Synthesis of Multiple Foams for the

Removal of Oil from Contaminated

Water

Juliana Tichota
Niles North High School
 Tichota

Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 2
Purpose, Hypothesis 3
Review of Literature 4
Materials 11
Methods of Procedure 13
Variables 18
Results 20
Conclusion 30
References 31

1
 Tichota

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thank you to Ms. Taxakis for your generous help with my data and statistical analysis and for

helping me to reach a better understanding of my results.

Thank you so much to Ms. Camel for being such an incredible mentor and support throughout

the process. We are so lucky to have someone as knowledgeable, helpful, determined, and caring

supporting us in our research endeavors.

Thank you to Dr. Megaridis, Director of Mechanical Engineering at University of Illinois

Chicago, for the opportunity to work in your facility alongside your students and visiting

scientist. It was incredibly generous of you to welcome me into your lab for a few days, and my

project would not have been possible without your help.

Finally, thank you so much to Dr. Ilker Bayer for your research, your help and guidance, your

ideas, and your support throughout this project. I am so lucky to have gotten to work with you

for the few days that I did and to have gotten such an in depth understanding of your work and so

many ideas for continuations of it. Thank you again for all of your help and for being such an

incredible mentor.

2
 Tichota

PURPOSE

The purposes of this experiment were to synthesize and functionalize multiple

superhydrophobic and superoleophilic sponges, to determine the difference in their overall oil

absorption capabilities, and to determine the reusability of all tested sponges in the hopes of

developing a new and reusable method of contaminated water treatment.

HYPOTHESES

I: If each of 4 types of sponge are placed in an identical oil and water mixture, then the teflon
functionalized sponge will absorb the most oil and repel the most water.

Rationale:

Teflon is more hydrophobic than silica, and will therefore repel more water than silica

functionalization. Teflon is also more hydrophobic than silicone, and will therefore repel more

water than the silicone synthesized sponges. Hydrophobicity corresponds to oleophilicity and

therefore increased hydrophobicity leads to increased oil absorption.

II: If each of 4 types of sponge are placed in an identical oil and water mixture, then the bio-
elastomeric sponge will be the most reusable after three absorption rounds.

3
 Tichota

Rationale:

The bio-elastomeric sponge has an organic base that responds better to cleaning and

squeezing than polyurethane. It should be the most receptive to reusability.

4
 Tichota

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Since 1978, when the first major oil spill released 223 metric tonnes of oil into ocean

water near France, our global society has been trying to remedy the destruction caused by oil

spills. Oil spills destroy habitats for species that humans depend on for sustenance and

contaminate our drinking water. Previous oil absorption methods have been costly and

complicated, and as oil usage continues, a new water treatment system for oil-contaminated

water supplies is increasingly necessary. Sponges are commonly used for a variety of tasks,

many of which include absorption of contaminants. Sponge remediation is a new, cost effective,

and efficient method of removing oil from contaminated water supplies that provides a wide

range of potential processes, some of which will be examined in this experiment.

In order to achieve maximum oil absorbency, a sponge must be superhydrophobic and

superoleophilic. Superhydrophobicity describes a materials ability to repel water so strongly that

water droplets do not flatten on contact with the material but instead roll or bounce off. This

property is important for a sponge designed to absorb only oil, as it ensures that no water is

absorbed along with the oil, thus increasing efficiency. Hydrophobicity is measured through

contact angle testing, which determines the degree of wetting that the sponge experiences when

in contact with one drop of water. Superoleophilicity is a relatively new term that describes the

ability of a material to absorb oil evenly across its surface no matter the initial location of the oil

in relation to the surface (Drelich et. al, 2010). A superoleophilic material absorbs all oil present

and spreads the oil over its surface uniformly. This is very beneficial to a sponge, as it allows the

sponge to be placed anywhere adjacent to the oil and still remove all oil from the water, rather

5
 Tichota

than having to be placed exactly on the oil to remove it. Therefore, a superhydrophobic and

superoleophilic sponge would repel all water completely while evenly absorbing all oil from the

water. This is ideal for a water treatment system aimed at oil removal.

