STUDY ON THE LIQUEFACTION INDUCED BY 1990 LUZON EARTHQUAKE

AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES

Jun Itoh1, Haruo Takeda1, Omer Aydan2

1
Oriental Consultants Global Co., Ltd., Tokyo Japan
2
University of Ryukyus

Abstract : The area, plane expressway CLLEX is very close to the Philippine faults system and the epicenter of the 1990
Luzon earthquake. There is no doubt that the same situations would be repeated if an earthquake with a similar magnitude
occurs. However, the recurrence of the similar magnitude earthquake in the same place requires some accumulation of crustal
straining. It is estimated that the recurrence period of the earthquake fault, which caused the 1990 Luzon earthquake, is about
300-320 years. Therefore, The possibility of the rupture other faults such as the East Zambales fault, Tubao fault or Valley
Fault System should be considered in view of the service-life of the expressway CLLEX.

Key words : Seismic design of soil structure, The 1990 Luzon earthquake, Seismic acceleration, seismic velocity, Ground
liquefaction

1 INTRODUCTION
This paper is prepared with the sole purpose of providing an
overall view of 1990 Luzon earthquake and its geotechnical
effects such as ground liquefaction. The information is
hoped to provide a fundamental data for the design and con-
struction of new civil engineering structures such as the Pro-
posed Central Luzon Link Expressway (CLLEX) between
Tarlac and Cabanatuan (Fig. 1.1).

2 GEOLOGY, TECTONICS, ACTIVE FAULTS

AND CRUSTAL MOVEMENT
2.1 Geology
Luzon developed between the sialic continental region of
China and the basaltic Pacific Ocean basin. This position has
given it an intermediate to basic framework that supplied a
predominance of quartz-deficient clastics to idiogeosyn-
clines formed within it. The basement foundation of Luzon
is predominantly of early Tertiary age (Fig. 2.1). Most of the
sediments accumulated in Miocene and Pliocene time. In
early Miocene time the Cagayan and Central valleys were
one interconnected depositional site. After deposition of the
Sicalao and Kennon limestones (in the Cagayan and Central Fig. 1.1 Planned CLLEX Expressway between Cabanatu-
valleys respectively), the Cordillera Central became a posi- an and Tarlac and liquefaction sites (Ishihara)
tive zone separating two depositional basins. The Cordillera
Central was the dominantly active tectonic feature of north- Island basalt cones).
ern Luzon, while the Sierra Madre was a more stable or pas- Most of the anticlinal and synclinal trends visible at the sur-
sive element. face, fault zones, and stratigraphic units have been named.
The regions most seriously affected by the Luzon earthquake
The depositional environments in northern Luzon progressed were the mountain area in the neighborhood of the city of
from marine (Miocene) through marine-brackish (upper Mi- Baguio and the vast expanse of alluvial lowlands in the Cen-
ocene-Pliocene) to fluviatile (upper Pliocene-Pleistocene). tral Plain which is a northwest trending depression, bounded
Concurrent with this development of idiogeosynclines, fill- on the west by the Zambales Mountains and on the east by
ing of the basins, and over-all acceleration of uplift from the Cordillera Central Range and Sierra Madre Mountains.
Miocene to Pleistocene time, a volcanic cycle progressed Cordillera Central Range in northeast of the area consists of
from mafic to silicic (quartz-bearing tuffs in the Ilagan and metamorphic and igneous rocks while Zambales Mountains
Awidon Mesa formations of the Cagayan Valley) and a re- consists of ultramafic rocks in the southwest. These moun-
cent reversion to mafic extrusives (Mt. Cagua and Camiguin tains composed of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of

