SMEX1021 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

UNIT III STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL (SPC)

3.1 Seven tools of quality

1. PARETO DIAGRAM

Joseph Juranobserved that most of the quality problems are generally created by only a
few causes.

For example, 80% of all internal failures are due to one (or) two manufacturing
problems.

Identifying these vital few and ignoringthe trivial many will make the corrective action
give a high return for a low money input.

2. FLOW DIAGRAM

3. CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM

CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM

DRAUGHT
IMPROPER FUEL
SYSTEM
FUNCTION NON-UNIFORM
IMPROPER OF SA FAN INCREASED FLOW OF FUEL
FUNCTION MOISTURE
OF FD FAN CONTENT NATURE OF
BAGASSE
FIBRE
IMPROPER INCREASED
FUNCTION SUGAR
OF ID FAN CONTENT

VARIATION IN
STEAM
GENERATION

VARIATION IN VARIATION
WATER LEVEL IN BOILER
IN DRUM WATER pH
VARIATION IN
FEED WATER
VARIATION TEMPERATURE
IN BOILER
WATER TDS
WATER BOILER
WATER
QUALITY

STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING A CAUSE & EFFECT DIAGRAM :

a. Define the problem or effect to be analyzed.

b. Form the team to perform the analysis. Often the team will uncover potential
causes through brainstorming.
c. Draw the effect box and the centerline.
d. Specify the major potential cause categories and join them as boxes
connected to the centerline.
e. Identify the possible causes and classify them into the categories in step d.
Create new categories, if necessary.
f. Rank order the causes to identify those that seem most likely to impact the
 problem.
g. Take corrective action.

4. CHECK SHEETS

CHECK SHEET
Product : Bicycle
Nonconformity Type Check Total
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Blister IIII IIII IIII IIII I 21

Light spray IIII IIII IIII 15

Drips IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII 25

Others IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII 25

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TOTAL 86
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. HISTOGRAM

Number of Errors Tally of Number of Errors

-------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------
0 1 3 0 1 0 1 0 Number Non Tabulation Freq.
1 5 4 1 2 1 2 0 -conforming
1 0 2 0 0 2 0 1 -------------------------------------------------------------------
2 1 1 1 2 1 1 0 IIII IIII IIII 15
0 4 1 3 1 1 1 1 IIII IIII IIII IIII 20
1 3 4 0 0 0 0 2 IIII III 8
1 3 0 1 2 2 3 3 IIII 5
-------------------------------
4 III 3
5 I 1
-------------------------------------------------------------------

20

15
Frequency

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 Number Non-confirming
6. CONTROL CHARTS

Sample quality characteristic

Upper control limit

Centre line

Lower co ntrol limit

Sample number or time

A typical control chart

7. SCATTER DIAGRAM

In scatter diagram, three types of co-relations exist.

1. Positive correlation.
2. Negative correlation.
3. No correlation.

3.2 Statistical Fundamentals

Statistics is defined as the science that deals with the collection, tabulation, analysis,
interpretation and presentation of quantitative data.

Data collected for quality control purposes are obtained by direct observation and
are classified as

1. Variables (Measurable quality characteristics like length measured in metres)

2. Attributes (Quality characteristic which are classified as either conforming (or)
non-conforming to specifications, such as go & no-go gauge.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND DISPERSION

There are two important analytical methods of describing a collection of data as

1. Measures of central tendency.

2. Measures of dispersion.

A measure of central tendency of a distribution is a numerical value that describes

how the data tend to build up in the centre. There are three measures in quality as

1. Average
2. Median
3. Mode

Average is the sum of observations divided by the number of observations.

i=n
Xi
Average = X = i=1
n

where, n = number of observations

Xi = observed value

Median is the value which divides a series of ordered observations so that the
number of items above it is equal to the number of items below it.

Mode is the value which occurs with the greatest frequency in a set of numbers.
Mode can again classified as
No mode

Uni mode

Bi mode


Multimode

Measure of dispersion describes how the data are spread out on each side of the
central value.
The two measures of dispersion are
1. Range
2. Standard Deviation

Range is the difference between the largest and smallest values of observations in a
series of numbers.