6
 Tichota

Polymers are used for a huge variety of different purposes, from plastics to clothing to

CDs to glue. Polymers are chains of many of the same single molecule that provide the backbone

for other atoms to connect to. They are macromolecules, giving them strong intermolecular

forces and high melting points. Polymers are generally classified by their formation techniques

and physical and chemical properties (University of York, 2013). In the creation of a bio-

elastomeric sponge, two polymers are used: Acetoxy polysiloxane and Poly(dimethylsiloxane-

co-ethylene oxide). Both of these polymers contain a silicone-oxygen backbone chain. Silicones

come in many consistencies, from rubber to liquid to gel to hard plastic. Acetoxy polysiloxane, a

silicone-based elastomer, gives the sponge the proper consistency. Polydimethylsiloxane

(PDMS), a building block of one of the two polymers used, is the most common form of

siloxane, a silicone oil (Mark et. al, 2005). It is combined

with polyethethylene-oxide to form the polymer used in the

experiment, which allows the product to support starch

macromolecules within the structure. These two particular

silicone-based polymers create the sponge base that holds

the starch in place during and after water treatment, and

determine the physical properties and consistency of the sponge.

7
 Tichota

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a naturally hydrophobic polymer. It is largely

unreactive, mainly due to the strength of its

carbon-fluorine bonds. It has only London

Dispersion Forces and is nonpolar, making it

completely nonbonding with water and

therefore hydrophobic. It is commonly used

for wiring in aerospace or computer applications. It can also be used to functionalize the surface

of similarly electrostatic materials such as polyurethane (Teflon PTFE, 1996).

Polyurethane (PU) is a large reaction polymer made of organic units linked by urethane

groups. They have a very wide range of usages, one of which is foam for as seat cushions. This

foam is characterized by very connected and very small pores that allow for natural absorption

and retention. Polyurethane with high amounts of crosslinking forms a very rigid material, while

polyurethane with low amounts of crosslinking forms stretchy material such as Spandex. The

foam has a midrange amount of crosslinking, giving it its sponge-like properties. The foam is not

biodegradable. In 2007, roughly 12 million metric tons of PU were consumed globally, with an

annual growth rate of 5%. This generates a large amount of polyurethane waste product;

however, the pore structure and potential for surface functionalization make PU foam a candidate

for oil removal and water treatment (Kaushiva, 1999).

8
 Tichota

Sugar plays a key role in the silicone and starch sponge: it determines pore size and

connectivity. The pores of a sponge have an enormous effect on its properties. In a recent study,

it was found that polyurethane foams with highly interconnected, open porous structures and

pore sizes below 500 um could absorb up to 30 times their weight in oil (Fragouli et. al, 2016).

The way that pores are connected and their size have major effects on the absorption properties

of the sponge. In this case, it was found that very connected and very small pores were most

absorbent of oil. During silicone and starch sponge synthesis, sugar is added to the mixture to

reserve space for pores in the sponge. Once the sponge solidifies, the sugar is dissolved in hot

water, leaving cavities or pores in the structure. The pores allow a greater surface area for

reaction and absorption, leave space for expansion within the sponge form as material is

absorbed, and affect strength and permeability. Both biodegradable and industrial sponges rely

on pore size and connectivity for their absorption properties (University of York, 2013).

Reusability describes the ability of a substance or process to be fully used multiple times,

rather than thrown away and replaced. The reusability of this sponge ultimately will determine its

potential for world use; a reusable product is infinitely more cost effective and environmentally

beneficial, as significantly less waste product would be produced. In past experimentation,

reusability has been determined by a products ability to be cleaned or restored to its original

condition easily. To restore this sponge to its original condition, the absorbed material must be

removed and disposed of without altering the sponge structure. This can be done through soaking

the sponge in a solution that either oxidizes or attracts the material from the sponge into the

solution. However, as each toxin removed by the sponge will have different chemical properties,

this method is not ideal. A method for removing all chemical substances from the sponge while

leaving the sponge intact is necessary for the sponge to be reusable. The simplest method, to

9
 Tichota

rinse the sponge with distilled water between uses and wring out excess wetness, is most

frequently used in households, and would therefore render the sponge most applicable to easy

and widespread use (Zhu et. al, 2013).