1
Oligocene to Miocene, Neogene and undifferentiated igne-
ous rocks, and locally of pre-Jurassic base complex run at
right angles to the Philippine fault and parallel to each other,
interposing the longitudinal Cagayan Valley between them.
Cordillera Central is generally 1000 m to 3000 m high and
Central Sierra Madre is 1000 m to 2000 m high. The Central
Fig. 2.1 Simplified geological map of Luzon
Valley, about 60 km in width and 180 km in length between
Manila and Lingayen Gulf, is the most extensive lowland in
the Philippines and underlays thick Plio-Pleistocene sedi-
ments.
2.2 Plate Tectonics
The Philippine Sea Plate or Philippine Plate is a tectonic
plate comprising oceanic lithosphere that lies beneath the
Philippine, to the east of the Philippines. The Philippine
Plate is squeezed in between the Eurasian Plate and the Pa-
cific Plate. Most segments of the Philippines, including
northern Luzon, are part of the Philippine Mobile Belt
(PMB), which is geologically and tectonically separate from
the Philippine Sea Plate (Figures 2.2 and 2.3). To the south,
the Caroline Plate and Birds Head Plate bound the Philip-
pine Sea Plate. To the west, the Philippine Sea Plate sub-
ducts under the Philippine Mobile Belt at the Philippine
Trench and the East Luzon Trench. The plate tectonics in the
Philippines are complex and include plate boundaries that
are changing rapidly. Several micro-plates are squeezed be-
tween two convergent plate margins.
2.3 Active Faults
Figure 2.4 shows active fault map of the Philippines. The
Philippine fault zone has been regarded as one of the most
prominent fault zone in the world, since reported by Allen
Fig. 2.2 A simplified plate tectonic model for the Philip-
pines (Galgana et al. 2007)
Fig. 2.3 A simplified tectonic model for the Philippines
(Galgana et al. 2007)
(1962), where significant fault landforms of relatively recent
movements are continuing about 1200 km from South Min-
danao to Lingayen Gulf in Luzon. Willis (1937) first recog-
nized the existence of throughgoing fault zone in the Philip-
pine Archipelago, named it "Philippine fault zone" and con-
sidered the zone to be dominantly transcurrent because of its
similarity to the San Andreas fault in California. Further,
Willis mentioned that this fault zone was left-lateral in sense
from observation on a single set of horizontal symmetric
slickensides. Rutland (1967) inferred that there had not been
significant strike-slip movement since the Miocene by the
geological investigation from Dingalan to Laur, in Northern
Luzon. However, the earthquake in 1973 (M=7.3) on the
projected trace of the fault zone in the Ragay Gulf, Southern
Luzon was associated with surface displacement of 3.2 m in
sinistral sense (Allen, 1974). Fitch (1970, 1972) demonstrat-
ed applying mechanism solution for recent earthquakes that
2
 Fig. 2.5 Rigid body displacements of micro-plates in
the Philippines ((PHIVOLCS)

foot of Cordillera Central between Lupao and north of San

Manuel, dividing the mountains from the Central Valley. The
Fig. 2.4 Active fault map of the Philippines fault landforms between Gabaldon and Rizal are character-
(PHIVOLCS) ized by the displacements on alluvial fans and river terraces
along or near the foot of Sierra Madre. Left-lateral dis-
the sense of parallel slip along the western margin of the placement together with vertical one is indicated by numer-
Philippine Sea, which induce the movement of Philippine ous breaks of terrace surfaces and cliffs, and change in sense
Sea Plate, agrees with the sinistral displacement of the Phil- of vertical displacement along the fault trace. Between San
ippine fault zone. Roque and San Manuel fault displacements appear sharply
just along the foot of Cordillera Central and landforms relat-
In the northern Luzon, the northeast side of the fault zone is ed to sinistral movements are distinctly recognized due to
uniformly higher, making an obvious topographic contrast predominant horizontal activity of the fault in this section.
between mountains Cordillera Central and Central Sierra
Madre and the Central Valley. On both
sides of the Central Valley, two parallel
rows of comparatively low mountains,
Zambales (1000 m to 2000 m high)
and the extension of Sierra Madre
(1000 m to 1500 m high) stretch in the
N-S direction oblique to the fault. The
fault zone branches into two in the
study area. One of them runs in the
NW-SE direction across Sierra Madre
between Dingalan Bay and Laur.
Along the fault, the longitudinal Coro-
nel River Basin is formed, being sepa-
rated by a low divide from the coast of
Dingalan Bay. In the north, the fault
runs along the foot of Sierra Madre
before it passes the town of Rizal.
Then, trending to NNW along the Dig-
dig river, it goes into Cordillera Cen-
tral. Another branch is associated with
evident fault topographies along the
Fig. 2.6 Crustal deformations in Luzon region (PHIVOLCS)

