87

2. Dynamic Characteristics
2.1 Signal Waveforms
Table 3.1 Classification of Waveforms

Figure 3.25 Examples of dynamic signals.

 88

2.2 Generalized Mathematical Model of Measurement

System
The most widely useful mathematical model for the study
of measurement-system dynamic response is the ordinary
linear differential equation with constant coefficients.

d nqo d n 1q o dq o d mqi
an a n 1 ... a 1 a 0q o b m
d tn d t n 1 dt d tm
d m 1q i dq i
b m 1 ... b b 0q i
d t m 1
1
dt

where m n

qo output quantity
qi input quantity
a's ,b's combination of system physical
parameters (assumed constant)
define D-operator D ddt
a D a D ... a D a q
n
n
n 1
n 1
1 0 o

b D b D m ... b D b q
m
m 1
m 1
1 0 i

The solution of equation can be found by Classical

Method of D-operators or the Laplace-transform method.
 89

2.3 D-operator Method

The complete solution q is obtained in two separate parts
o

as
q o q ocf q opi

where q ocf complementary-function part of solution

q opi particular-integral part of solution
The solution q is obtained by calculating the n roots of
ocf

the algebraic characteristic equation.

a n s n a n 1s n 1 ... a1s a 0 0

The n-roots of this equation are s , s ,...., s . The

1 2 n

complementary-function solution is immediately written by

following the rules stated below:
1. Real roots, unrepeated. The solution is written as Ce , st

where C is an arbitrary constant.

Ex. roots -1.7, +3.2 and 0 give a solution
C1e 1.7t C 2e 3.2 C 3

2. Real roots, repeated. For each root s which appears p

time, the solution is written as
(Co C1t C 2t 2 ... C p 1t p 1 )e st
 90

Ex. roots -1,-1,+2,+2,+2,0,0

Solution
C 0 C1t e t
C 2 C 3t C 4t 2 e 2t C 5 C 6t

3. Complex roots, unrepeated. For s a ib , the

solution is written as
Ce at sin( bt )

where C , are the two arbitrary constants.

Ex. 3 i 4 , 2 i 5 and 0 i 7
Solution
C 0e 3t sin 4t C1e 2t sin 5t 1 C 2 sin 7t 2

4. Complex roots, repeated. For each pair of complex

root a ib which appears p time, the solution is
C 0e at sin bt 0 C1te at sin bt 1 ... C p 1t e at sin bt p 1
p 1

Ex. roots 3 i 2, 3 i 2 and 3 i 2

Solution
C 0e 3t sin 2t 0 C1te 3t sin 2t 1 C 2t 2e 3t sin 2t 2

The solution q is found by using method of undetermined.

opi

If q f (t ) then
i

q opi A f (t ) B f (t ) C f (t ) ...
 91

where A, B , C ,... is constant and found by substituting

q in differential equation.
opi

This method has some condition.

1. After a certain-order derivative, all higher derivatives
are zero.
2. f (t ), f (t ), ..., f (t ) have same function form.
n

Note. if f (t ), f (t ), ..., f (t ) dont have same function

n

form, this method cant be used.

Ex. q 5 sin( 3t ) q A sin( 3t ) B cos( 3t )
i opi

2.4 Operation Transfer Function

qo
Operational Transfer Function ( D)
qi
bm D m bm 1D m 1 ... b1D b0

an D n an 1D n 1 ... a1D a0

qi b m D m b m 1D m 1 ... b 1D b 0 qo
a n D n a n 1D n 1 ... a 1D a 0

Figure 3.26 General operational transfer function.

 92

2.5 Combination of individual transfer function

Measured Voltage Voltage

Kr Pen motion
Kt
D 2 2 D
quantity Ka
D 1 1
n2 n
Transducer Amplifier
Recorder

Measured KtKaKr
Pen motion
quantity
D 2 2 D
D 1 2 1
n n

Kt KaK r
D 2 2 D
overall transfer function
D 1 2 1
n n
Figure 3.27 Combination of individual transfer function.

2.6 Laplace transfer function

The ratio of the Laplace transform of the output
quantity to the Laplace transform of the input quantity when
all initial conditions are zero.
q o ( s ) q o b m s m b m 1s m 1 ... b1s b 0

q i (s ) q i a n s n a n 1s n 1 ... a1s a 0
 93

where s i (the complex variable of the Laplace

transform)
qi b m s m b m 1 s m 1 ... b1 s b 0 qo
a n s n a n 1 s n 1 ... a 1 s a 0

Figure 3.28 Laplace transfer function.