In recent experimentation, polyurethane foam was functionalized on one surface using

teflon nanoparticles for oil removal. This experiment aimed to create a sponge that repelled water

extremely well while absorbing oil extremely well as well. Polyurethane is naturally semi-

hydrophobic, meaning that it repels some water. However, to make it completely water repellent

and simultaneously oil absorbent, teflon nanoparticles were added to one surface of the foam

using static electricity. These particles give the surface the above properties. The experiment

proved successful; the teflon-functionalized sponge absorbed significantly more oil than the

polyurethane foam alone. Functionalization describes the process of adding new properties to a

material by changing its surface chemistry; this principle was the foundation of this

experimentation (Bayer et. al, 2012).

In another recent experiment, bio-elastomeric sponges were synthesized using spent

coffee grounds and silicone for the removal of metal ions from water. By grinding coffee

grounds and mixing them with silicone and a bonding agent, a structure was formed for a

sponge. Sugar was used to create pores before being boiled out of the structure. The end result

was a superhydrophobic sponge that absorbed large quantities of lead and mercury due to the

absorbent properties of coffee. The sponge was also completely biodegradable (Bayer et. al,

2016).

Water pollution is an unquestionably large and pressing issue. Oil has been a major threat

to water quality for over a decade. Over 7,000 tonnes of oil were lost to oceans in 2015 alone

(Oil Tanker Spill Statistics, 2015). As water is a vital, life-sustaining resource for humans as

10
 Tichota

well as hundreds of marine life species, its preservation is essential. Oil removal is necessary,

and superoleophilic sponges provide a solution. This project aims to find the most absorbent and

most hydrophobic sponge, as well as the most reusable sponge, from a wide variety of sponges

and functionalization types. It will compare bio-elastomeric sponges with polyurethane foam

sponges, and will analyze the success of different functionalization methods. Ultimately, it will

provide a new and improved solution to oil pollution that continues research in an

environmentally beneficial direction.

11
 Tichota

MATERIALS

Polyurethane Functionalization:

- White polyurethane foam (often used as packing foam, cushion foam)

- Teflon nanoparticles
- Silica nanoparticles
- Stirring rod, paper towels
- Balance, weigh boats
- Gloves
- Scoopula

Biodegradable Starch-Silicone Sponge Synthesis:

- Corn starch
- Silicone
- Hexane
- Granular sugar
- Beakers
- Stir Bars
- Balance
- Stirring rods
- Fume hood
- Gloves, goggles
- Petri dishes

Experimentation:

- Motor Oil
- Petri dishes
- Balance
- Graduated Cylinder
- Pipettes
- High speed, high definition camera
- Synthesized / Functionalized sponges

12
 Tichota

- Scanning Electron Microscope

- Stopwatch

13
 Tichota

METHODS OF PROCEDURE

1. Gather all materials.

2. Examine Industrial Foams:
a. Place a sample of the foam in the SEM and make hypothesis. Take

pictures and make notes on the shape and structure of the pores.
3. Functionalize Industrial Foams:
a. Cut polyurethane foam into 1.5x1.5x1 shapes
b. Separate into groups of 5
c. Set one Group A aside. This is the control group and will not be

functionalized.
d. Functionalize Group B with teflon on one surface.
i. Rub a glass stirring rod in a paper towel for one

minute to charge it.

ii. Place 0.25g of teflon particles on one square face of

each foam in Group B.

iii. Rub vigorously with charged rod to attract the

particles to the foam.

iv. Place another 0.25g of teflon particles on the same

side of each foam.

v. Rub vigorously again, distributing the particles

evenly across the entire face of the foam.

vi. Record mass of each sponge.
e. Functionalize Group C with silica on one surface.
i. Repeat steps d(i-vi) using silica particles in place of

teflon particles.
4. Run Absorption Tests:
a. Record mass of 20 mL of water in a petri dish.
b. Using a pipette, drop 5 drops of oil into 20 mL of water in a petri

dish. Record total mass.

c. Subtract initial mass from final mass to find total oil present.
d. Place each sponge from Group B on the surface of the water for 30

seconds.