Range = R = X h X l

Where, R = Range
Xh = highest observation in a series
Xl = lowest observation in a series

Standard Deviation measures the spreading tendency of the data. Larger the
standard deviation, greater the variability of data.

i=n
(X i X) 2
S = i=1
n-1

where S = sample standard deviation

Xi = observed value
n = number of observations

POPULATION AND SAMPLE

In order to construct a frequency distribution of the outer diameter of shafts, a small

portion (or) sample is selected to represent all the shafts. The population is the
whole collection of shafts.

The population may be an hours production, a weeks production, 10000 pieces and
so on.

It is not possible to measure all of the population. Hence, we go for sampling.

Sampling becomes necessary

1. When it is impossible to measure the entire population.

2. When it is more expensive to observe all the data.
3. When the required inspection destroys the product.
4. When a test of the entire population may be too dangerous as in the case of
new medical drug.

X is for sample average or sample mean.

is for population mean.
S is for sample standard deviation.
is for population standard deviation.
 NORMAL CURVE

Normal curve is common type of population. The normal curve is symmetrical,

unimodal, bell shaped distribution with the mean, median and mode all having the
same value.

SPEC.
LSL, LCL MEAN USL, UCL

PROCESS
AVERAGE
6
TOLERANCE

Figure 3.2 : Normal curve tolerance limits

3.4 Population And Sample

CONTROL CHARTS FOR VARIABLES AND ATTRIBUTES

Variation is a law of nature because no two natural items in any category are the
same. Variations are due to the following reasons.

1. Chance causes or Natural causes.

2. Assignable causes.

Chance causes of variation are inevitable. Chance causes affect almost every
production process and are inherent in the process. They are purely random,
unidentifiable sources of variations.

Hence, when only chance causes are present in a process, the process is said to be
in Statistical Control.

Assignable causes result in unnatural variations. The sources of variations may be

due to

Equipments

Materials

Environment

Operator etc.

The Control chart is used to look at variations, seek assignable causes and chance
causes. The control chart is a line chart with control limits.
All control charts have three basic components.

1. A centre line, usually the mathematical average of all the samples plotted.
2. Upper and Lower Control Limits that define the constraints of common cause
variations.
3. Performance data plotted over time.

A typical control chart is a graphic display of a quality characteristic that has been
measured or computed from a sample versus sample number or time. If the
process is in control, nearly all of the sample points will fall between Upper Control
Limit (UCL) and Lower Control Limit (LCL).

CONTROL CHART FOR VARIABLES

1. Mean chart X chart & Range Chart R Chart

X
X = ------
N
Where, N = Total number of observations.
R n = Sample size (for finding out the value of A2
R = ------ and D4 and D3 from the table)
N

Control limits for the charts are given by the following equation.

X Chart R - Chart

CL =X CL =R

UCL X = X + A2. R UCL R = D4. R

LCL X = X - A 2. R LCL R = D3. R

2. Mean chart X chart & Standard Deviation chart S Chart

X
X = ------
N
Where, N = Total number of observations.
S n = Sample size (for finding out the value of A3
S = ------ and B4 and B3 from the table)
N

Control limits for the charts are given by the following equation.
X Chart S - Chart

CL =X CL =S

UCL X = X + A3 . S UCL S = B4. S

LCL X = X A3 . S LCL S = B3. S

CONTROL CHART FOR ATTRIBUTES

1. p chart
2. np chart
3. c chart
4. u chart

3.7 Process capability,

Process capability compares the output of an in-control process to the specification

limits by using capability indices. The comparison is made by forming the ratio of the
spread between the process specifications (the specification "width") to the spread of
the process values, as measured by 6 process standard deviation units (the process
"width").

