Microprocessor and Programming Basics of Microprocessor

1. Basics of Microprocessor
8 Marks
Syllabus:
1.1 Evolution of Microprocessor and types
1.2 8085 Microprocessor,
Salient features, Pin description, Architecture of 8085 - Functional Block diagram, Register
organization

Evolution of Microprocessor and types:

The first microprocessor-4004 was designed by Intel in 1971. This was the first complete
microprocessor on single chip. Following description gives the evolution of Intel microprocessors
from 4004 up to Pentium.
Features of 4004:
4 bit microprocessor
Operating speed: 740 kHz
Addressable memory: 640 Bytes, Program memory: 4 KB
46 instructions
No. of registers: 16 registers of 4 bit each
Originally designed to be used in Busicom calculator
Features of 8008:
Introduced: 1972
8 bit microprocessor
Clock rate: 500 kHz, 800 kHz
Addressable memory: 16 KB
48 instructions
No. of registers: 6 registers of 8 bit each
Features of 8080:
Introduced: 1974
8 bit microprocessor
Clock rate: 2 MHz
Addressable memory: 64 KB
48 instructions
No. of registers: 6 registers of 8 bit each
Power supply: +5V, -5V, +12V
Features of 8085:
Introduced: 1976

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8 bit microprocessor
Clock rate: 5 MHz
Addressable memory: 64 KB
74 instructions
No. of registers: 6 registers of 8 bit each
Single power supply: +5V
Features of 8086:
Introduced: 1978
16 bit microprocessor
Clock rate: 5 MHz, 8 MHz, 10 MHz
Addressable memory: 1 MB
Memory segmentation
Instruction pipelining
Single power supply: +5V
Features of 80286:
Introduced: 1982
16 bit microprocessor
Clock rate: 6 MHz, 8 MHz, 12.5 MHz, 16 MHz, 20 MHz, 25 MHz
Addressable memory: 16 MB
Virtual memory: 1 GB
Bus width: 16 bit data, 24 bit address
First microprocessor with memory protection hardware to support multitasking
Features of 80386 DX:
Introduced: 1985
32 bit microprocessor
Clock rate: 16 MHz, 20 MHz, 25 MHz, 33 MHz
Addressable memory: 4 GB
Virtual memory: 64 TB
Bus width: 32 bit data, 32 bit address
First 32 bit microprocessor with 3 operating modes (Real, PVAM and Virtual 8086)
Features of 80486 DX:
Introduced: 1989
32 bit microprocessor

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Clock rate: 25 MHz, 33 MHz, 50MHz

Addressable memory: 4 GB
Virtual memory: 1 TB
Bus width: 32 bit data, 32 bit address
On chip 8 KB level 1 (L1) cache and math coprocessor
Features of Pentium:
Introduced: 1993
32 bit microprocessor
Clock rate: 60 MHz, 66MHz
Addressable memory: 4 GB
Virtual memory: 64 TB
Bus width: 64 bit data, 32 bit address
On chip 16 KB level 1 (L1) cache and math coprocessor
Superscalar architecture, Branch prediction

Features of 8085 Microprocessor:

1) 8 bit microprocessor
2) It requires single +5V power supply
3) Clock frequency: 3/5/6 MHz
4) 8 data lines and 16 address lines
5) 16 address lines therefore addressing capacity is 216=64 KB
6) 74 instructions
7) 5 hardware and 8 software interrupts
8) 8 bit I/O addresses therefore 28=256 I/O ports can be accessed
9) Provides 2 serial I/O lines to interface serial devices
10) In-built clock generator

Pin diagram of 8085:

Following fig. shows pin diagram of 8085 (see next page).
AD0 AD7: These are multiplexed Address/Data lines. During T1 of clock cycle, these lines carry
lower order 8 bit address. In later cycles, these lines are used to carry data.

A8 A15: These lines are used to carry higher order address signals of 16 bit address.

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Microprocessor and Programming Basics of Microprocessor

ALE (Address Latch Enable): This is an output signal from microprocessor. It occurs during the first
clock cycle of a machine state. It is used to separate address signals from data signals
on lines AD0 to AD7. This signal is connected to address latches in the system. When it
is high, it indicates address is being transferred on lines AD0 AD7.

IO/ : It is an output signal from 8085. When it is high, it indicates microprocessor is perfor-
ming I/O related operation. When it is low, it indicates microprocessor is performing
memory related operation.

X1 1 40 VCC

X2 2 39 HOLD

RESET OUT 3 38 HLDA

SOD 4 37 CLK OUT

SID 5 36

TRAP 6 35 READY

RST 7.5 7 34 IO/

RST 6.5 8 33 S1

RST 5.5 9 32

INTR 10 31

11 30 ALE

AD0 12 29 S0

AD1 13 28 A15

AD2 14 27 A14

AD3 15 26 A13

AD4 16 25 A12

AD5 17 24 A11

AD6 18 23 A10

AD7 19 22 A9

VSS 20 21 A8

Fig. Pin diagram of 8085

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Microprocessor and Programming Basics of Microprocessor

S1, S0 (Status signals): These are status signals Along with IO/M, these signals give the status of
operation performed by 8085. following table shows status of different operations:

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
IO/ S0 S1 Operation
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0 0 0 HALT
0 0 1 Memory write with =0
0 1 0 Memory read with =0
0 1 1 Opcode fetch from memory with =0
1 0 0
1 0 1 I/O write with =0
1 1 0 I/O read with =0
1 1 1 Interrupt Acknowledge with =0
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(Read): This is active LOW Read control signal. When this signal is LOW, this indicates
microprocessor is going to read instruction or data. Instructions are read from memory
while data is read from memory or input devices.