14
 Tichota

e. After 30 seconds, remove sponge. Record new mass.

f. Repeat steps 4(d-e) until mass becomes constant.
g. Subtract initial mass from final mass to find total oil absorbed.
h. Calculate percent oil absorbed.
i. Repeat steps 4(a-g) for Group C.
5. Synthesize Starch and Silicone Foams:
a. Make a stock solution of 200 g of 1:1 hexane:silicone mixture.
i. In a large beaker, place 100g silicone.
ii. Pour in excess hexane.
iii. Add 100g cornstarch to mixture.
iv. Stir with a stir bar under a fume hood until hexane

is evaporated. (30 mins)

v. Store mixture under fume hood.
b. Synthesize Sponges
i. Add 6g granular sugar to 10g stock solution in a

beaker. Mix well. (Group 1)

ii. Pour equally into 5 small petri dishes.
iii. Allow sponges to set for one hour under the fume

hood.
iv. After one hour, remove cured sponges from petri

dishes.
v. Boil water.
vi. Place each sponge in boiling water for 2 minutes to

dissolve sugar particles and create pores.

6. Run Absorption Tests:
a. Record mass of 20 mL of water in a petri dish.
b. Using a pipette, drop 5 drops of oil into 20 mL of water in a petri

dish. Record total mass.

c. Subtract initial mass from final mass to find total oil present.
d. Place each sponge from Group 1 on the surface of the water for 30

seconds.
e. After 30 seconds, remove sponge. Record new mass.
f. Subtract initial mass from final mass to find total oil absorbed.
g. Calculate percent oil absorbed.
7. Run Contact Angle Tests:
a. Synthesize two fresh sponges from each of Groups A-C and Group

1.

15
 Tichota

b. Place each sponge in front of a high definition and high speed

camera.
c. Press Record Video on the camera.
d. With a very fine dropper, release one water droplet onto sponge.

Wait 1 second. Repeat two more times.

e. Press Stop Recording on camera.
f. With each video, find the still image that shows the drops greatest

surface area of contact with the sponge.

g. Print these images (and label them).
h. Determine contact angles.
8. Run Reusability Tests:
a. Synthesize two fresh sponges from each of Groups A-C and Group

1.
b. Using a pipette, drop 5 drops of oil into 20 mL of water in a petri

dish. Record total mass.

c. Place each sponge from Groups A-C and Group 1 on the surface of

the water for 30 seconds.

d. After 30 seconds, remove sponge. Record new mass.
e. Subtract initial mass from final mass to find total oil absorbed.
f. Calculate percent oil absorbed.
g. Repeat steps 8(b-h) reusing the same sponges three times.
h. Record data.
9. Analyze All Sponges:
a. Compile data from SEM images, absorption tests, contact angle

images, and reusability tests.

b. Graph trends.
c. Determine success rates of each sponge, and attempt to rationalize

these success rates.

d. Determine a most optimal sponge.
e. Draw final conclusions and assess hypotheses.

16
 Tichota

VARIABLES
Independent:

The independent variable in this experiment was the surface functionalization of each

sponge. The three trial surface structures were: polyurethane-teflon (Group B), polyurethane-

silica (Croup C), and starch-silicone (Group 1).

Dependent:

The dependent variables in this experiment were absorption efficiency,

superhydrophobicity, and reusability. Absorption efficiency was tested by taking the mass before

and after exposure to contaminated water. Superhydrophobicity was tested through contact angle

measurement. Reusability was measured through repeated absorption efficiency testing on the

same test subject.