3
 Fig. 2.7 Seismicity of Luzon region (compiled by
Galagan et al. 2007)
2.4 Crustal Deformations by GPS
Figure 2.5 shows a simplified rigid body crustal deformation
of the Philippines while Figure 2.6 shows the GPS measured
crustal deformation in broader area of Luzon.
According to a recent study by Galgana et al. (2007), major
tectonic structures that were found to absorb the plate con-
vergence include the Manila Trench (20-100 mm/yr) and
East Luzon Trough (9-15 mm/yr)/Philippine Trench (29-34
mm/yr), which accommodate eastward and westward sub-
duction beneath Luzon, respectively; the left-lateral strike-
slip Philippine Fault (20-40 mm/ yr), and its northward ex-
tensions, the Northern Cordillera Fault (17-37 mm/yr
transtension), and the Digdig Fault (17-27 mm/yr transpres-
sion). The Macolod Corridor, a zone of active volcanism,
crustal thinning, extension, and extensive normal and strike-
slip faulting in southwestern Luzon, is associated with left-
lateral, transtensional slip of 5-10 mm/yr. The Marikina
Fault, which separates the Central Luzon block from the
Southwestern Luzon block, reveals 10-12 mm/yr of left-
lateral transpression. Much of the Philippine Fault and asso-
ciated splays are locked to partly coupled, while the Manila
and Philippine trenches appear to be poorly coupled. Luzon
is best characterized as a tectonically active plate boundary
zone, comprising six mobile elastic tectonic blocks between
two active subduction zones. The Philippine Fault and asso-
ciated intra-arc faults accommodate much of the trench par-
allel component of relative plate motion.
According to a recent study by Galgana et al. (2007), major
tectonic structures that were found to absorb the plate con-
vergence include the Manila Trench (20-100 mm/yr) and
East Luzon Trough (9-15 mm/yr)/Philippine Trench (29-34
mm/yr), which accommodate eastward and westward sub-
Fig. 2.8 Focal Mechanisms Solutions of Luzon Region
(compiled by Galagan et al. 2007)
duction beneath Luzon, respectively; the left-lateral strike-
slip Philippine Fault (20-40 mm/yr), and its northward ex-
tensions, the Northern Cordillera Fault (17-37 mm/yr
transtension), and the Digdig Fault (17-27 mm/yr transpres-
sion). The Macolod Corridor, a zone of active volcanism,
crustal thinning, extension, and extensive normal and strike-
slip faulting in southwestern Luzon, is associated with left-
lateral, transtensional slip of 5-10 mm/yr. The Marikina
Fault, which separates the Central Luzon block from the
Southwestern Luzon block, reveals 10-12 mm/yr of left-
lateral transpression. Much of the Philippine Fault and asso-
ciated splays are locked to partly coupled, while the Manila
and Philippine trenches appear to be poorly coupled. Luzon
is best characterized as a tectonically active plate boundary
zone, comprising six mobile elastic tectonic blocks between
two active subduction zones. The Philippine Fault and asso-
ciated intra-arc faults accommodate much of the trench par-
allel component of relative plate motion.
The northern Philippines is unusual in that it is characterized
by opposing subduction on the east and west sides, major
intra-arc strike-slip faults, active volcanism, and high seis-
mic activity (Fig. 2.7) within the arc complex. The Philip-
pine Trench is a seismically active, north-south trending
depression characterized by a poorly defined Wadati-Benioff
earthquake zone, which extends to about 100 km depth. Be-
tween the two subduction zones lies the seismically active,
NW-SE trending, sinistral strike-slip Philippine Fault.
2.5 Focal Mechanisms
Figure 2.8 shows the focal plane solutions compiled by
Galagan et al. (2007) using the Harvard CMT Catalogue.
The Philippine Fault traverses the entire Philippine archipel-
ago from the northeast of Mindanao Island through the cen-
tral Philippines and as far north as northwestern Luzon.
4
Fault activity is estimated to have started at about 15 Ma and
extends through Holocene time. The Philippine fault is
seismically active, with fault slip rates of about 9-17 mm/yr
determined from geomorphic data. The dominant focal
plane solutions of earthquakes in the vicinity of the Philip-
pine fault system imply sinistral strike-slip faulting.

3 STRONG MOTION ESTIMATIONS FOR LU-

ZON REGION
The USGS National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC)
prepared a possible maximum ground acceleration map for
the Luzon area of Philippines as shown in Figure 5.1. The
region is estimated to be susceptible to high-ground motions
during earthquakes.