2.7 Sinusoidal Transfer Function (use i instead ofD )

If input q A sin t then the steady state output is
i i

q o Ao sin( t )

The frequency response of a system consists of curves of

amplitude ratio and phase shift as a function of frequency.
Fig 3.29 illustrates these concepts.

qo
Sinusoidal transfer function (i)
qi
b m (i) m b m 1 (i) m 1 ... b 1 (i) b 0

a n (i) n a n 1 (i) n 1 ... a 1 (i) a 0

where i 1 and circular frequency (radians per unit

time)
qo A A
(i) o e i o M
qi Ai At
 94

Figure 3.29 Frequency-response terminology.

where M Magnitude of the complex number of qo

qi
(i)

Amplitude ratio
Ao
M
Ai
Phase angle (if the output lags the input then is
negative)
b qo
tan 1
a If qi
(i ) a ib
 95

For combination of sinusoidal transfer function

q o q o q o
( i) ( i)
... ( i) (M1M2 ... Mn ) ( 1 2 ... n )
i
q 1 i
q 2 iq n
n n
M
1 1

Example 12 A instruments, which has transfer function as

shown in block diagram, is to be used to measure an input
signal of the form
q i 2 10 sin( t ) 5 sin( 2t 20 )

Predict its steady output signal.

qi qo
2 5
2D 1 D 2D 1
2

Solution
Combination
qi 10 qo
( 2D 1)(D 2 2D 1)

Block diagram of sinusoidal transfer function

qi 10 qo
{ }
i 2 1 (i 2 ) 2 i 2 1
 96

qi 10 qo

1 5 2 3 4 i
2

qo
(i) 10 0
qi o

qo
(i) 2 . 23 153
qi 1

qo
(i) 0 . 485 202
qi 2

Using superposition method

q o (10 )( 2) (2. 23 )(10 ) sin( t 153 ) (0. 485 )( 5) sin( 2t 20 202 )

q o 20 22 . 3 sin( t 153 ) 2. 43 sin( 2t 182 ) Ans.

2.8 Zero-Order Instrument

The a ' s and b ' s other than a and b are equal zero.
0 0

a 0q 0 b 0q i

The instrument or system, which closely obeys in this

equation over its intended range of operating condition, is
defined to be a zero-order instrument.
b0
q0 q i Kqi
a0
 97

b0
K static sensitivity
a0

This system response is perfectly with no distortion or

time lag. The zero-order instrument represents ideal or perfect
dynamic performance. For example, we must study the
potentiometer shown in Fig. 3.30.

Figure 3.30 Zero-order instrument.

 98

Assumption
The potentiometer is a pure resistance (ideal system)
For real system, the parasitic inductance and
capacitance should be made very small by design or the
speed of motion to be measurd are not high enough to
make the inductive or capacitive effects noticeable
The resistance is distributed linearly along length L
We may write
xi
eo E b Kx i
L
where E
K b
L
V /(unit length)

2.9 First-Order Instrument

The a ' s and b ' s other than a , a and b are taken as zero.
1 0 0

d qo
a1 a0 qo bo qi
dt

Any instruments that follow this equation are a first-order

instrument.
a1 d q 0 b
qo 0 qi
ao d t a0

D 1q o Kqi
 99

where K
b0
static sensitivity unit of output

a0 unit of input
a
1 time constant unit of time
a0
qo
Operational Transfer Function ( D)
qi
K

D 1

Figure 3.31 First-order instrument.

For example, we should study Liquid-in-glass thermometer.

 100

Assumption
Temperature of fluid T (t ) is uniform throughout the
i

fluid at any given time.