Constants:

Constants in this experiment included the amount of water and oil in the testing

environment, the surface area exposed on each sponge, the temperature of the overall

environment, the amount of time given to each sponge for absorption, the camera used for

contact angle testing and the angle at which contact angle was measured, the size of the petri dish

used for testing, and the balance used for mass measurement.

17
 Tichota

Control:

The control in this experiment was standard polyurethane foam with no surface

functionalization (Group A). Comparison with this group showed whether functionalization or a

biodegradable version were an improvement from an already-available product.

18
 Tichota

RESULTS
Data:
Group A: Control

Initial Mass, Final Mass, Sponge Mass change, Sponge %change, Mass
Sponge Sponge

Sponge 1 0.31 0.56 0.25 80.6%

Sponge 2 0.28 0.57 0.29 103.6%

Sponge 3 0.25 0.54 0.29 116.0%

Sponge 4 0.28 0.57 0.29 103.6%

Sponge 5 0.30 0.53 0.23 76.7%

Average 0.284 0.554 0.27 96.1%

Group B: 0.5g teflon

Initial Mass, Final Mass, Sponge Mass change, %change, Mass

Sponge Sponge Sponge

Sponge 1 0.46 0.61 0.15 32.6%

Sponge 2 0.45 0.61 0.16 35.6%

Sponge 3 0.44 0.62 0.18 40.9%

Sponge 4 0.45 0.61 0.16 35.6%

Sponge 5 0.46 0.59 0.13 28.2%

Average 0.452 0.608 0.156 34.58%

Group C: 0.5g silica

Initial Mass, Final Mass, Sponge Mass change, %change, Mass

Sponge Sponge Sponge

Sponge 1 0.36 0.53 0.17 47.2%

19
 Tichota

Sponge 2 0.35 0.55 0.20 57.1%

Sponge 3 0.35 0.51 0.16 45.7%

Sponge 4 0.36 0.56 0.20 55.6%

Sponge 5 0.35 0.54 -0.19 54.3%

Average 0.354 0.538 0.184 51.98%

Group 1: Cornstarch, granular sugar, 1:1 ratio

Initial Mass, Final Mass, Sponge Mass change, %change, Mass

Sponge Sponge Sponge

Sponge 1 0.47 0.61 0.14 29.8%

Sponge 2 0.45 0.60 0.15 33.3%

Sponge 3 0.48 0.58 0.10 20.8%

Sponge 4 0.45 0.59 0.14 31.1%

Sponge 5 0.46 0.60 0.14 30.4%

Average 0.462 0.596 0.134 29.08%

Contact Angle:

Sponge: Contact Angle (degrees) Avg. Angle

A.6 154.79

A.7 155.38 155.09

B.6 143.13

B.7 159.64 151.38

C.6 156.44

C.7 147.14 151.79

1.6 108.92

1.7 113.24 111.08

20
 Tichota

Reusability:

Round 1:
Sponge: Initial Mass, Final Mass, Sponge Mass change, Sponge %change, Mass Sponge
Sponge

A.8 0.31 0.56 0.25 80.6%

A.9 0.28 0.57 0.29 103.6%

A.Avg 0.27 92.1%

B.8 0.46 0.61 0.15 32.6%

B.9 0.45 0.61 0.16 35.6%

B.Avg 0.155 34.1%

C.8 0.36 0.53 0.17 47.2%

C.9 0.35 0.55 0.20 57.1%

C.Avg 0.185 52.15%

1.8 0.47 0.61 0.14 29.8%

1.9 0.45 0.60 0.15 33.3%

1.Avg 0.145 31.55%

Round 2:
Sponge: Initial Mass, Final Mass, Sponge Mass change, Sponge %change, Mass Sponge
Sponge