Fig. 4.1 Inferred focal mechanism of the 1990 Luzon

earthquake (from Velasco et al. 1996)

Moment Rate Function

Fig. 3.1 Estimated maximum ground acceleration for
Luzon region

Molas and Yamazaki (1994) and Torregosa et al. (2001)

studied the ground motions for earthquake having a surface
magnitude of 7.0. Their estimations yield that the maximum
base acceleration may be more than 0.4 g. Sato et al. (1991)
estimated the maximum ground acceleration as 0.4 g. The
estimation was computed for an earthquake with a surface
magnitude of 7.0 while the Luzon earthquake magnitude
was 7.8.

4 FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE EARTHQUAKE
The 1990 Luzon earthquake occurred on July16, 1990 and
had surface magnitude Ms of 7.8 and moment magnitude
Mw of 7.7. The hypocenter depth was estimated to be rang-
ing between 15 and 30 km depending upon the institute. The Location of Sub-events
focal mechanism solution indicated lateral strike slip fault-
ing. The strike, dip and rake angle of the earthquake fault Fig. 4.2 Inferred focal mechanism of the 1990 Luzon
were 153, 89 and 344 respectively (Figure 6.1). The total earthquake (from Velasco et al. 1996)
rupture time was estimated to be ranging between 30 to 35 ture duration was longer as shown in Figure 6.2. The earth-
seconds. Nevertheless, there are some reports that the rup-

5
 Fig. 4.3 Views of faulting induced by the 1990 Luzon earthquake

quake resulted in 130 km long surface rupture. However, the ed that the ground motions might be up to 0.4g from the
aftershock activity and its possible extension to the Philip- collapse of simple structures. The modified Mercalli seismic
pine Sea implied that the rupture length should be around intensity (MMI) was assigned as VIII in heavily damaged
160 m. The maximum slip was 600 cm horizontally and 200 areas. Figure 6.5 shows the intensity distribution released by
cm vertically and its recurrence period is estimated to be PHIVOLCS following the earthquake.
about 310 years (Figures 4.3 and 4.4).
Itoh (2002) established the following relation between the
MMI and maximum ground acceleration:
Casualties were 1666 with 1000 missing. The heavily dam- 2.8 for soils and 0.56 for rocks. I and h stand for the intensi-
aged settlements were Baguio, Dagupan, Tarlac, Cabanatuan, ty scale and depth of the hypocenter, respectively. Figure 4.5
Santa Fe, Rizal due to faulting, shaking and gound liquefac- compares the estimation with actual data. For intensity scale
tion. Ground liquefaction was quite heavy in Central plain. of VIII, the maximum ground acceleration should be more
Many RC buildings failed in a pancake mode. Buildings than 0.4g.
were tilted due to bearing capacity loss resulting from
ground liquefaction. Lateral spreading was wide spread.
Seven major bridges collapsed due to foundation failure of
piers. As there were no strong motion records associated
with this earthquake, some inferences of ground motions
were have to be done through the analysis of failure of some
simple structures, empirical estimations and green-function
method and seismic intensity. Ishihara et al. (1991) suggest-

Fig. 4.5 Relationship between MMI and maximum

ground acceleration

Aydan and Itoh (2011) proposed an attenuation relation by

combining their previous proposals [Itoh 1997, 2007] to-
gether with the consideration of the inclination and length of
earthquake fault using the following functional form (Figure
4.5):

max Fl Vs F2 R , , , L* F3 M (4.2)

where Vs, , , L* and M are the shear velocity of ground

Fig. 4.4 Observed surface rupture and location of the and the angle of the location from the strike and dip of the
epicenter fault (measured anti-clockwise with the consideration of the

