinks
acids acid
Mineral Hydrochloric HCl Strong Used in cleaning metal surfaces
acids acid Found as the dilute acid in the
stomach
Mineral Nitric acid HNO Strong Used in making fertilisers and
acids explosives
Mineral Sulphuric HSO Strong In car batteries
acids acid Used in making fertilizers, paint and
detergents
Mineral Phosphoric HPO Strong In anti-rust paint
acids acid Used in making fertilizers
Industrial catalysts
Industrial process Catalyst
Ammonia manufacture (Haber process) Iron
Sulphuric acid manufacture (Contact Vanadium(V) oxide
process)
Margarine production (hydrogenation of Nickel
fats)
Nitric acid manufacture (oxidation of Platinum-rhodium
ammonia)
Fermentation of sugar (alcoholic drinks Enzymes (in yeast)
industry)
Conversion of methanol to hydrocarbon Zeolite ZSM-5
Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide Manganese(IV)
oxide
Reactivity series
Metal
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Lead
Copper
Silver
Gold
Alloys of steel
Steel Composition Properties Uses
Stainless Iron 74% Tough Cutlery, surgical instruments,
steel Chromium 18% Does not corrode kitchen sinks, chemical
Nickel 8% plants
Tungsten Iron 95% Tough Edges of high-speed cutting
steel Tungsten 5% Hard, even at high tools
temperatures
Manganes Iron 87% Tough Drill bits, springs
e steel Manganese 13% Springy
Alkane
Alkane Molecular Number of carbon Boiling point Physical state at room
formula atoms temperature
Methan CH 1 -164 gas
e
Ethane CH 2 -87 gas
Propane CH 3 -42 gas
Butane CH 4 0 gas
Pentane CH 5 +36 liquid
Hexane CH 6 +69 liquid
Alkene
Alkene Molecular Number of carbon Boiling Physical state at room
formula atoms point temperature
Ethene CH 2 -104 gas
Propen CH 3 -47 gas
e
Butene CH 4 -6 gas
Penten CH 5 +30 liquid
e
Alcohol
Alcohol Molecular Number of carbon Boiling Physical state at room
formula atoms point temperature
Methano CHOH 1 65 liquid
l
Ethanol CHOH 2 78 liquid
Propanol CHOH 3 97 liquid
Butanol CHOH 4 117 liquid
Pentanol CHOH 5 137 liquid
Carboxylic acids
Alkane Molecular Melting point
formula
Methanoic HCOOH 9
acid
Ethanoic acid CHCOOH 17
Petroleum fractions
Fraction Number of carbon Boiling point Uses
atom
Refinery gas 1-4 Below 25 Heating and
cooking
Gasoline/petrol 4-12 40-100 Fuel in cars
Naphtha 7-14 90-150 To make chemical
Kerosene/para 12-16 150-240 Fuel in jet engines
ffin Used as heating oil
Diesel oil/gas 14-18 220-300 Fuel in diesel
oil engines
Fuel oil 19-25 250-320 Fuel in ships
Lubricating oil 20-40 300-350 Waxes and polishes
Bitumen Over 70 Above 350 Surfacing roads
residue
Notes
Magnesium reacts with oxygen to produce a brilliant white flame.
Homologous series
They have the same general formula
They have similar chemical properties.
They show a gradual increase in physical properties such as melting and boiling points.
They contain the same functional group.