A.8 0.56 0.56 0.00 0.0%

A.9 0.57 0.58 0.01 19.3%

A.Avg 0.005 9.65%

B.8 0.61 0.76 0.15 25.6%

B.9 0.61 0.75 0.14 22.9%

B.Avg -0.145 24.25%

C.8 0.34 0.40 0.06 18.7%

21
 Tichota

C.9 0.36 0.42 0.06 16.3%

C.Avg 0.06 17.5%

1.8 0.44 0.49 0.05 12.4%

1.9 0.47 0.52 0.05 11.2%

1.Avg 0.05 11.8%

Round 3:
Sponge: Initial Mass, Final Mass, Sponge Mass change, Sponge %change, Mass Sponge
Sponge

A.8 0.56 0.57 0.01 1.8%

A.9 0.58 0.62 0.04 6.9%

A.Avg 0.025 4.35%

B.8 0.76 0.86 0.10 13.2%

B.9 0.75 0.97 0.22 29.3%

B.Avg 0.16 21.25%

C.8 0.33 0.37 0.04 13.1%

C.9 0.34 0.38 0.04 10.9%

C.Avg 0.04 12.0%

1.8 0.46 0.48 0.02 5.3%

1.9 0.49 0.51 0.02 3.9%

1.Avg 0.02 4.6%

W+O = Water + Oil

22
 Tichota

Figure 1

Figure 2

23
 Tichota

Figure 3
Slope of best fit line: Y = -43.88X + 123.1

R^2=0.7951
Figure 4
Slope of best fit line: Y = -6.425X + 39.38
R^2=0.9135

24
 Tichota

Figure 5
Slope of best fit line: Y = -20.08X + 67.37
R^2=0.8506

25
 Tichota

Figure 6
Slope of best fit line: Y = -13.48X + 42.93

R^2=0.9326

Figure 7

26
 Tichota

Data and Statistical Analysis:

As shown in Figure 1, the average mass change of the sponges during absorbance testing

ranged very widely, from 29.01% to 96.10%. The most absorbent sponge by far was Group A,

the control. During reusability testing (shown in Figure 2), a smaller range of average percent

mass change was observed, from 4.35% to 21.25%, during Round 3. The sponge that best

retained its absorbency over time was Group B, the teflon-functionalized sponge, as shown by

the slope of the best fit line of Figure 4. Because Figure 4 has the lowest absolute value of its

slope, it demonstrated the least change in absorbance over time. The data in Figures 1 and 2

demonstrates a difference in single-use absorbance efficiency and repeated-use absorbance

efficiency that is crucial to the conclusion of the experiment. Though the control was the most

absorbent during single-use absorbance testing, Group B was the most efficient during

27
 Tichota

reusability testing. Figure 7 shows the average contact angle between one drop of water and each

sponge. The higher the contact angle, the more hydrophobic the sponge, and so the control was

the most hydrophobic of the sponges according to this data. This is consistent with the data in

Figure 1 in which it is shown that the control has the highest single-use absorbance capacity.

Hydrophobicity corresponds to oil absorbance, and therefore the most absorbent sponge should

be the most hydrophobic, a conclusion supported by the data in Figures 1 and 7.

Figure 1 demonstrates the ability of each sponge to remove oil from water. It also clearly

demonstrates that Group A displays the highest absorbance capacity of the four sponges. Figure 2

displays the reusability of each sponge in comparison to the rest with regard to percent mass,

while Figures 3-6 show the change in absorbance capacity over time of each group. Figure 2

emphasizes both initial absorbance capacity and decrease in absorbance capacity over time based

on y-axis coordinate and slope, while Figure 4 shows that the absorbance of Group B decreases

the least over time because it has the lowest best fit line slope. Figure 2 shows that trial B.3 has

the highest capacity out of all Round 3 capacities, demonstrating that Group B is most able to

retain absorbance capacity over repeated usage. Finally, Figure 7 supports Figure 1 in that Group

A, the control, is both most absorbent and has the highest contact angle, traits that should and do

correspond to each other.