6
 Fig. 4.6 Contours of maximum ground acceleration Fig. 4.7 Contours of maximum ground velocity 7
*
mobile side of the fault) and earthquake magnitude. L (in
km) is a parameter related to the half of the fault length. This parameter easily accounts the effect of fault length and
the similar form was initially proposed by Itoh (2007, 2012)
The following specific forms of functions in Equation (4.2) for the effects of earthquake faults on underground
were put forward as structures. However, it should be noted that the attenuation
characteristics of the Earths crust varies depending upon the
F1 ( Vs ) Ae Vs / B (4.3a) location and the sense of faulting. The values of coefficients
of Equation (4.4) are given in Table 4.2.
2
)( 1 F cos ) / L*
F2 ( R , , , L* ) e R ( 1 D sin E sin (4.3b)
Table 4.2 Values of constants in Equation (4.4)
F3 ( M ) e M /G
1 (4.3c)
Faulting Type a b c
Normal faulting 30 0.002 1.35
The same form can be also used for estimating the maximum Strike-slip faulting 20 0.002 1.40
ground velocity (Vmax). The constants of the functions for Thrust faulting 30 0.003 1.45
maximum ground acceleration and velocity for intra-plate
earthquakes without consideration of faulting sense are Equation (4.2) takes into account the location of observation
given in Table 4.1. points with respect to earthquake fault and ground condi-
tions, which are fundamentally the main causes of scattering
Table 4.1 Values of constants in Equations (4.3) for intra- of observational data seen in spherical models for attenua-
plate earthquakes tion of ground motions including NGA relations.

A B D E F G(M) Maximum ground acceleration and velocity contours for

(m/s) (Ms) (Mw) 1990 Luzon earthquake were computed using strong motion
Amax 2.8 1000 0.5 1.5 0.5 1.11 1.16 attenuation relations proposed by Itoh (2007, 2012); Aydan
Vmax 0.4 1000 0.5 1.5 0.5 1.11 1.16 and Itoh (2011) and given above and they are shown in Fig-
ures 4.6 and 4.7 for a moment magnitude of 7.7 and surface
For interplate and slab earthquakes, the value of constant G shear velocity of 270 m/s. For the rock base motions, the
is only different and it has the value of 1.05 while other numbers can be reduced by a factor of 0.63.
parameters remain the same.
5 GROUND LIQUEFACTION CAUSED BY THE
L* , which is approximately associated with the half of the 1990 LUZON EARTHQUAKE
fault length, is related to the moment magnitude in the
following form 5.1 Ground Liquefaction Observations
The city of Dagupan, which is the chief port and commercial
L* a be cM w (4.4) and financial center of Northern Luzon; was devastated by
the extensive liquefaction which occurred in the sandy de-

7

Fig. 5.2 Examples of ground liquefaction
posits prevailing in the city area along the Pantal river. Phys-
ical evidences of liquefaction such as sand boiling and lat-
eral flow of the ground were seen everywhere in the city.
Figure 1.1 shows the area where signs of liquefaction were
observed during the 1990 July earthquake. The ground liq-
uefaction was even observed in Manila.
Figure 5.2 shows some views of the liquefied sites and the
effects of ground liquefaction on various structures. Depend-
ing upon the conditions, some structures are uplifted or set-
tled and tilted. The lateral spreading was also widespread
and it is reported that some of the ground disappeared into
the sea (Hamada 1991). For instance, in Dagupan City, the
road on the Nable street in the district of Pantal moved by 1
to 3 m towards the river as a consequence of liquefaction
developed in the sandy deposits. The right bank of the Pantal
river in the vicinity of the Magsaysay bridge is underlain by
(a) Estimation by PHIVOLCS
Fig. 5.3 The liquefiable ground in Luzon region (from PHIVOLCS)
sandy deposits and consequently developed extensive lique-
faction accompanied by a lateral spreading amounting to
about 5 m.
5.2 Liquefaction Assessments
There are basically five different techniques to assess the
possibility of ground liquefaction.
(i) Geologic criterion (Quaternary deposits)
(ii) Grain-size distribution criterion
(iii) Empirical Criteria based on Magnitude
(iv) Semi-empirical criterion (Seeds method: SPT, Mw,
Amax)
(v) Numerical analyses (FEM)
5.2.1 Geologic criterion (Quaternary deposits)
Loose deposits of granular soil belonging Quaternary period
are known to be susceptible to ground liquefaction. Depend-
ing upon the magnitude and ground shaking intensity, it is
also observed that gravelly soil or clayey silty soil can also
be liquefied. However, among them the sand is most likely
to liquefy as in view of its permeability and shear strength
characteristics. Figure 7.3 shows the liquefiable ground in
Luzon region according to PHIVOLCS.
5.2.2 Grain-size distribution criterion
The Port and Harbour Research Institute of Japan (1997)
suggested empirical bounds for liquefaction susceptibility of
soils according to grain size distribution. Figure 7.4 com-
pares the grain size distribution of liquefied soils from Da-
gupan. The results are consistent with empirical bounds sug-
gested by The Port and Harbour Research Institute of Japan.
5.2.3 Empirical Criteria based on Magnitude
There are several relations to estimate the limiting
epicentral/hypocentral of distances to the site of
liquefaction (i.e Kuribayashi-Tatsuoka, 1975; Ambraseys,
1988; Wakamatsu, 2000; Aydan et al. 1998, 2000, 2009):
Most of these equations may be categorized as semi-
(b) Estimation by quaternary deposit criterion
8
 to estimate the possibility of ground liquefaction. There are
some different versions of the proposed criterion (Seed and
de Alba (1986); Tokimatsu and Yoshimi (1983), Youd etc.).
The original derivation is proposed for M7 class earthquake
and the maximum ground acceleration is always taken as