Neglect Mechanical lag that will be involved in
moving the liquid from one level to another.
Almost of lag is thermal lag that will be involved in
transfering heat from the surrounding fluid through
the bulb wall and into the thermometer fluid.
The bulb wall and fluid film on each side are pure
resistance to heat transfer with on heat-storage
capacity.
The overall coefficient U is constant.
The heat-transfer area A is constant.
b

No heat is lost from the thermometer bulb by

conduction up the stem.
The mass of fluid in the bulb is constant.
The specific heat C is constant.
 101

The temperature of fluid in the bulb to the reading x by o

the instantaneous (algebraic) equation

K ex Vb
xo T tf
AC

where xo displacement from reference mark, m

T tf temperature of fluid in bulb (assumed uniform
throughout bulb volume), T 0C x 0 m
tf o

K expansion coefficient
ex

3
V volume of bulb, m
b

2
A cross-sectional area of capillary tube, m
C

Consider the bulb and use energy balance

heat in - heat out energy stored

UAb T i Ttf dt o ( assume no heat loss) Vb C dT tf

where U overall heat transfer coefficient across bulb

wall,W/(m2C)
2
A heat transfer area of bulb wall, m
b

3
mass density of thermometer fluid, kg/m

C specific heat of thermometer fluid, J/(kgC)

We can rewrite it as
 102

dT tf
Vb C UAbT tf UAbT i
dt
Substitute T tf
AC x o
K ex Vb
to above equation.

CAC dxo UAb AC

Therefore K ex dt

K exVb
xo UAbTi

So we can define K
K ex Vb
AC
m/C
CVb

UAb
s

2.10 Simple Standard input function

The quantities to be measured usually are random nature.
However, the response of simple standard input function is
useful for studying the effects of parameter changes in a given
instrument or for comparing the relative performance of two
competitive measurement systems.
 103

2.10.1 Step Response of First-Order Instrument

Figure 3.32 Step-function response of first-order instrument.

Step function
qi 0 t 0 s
q i q is t 0 s

for t 0 s , differential equation

D 1q o Kqis

where q steady state input

is

Initial condition q 0 for t

o 0

Complementary-function solution is q ocf Ce

t

Particular solution is q opi Kqis

 104

Complete solution is q o Ce
t

Kqis

Apply initial condition

0 C Kqis

C Kqis

Finally q o Kqis 1 e

t

Note. Speed of response depends on only the value of
time constant ( ). And response will be faster if time constant
is smaller.
Nondimensional Value
qo t
1 e
Kqis

See Fig. 3.33a for observing its trend.

Measurement error (e ) define as
m

qo
em qi
K
e m q i q is 1 e
t

em
q is
t
e call error fraction
(dimensionless value)
 105

See Fig. 3.33b

Figure 3.33 Nondimensional step-function response of first-order instrument.

Settling Time
This is the time (after application of a step input) for the
instrument to reach and stay with in a stated plus-and-minus
tolerance band around its final value.
 106

Use to characterizing the speed of response. A few settle

time indicates fast response.
Study more by looking in Fig. 3.34. For a first-order
instrument a 5 percent settling time is equal to three time
constants.

Figure 3.34 Settling-time definition.

Determination of Time constant

The time constant of first-order instrument can be
experimentally determined by recording the response to a step
function input of a known magnitude. In practice, it is best to
record that response from t 0 until steady response is
 107

achieved. The data can then be plotted as eq versus time ratio m

is

( t ) on semilog plot, such as in Figure 3.35. This type of plot is

equivalent to the transformation
e e t
ln m 2 . 3 log m
q is q is

Which is of the linear form, Y mX B . The slope

m yields the time constant estimate.
1

em
qis

Figure 3.35 The error fraction plotted on semilog coordinates.

For liquid-in-glass thermometer, we can reduce time constant

by
1. Reducing , C and V b

2. Increasing U and A b
 108

Since and C are properties of fluid filling the

thermometer, they cannot be varied independently of each
other, and so we must search fluids with small C product for
small . The bulb volume V maybe reduced, but this will also
b

reduce A and K too. But by using fin on the bulb can increase
b

Heat-transfer area of bulb A .

b

Example 13 A particular thermometer is subjected to a

step change in an experimental exercise to determine its time
constant. The temperature data are recorded with time and
present in below Figure. Determine the time constant, 5% and
10 % settling time.

em
0.194 t 0.00064
qis
em
qis

Figure 3.36 Temperature-time history of Example 13.

 109

Solution
1 1 1
m 5 . 05 s
m 0 . 194
e m t t
q e
0.05 e 5.05
t 3 3 5.05 15.15 s
is
0. 1 e
t
s
5 . 05
t 11 . 6

Therefore time constant is 5.05 s, 5 % and 10 %

settling time are 15.15 s and 11.6 s respectively. Ans.