Experimental Error:

There were many possibilities for experimental error in this experiment. During the

synthesis and functionalization procedures, any number of small measurement errors could have

28
 Tichota

been made. If any unclean materials were used, they could have affected the resultant sponge

surface structure. Many calculations and measurements were made during the synthesis and

functionalization procedures, and due to human error, they could have been slightly off. During

the experimental procedure, such a small quantity of oil was tested that any small

mismeasurement could have had an effect on the results. The sponges used could have been

slightly nonuniform in shape or size. Therefore, the surface area exposed to the oil could have

varied slightly, potentially affecting the absorption capabilities slightly. Similarly, the sponges

and oil/water/petri dish system were both measured before and after exposure, and both mass

changes were calculated to avoid error. However, these were not always equal, demonstrating

potential systematic error in measurement. Any of these potential areas of experimental error

could have had a slight effect on the results of this experiment.

29
 Tichota

CONCLUSION

At the start of this experiment, I hypothesized that the teflon-functionalized sponges (Group B)
would be most absorbent and that the biodegradable sponges (Group 1) would be most reusable.
In this experiment, none of my hypotheses were proven correct. My first hypothesis was
incorrect in that the control, not the teflon-functionalized sponges, was the most absorbent, as
shown in Figure 1. It also incorrect in that the control was the most water repellent or
superhydrophobic, not the teflon-functionalized sponges, as shown in Table 2. However, these
two findings are consistent with each other, and so my expectation of consistency was supported
by the data. Hypothesis II, that the biodegradable sponges would best retain their absorption
capabilities, was also incorrect; the teflon-functionalized sponges were by far the most reusable
of the four groups, as shown in Figure 2. This may be a result of increased superoleophilicity
observed quantitatively during experimentation. The teflon-functionalized appeared to spread the
oil across the functionalized surface further than any other group, a potential unmeasured source
of their increased reusability. Based on these observations, I can conclude that unfunctionalized
polyurethane foam is the most absorbent, and teflon-functionalized polyurethane foam is the
most reusable. The margin of difference in absorbance of Groups A and B was smaller than the
margin of difference in reusability of Groups A and B, and therefore I can further conclude that
Group B is the optimal choice for oil removal treatment. Although it is not the most absorbent, it
retains its capabilities significantly longer than the other sponges, and this reusability is
significant enough to outweigh its lesser single-use absorbance capacity, making it the optimal
oil removal system.

30
 Tichota

REFERENCES

Bayer, I., Athanssiou, A., Cingolani, R., Cozzoli, P., Martiradonna, L., Anyfantis, G., &

Fragouli, D. (2012). Magnetically Driven Floating Foams for the Removal of Oil

Contaminants from Water. In ACS Publications.

Bayer, I., Chavan, A., Pinto, J., Liakos, I., Lauciello, S., Athanassiou, A., & Fragouli, D. (2016,

September). Spent Coffee Bioelastomeric Composite Foams For the Removal of Pb2+ and

Hg2+ from Water. In ACS Sustainable Chemistry and Engineering.

Drelich, J., & Chibowski, E. (2010, November 19). Superhydrophilic and Superwetting

Surfaces: Definition and Mechanisms of Control. In ACS Publications. Retrieved from

http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/la1039893.

Fragouli, D., Athanassiou, A., & Pinto, J. (2016, March 1). Effect of the porous structure of

polymer foams on the remediation of oil spills. In IOP Publishing Journal of Physics D.

Kaushiva, B. D. (1999, August 16). Structure-Property Relationships Of Flexible Polyurethane

Foams. In Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.

Mark, J. E., Allcock, H. R., & West, R. (2005). Inorganic Polymers (2nd ed.). New York, NY:

Oxford University Press.

31
 Tichota

Oil Tanker Spill Statistics 2015. (n.d.). In ITOPF.

Teflon PTFE. (1996, July). In DuPont Properties Handbook.

University of York. (2013, March 18). Polymers: An Overview. In The University of York: The

Essential Chemistry Industry Online.

Zhu, Q., Chu, Y., Wang, Z., Chen, N., Lin, L., Liu, F., & Pan, Q. (2013, March 8). Robust

superhydrophobic polyurethane sponge as a highly reusable oil-absorption material. In

Royal Society of Chemistry: Journal of Materials Chemistry A.

32