(Write): This is active LOW Write control signal. When this signal is LOW, this indicates
microprocessor is going to write data to memory or output device.

INTR (Interrupt Request): This signal is used to send interrupt request to microprocessor. In
response of this signal, microprocessor generates (Interrupt Acknowledge) signal
and executes interrupt service routine.

(Interrupt Acknowledge): This is active LOW signal generated by microprocessor in response

of INTR signal. This is an acknowledgment to interrupting devices that microprocessor
will now execute interrupt service routine.

RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5 (Restart Interrupts): These are vectored interrupts and transfer the
program control to specific memory locations. These have higher priority than INTR.

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Microprocessor and Programming Basics of Microprocessor

TRAP: This is non-maskable interrupt and has the highest priority.

HOLD: This is an input signal to microprocessor. When activated, it indicates that a peripheral
such as a DMA (Direct Memory Access) controller is requesting the use of address and
data buses.

HLDA (Hold Acknowledge): This is an output signal generated by microprocessor in response of

HOLD request. This indicates that microprocessor has granted the use of buses.

READY: If Ready is HIGH during a read or write cycle, it indicates that the memory or
peripheral is ready to send or receive data. If Ready is LOW, the CPU will go in wait
state till the memory or peripheral is ready and Ready is made LOW.

: When this signal goes LOW, the microprocessor is reset. The PC (Program Counter)
register has value 0000H and buses are tri-stated (i.e. neither active LOW nor active
HIGH state).

RESET OUT: This signal indicates that microprocessor is being reset. This signal can be used to reset
other devices in the system.

SID & SOD (Serial Input Data and Serial Output Data): These signals are used in serial data
transmission.

Vcc: +5V power supply

Vss: Ground Reference

X1, X2: A crystal or (LC, RC circuit) is connected to these two pins. The frequency is internally
divided by 2, therefore, to operate a system at 3 MHz, the crystal should have a
frequency of 6 MHz.

CLK OUT: This signal can be used as the system clock for other devices in the system.

Architecture of 8085:

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Microprocessor and Programming Basics of Microprocessor

Following figure shows the internal architecture of 8085. It includes the ALU, Timing and
Control unit, Instruction register and decoder, Register array, Interrupt control and Serial I/O control.

Fig. Block diagram of 8085

The ALU:
The arithmetic logic unit performs arithmetic and logical operations. It includes accumulator,
temporary register, arithmetic and logic circuits and 5 flags. The temporary register is used to hold
data during arithmetic & logical operations. Accumulator stores the result and flags are set or reset
according to the result of operation.
Flags: The flags are affected by arithmetic and logical operations in ALU. There are five flags
as follows:
1) Sign flag (S): After execution of an arithmetic and logical instruction, if bit D7 is 1, the
sign flag is set. If bit D7 =1 then number is negative (-ve) and if bit D7 =0 then number is
positive (+ve).
2) Zero flag (Z): The zero flag is set if arithmetic/logical operation gives result as zero.
3) Auxiliary Carry Flag (AC): In arithmetic operation if a carry is generated by bit D3 and
passed on to bit D4, the AC flag is set. This flag is used in BCD (Binary Coded Decimal)
operations.
4) Parity flag (P): After an arithmetic or logical operation, if the lower order byte of the
result has even number of 1s, the parity flag is set.

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5) Carry Flag (C): If an arithmetic operation generates carry, the carry flag is set. For
subtraction operation this flag works as borrow flag.
Following figure shows flag register.

D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

S Z X AC X P X C

Fig. Flag register

Timing and Control unit:

This unit synchronizes all microprocessor operations with clock. It generates the control
signals necessary for communication between the microprocessor and peripherals.

Instruction register and decoder:

The instruction register and decoder are the part of the ALU. When an instruction is fetched
from memory, it is loaded in instruction register. The decoder decodes the instructions.

Register array:
There are 3 types of registers:
1) Temporary registers
2) General purpose registers
3) Special purpose registers
1) Temporary registers: 8085 provides two temporary registers W & Z. these registers are used
by microprocessor for internal operations and not available to user.
2) General purpose registers: There are 6 general purpose 8-bit registers :B, C, D, E, H, and L.
These registers used store 8-bit data and available for user. Register pairs BC, DE, HL can be
used to store 16 bit data.
3) Special purpose registers:
a) Program Counter (PC): This is 16 bit register and points to next instruction to be fetched
from memory in order to execute it. It is automatically updated by microprocessor. Upon reset,
the PC is loaded with a value 0000H.
b) Stack Pointer (SP): this is a 16 bit register. It is used in stack operations and points to the top
of stack (TOS).

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Microprocessor and Programming Basics of Microprocessor

c) Increment and decrement Latch: It is a 16 bit register to increment/decrement the contents of

program counter and stack pointer register.
Interrupt control group:
It provides various hardware interrupt control signals such as INTR, INTA, RST 7.5, RST 6.5,
RST 5.5 and TRAP.
Serial I/O control:
For serial data transfer SID and SOD signals are used. Serial I/O control block uses these
signals to control serial I/O operations.

Limitations of 8 bit microprocessors:

1) In 8 bit microprocessors, arithmetic and logical operations can be performed on only 8 bit of
data at a time.
2) Due to 16 address lines, the addressing capacity is limited to 64KB of memory.
3) Due to multiplexed address/data bus, extra hardware is required to separate address and data
signals.
4) One instruction is fetched and executed at a time. No pipelining is implemented.
5) Low speed
6) No memory segmentation
7) Limited number of interrupts and I/O ports
8) Limited instruction set
9) Difficult to design multiprocessor system.

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