2.10.2 Frequency Response of First-Order Instruments

Sinusoidal input
q i Ai sin t

Where amplitude of input

Ai

input circular frequency (rad/s)

Sinusoidal transfer function

qo
i K K
tan 1
qi i 1 2 2 1
Proof
Manipulate transfer function by its conjugate.
 110

K K i 1

i 1 i 1 i 1
K i 1

2 2 1
K 1 i
2 2
1
Therefore A
M o
K
Ai 2 2 1

tan 1

Finally qo
i K
tan 1
qi 2 2 1
tan 1 ( )
Time lag =

A nondimensional representation can be written as
qo K
i 212 tan 1
qi 1
1
M ( ) ==> Amplitude ratio
1
2

q0 K
If 1 then qi
(i ) 0.707 3 dB

Note the decibel (dB) value dB 20 log

Ao
Ai
20 log M ( )
 111

Figure 3.37 Frequency response of first-order instrument.

For ideal frequency response (zero-order instrument)
q
i K0 (dont have time lag)
o
q i

The real frequency response will be approaches ideal if

is small. If high frequency must be measured, the

instrument must have a sufficiently small . In actual practice,

input q is often a combination of several sine wave of
i

different frequency. So we can predict the steady output by

using method of superposition like follow example.
 112

Example 14 A first-order instrument, which have 0.2 s ,

measure signal of the form
q i 1 sin( 2t ) 0. 3 sin( 20t )

Predict its steady output signal.

Solution
Sinusoidal transfer function
qo K
(i) 21 . 8 0 . 93K 21 . 8
qi 2
0 . 16 1
qo K
(i) 76 0 . 24 K 76
qi 20
16 1

Use superposition method

q o 10. 93K sin( 2t 21 . 8 ) 0. 3 0. 24 K sin( 20t 76 )
qo
K
Ans.
0 . 93 sin( 2t 21 . 8 ) 0 . 072 sin( 20t 76 )

At high frequency (20 rad/s) component, output is so

small relative to the low-frequency component.
Suppose we consider use an instrument that has
0. 002 s
qo
(i) 1 . 00 K 0 . 23
qi 2

qo
(i) 1 . 00 K 2 . 3
qi 20

Yields
 113

qo
K
1 . 00 sin( 2t 0 . 23 ) 0 . 3 sin( 20t 2 . 3 ) Ans.

Figure 3.38 Example of inadequate frequency response.

 114

Figure 3.39 Effect of first-order system time constant on measurement

accuracy.
 115

Example 15
A temperature sensor is to be selected to measure
temperature within a reaction vessel. It is suspected that the
temperature will behave as a simple periodic waveform with a
frequency somewhere between 1 and 5 Hz. Several size
sensors are available, each with a known time constant. Based
on the time constant, select a suitable sensor, assuming that a
dynamic error of 2 % is acceptable.
Solution dynamic error, ( ) 1 M ( )

So () 0.02 mean that 0.98 M () 1 ( M () never exceed 1)

1
0 . 98 M ( )
2 1
0 0. 2
Fix time constant, the smallest value of M () will
occur at the largest frequency. Thus setting 2(5) rad/s and
solving for M () 0.98 yields 6.4 ms. Accordingly, a
sensor with a time constant of 6.4 ms or smaller will be
suitable.
 116

Figure 3.40 Shown dynamic error.

Assignment I
1. A first-order instrument with time constant of 2 s is
used to measure a input that can be represented by
q (t ) 10 cos 2. 5t .
i

1.1 Write the expected indicated steady response output

signal.
1.2 What is the expected time lag between input and
output signal?
Given q (0) 0 and K 1
o
 117

2. The following is a block diagram of a measuring

system:
x (t ) y (t )
input 0.4 output
2.5 K
5D 2

sensor Signal conditioner amplifier

2.1 What is the system transfer function?

2.2 Derive the differential equation for this system.
2.3 Calculate the time constant and the sensitivity of
this system.
2.4 For the input x(t) below:
x (t )

0 t 0 2

x (t ) 2t 2 0 t 1 2
2t
2 t 1

t (sec)
0
1

Find the equation for the output y (t ) . Given

y (0) 0

2.5 What value of K that will make the amplitude ratio

(at steady state condition) equal to one?