Fig. 5.4 Comparison of grain-size distribution of lique-

fied soil from CLLEX with empirical bounds

spherical equations. Aydan et al. (1998, 2000) suggested the

following equation between the surface magnitude of the
earthquake and hypocentral limiting distance of ground
liquefaction for lower, upper and mean values.

Rl Al M s Bl (5.1) Fig. 5.5 Comparison of Empirical relations with observations

The values of parameters in Eq. (5.1) are given in Table 7.1.

Table 5.1 The values of parameters in Eq. (7.1)

Bound Al Bl
Upper (UL) 36 160
Mean (ML) 36 200
Lower (LL) 36 200

As mentioned previously, the ground motions are strongly

affected by the directivity effects. Therefore, the equation
based on moment magnitude with the consideration of
orientation of the earthquake fault is proposed by Aydan
(2007) and given as follows:

Rl 0.08 3 0.5 sin 1.5 sin 2 e 0.9 M w (5.2)

Estimations from this equation together and other available Fig. 5.6 Comparison of areal limits by empirical relations
equations are compared with ground liquefaction data of the for ground liquefaction and comparison with ob-
1990 Luzon earthquake as well as those for the Great East servations
Japan Earthquake of 2010 in Figure 5.5. Eq. (5.2) and the
empirical relations by Wakamatsu (2000) and Ambraseys
(1988) provide the best bounds for the maximum limiting
distance for ground liquefaction and Eq. (5.2) takes into
account the faulting orientation. However, it should be noted
that both the relations proposed Ambraseys (1988) and
Kuribayashi-Tatsuoka fail to estimate ground liquefaction
for magnitudes less than 5.4. Figure 5.6 shows the areal
estimation of ground liquefaction and compares with
observations. It should be noted that the area consisting of
firm soil/rocky ground could not liquefy as indicated in the
respective figure.

5.2.4 Semi-empirical criterion (Seed and Idrisss method:

SPT, Mw, Amax)
Fig. 5.7 Evaluation of liquefiable layer for boring data
Seed and Idriss (1971) proposed a semi-empirical criterion
in Dagupan City (Ishihara)

9
0.4g and scaled for other earthquake magnitudes. The differ-
ences generally results from the empirical relations used for
maximum ground acceleration, the selection of liquefaction
resistance in terms of SPT values, CPT or Shear Wave Ve-
locity of soil. Figure 5.7 shows an evaluation by Ishihara et
al (1994) for a street in Dagupan.
6 IMPLICATIONS ON CIVIL ENGINEERING
STRUCTURES
The effects of ground liquefaction appear on civil engineer-
ing structures as
(i) Bearing capacity loss: foundation failure
(ii) Uplift of light embedded structures such as manholes,
pipes, tanks and Lateral spreading. This would actually
appear on linear structures as tearing-off or buckling
7 IMPLICATIONS ON THE PLANNED HIGH-
WAY
The area is very close to the Philippine faults system and the
epicenter of the 1990 Luzon earthquake. There is no doubt
that the same situations would be repeated if an earthquake
with a similar magnitude occurs. However, the recurrence of
the similar magnitude earthquake in the same place requires
some accumulation of crustal straining. It is estimated that
the recurrence period of the earthquake fault, which caused
the 1990 Luzon earthquake, is about 300-320 years. There-
fore, The possibility of the rupture other faults such as the
East Zambales fault, Tubao fault or Valley Fault System
should be considered in view of the service-life of the high-
way.
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