Process Capability refers to the statistical position of the normal distribution

compared to the product or process specification. A process is capable when a bell
curve is created by +/- 3 Standard Deviation and fits easily inside the desired
specification. Indicators of capability are calculated based on the number of Sigma or
Standard Deviations fitting between the process Mean and the closest specification.
Cp or Cpi is the measurement of the ratio of Six Sigma divided into the allowable
specification. Cpi does not indicate how well the process is performing, rather how
good it could be.
Cpk is a typical indicator used to describe actual process capability. Cpk is used to
determine the number of defects that are being produced, even if none have been
found up to this point.
The Cpk is the capability on the K side of the distribution. The K factor, or side, has
the most risk and therefore is the worst of two possible measurements in a bilateral
specification.
Cpk of 1.33 indicates 4 Sigma Capability or 4/3rds.
Cpk of 1.67 indicates 5 Sigma Capability or 5/3rds.
The greater the Cpk the less likely nonconformance will be present.
Ppk is an index similar to Cpk but considers more sources of variation in the process
over a longer period of time.
Capability is often misunderstood or considered a difficult concept. Most people are
unaware that they are affected by Capability while driving to work. Here is an
example of Capability in effect:
Specification: width of one lane.
Process: our car and its variation.
Driving in our lane over a distance, the car easily stays within our allowable variation.
We seldom hit the guardrail or oncoming traffic, indicating a very capable process.
Cpk is likely to be 1.33 or greater.
Larger vehicles have a smaller Cpk and smaller cars a larger Cpk.

3.8 Concept of six sigma,

Six sigma can be viewed as a metric, a mindset, and a methodology. It is a new,

emerging, approach to quality assurance and quality management with emphasis on
continuous quality improvements. The main goal of this approach is reaching level of
quality and reliability that will satisfy and even exceed demands and expectations of
todays demanding customer. The Six sigma concept was originated in the 1980s at
Motorola and its philosophy has found widespread application in many
manufacturing industries.
Six sigma is a well structured, data driven methodology for eliminating defects,
waste or quality control problems of all kinds in manufacturing, service delivery,
management and other business activities. It is a systematic methodology for
continuous process of quality improvement and continuous process of achieving
operational excellence. Six sigma is an approach to upgrade the organizations
performance, improving quality and productivity. The basic goal of six sigma
approach is to reduce variation within the tolerance or specification limits of a service
performance characteristic. The proper implementation of six sigma will improve
customer satisfaction. Six sigma offering a means for measuring improvement .
The name Six Sigma refers to the capability of the process to deliver units within
the set limits. According to the Six Sigma approach, for a stable process the distance
from the process mean to the nearest tolerance limit should be at least six times the
standard deviation of the process output [21]. To achieve six sigma quality, a
process must produce not more than 3.4 defects per million opportunities if the
output is normally distributed. A defect can be any type of product or service that
does not conform to a standard inspection unit or satisfy the customer. In addition a
defect can be an error in a product or service. The term opportunity is defined as a
chance for nonconformance, or not meeting the required specifications.
Six sigma was focused initially in the manufacturing industry. Particularly from
the year 1995, an exponentially growing number of prestigious global firms have
launched a Six Sigma program. It has been noted that many globally leading
companies run Six Sigma programs , and it has been well known that Motorola, GE,
Allied Signal, IBM, DEC, Texas Instruments, Sony, Kodak, Nokia, and Philips
Electronics among others have been quite successful in six sigma. In Korea, the
 Samsung, LG, Hyundai groups and Korea Heavy Industries & Construction
Company have been quite successful [22]. Due to the overwhelming success of six
sigma application, many customer-oriented service industries are now beginning to
implement six sigma to improve service quality. The degree of goodness or badness
of a service is called service quality. Service quality is now gaining strategic
importance in winning businesses and running organizations.
Six Sigma is a rigorous, focused and highly effective implementation of proven
quality principles and techniques. Incorporating elements from the work of many
quality pioneers, Six Sigma aims for virtually error free business performance.

variability in any process. A company's performance is measured by the sigma level

of their business processes. Traditionally companies accepted three or four sigma
performance levels as the norm, despite the fact that these processes created
between 6,200 and 67,000 problems per million opportunities! The Six Sigma
standard of 3.4 problems per million opportunities is a response to the increasing
expectations of customers and the increased complexity of modern products and
processes.

3.9 New Management Tools

1. WHY, WHY
2. FORCED FIELD ANALYSIS
Define the objective.
Determine criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of the improvement action.
Brainstorm the forces.
Prioritize the forces from greatest to least.
3. NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE
4. AFFINITY DIAGRAM
5. INTER-RELATIONSHIP DIGRAPH
6. TREE DIAGRAM
7. MATRIX DIAGRAM
8. PRIORITIZATION MATRICES
9. PROCESS DECISION PROGRAM CHART
10. ACTIVITY NETWORK DIAGRAM