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Radio Propagation
419
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GEOGRAPHlC LONGITUDE
FIGURE 1. Map of ionospheric stations for December 1957.
station (sec. 3.1). Then the worldwide geographic its variations are the most difficult to represent. In
variation of each Fourier coefficient is expanded in a ehs. 2 and 6, we outline briefly the mathematicul
series of functions analogous to surface spherical methods employecl in this ullulysis.
harmonics (sec. 3.3). The optimum separation .of
noise is obtained by truncation of orthonormal serlCS 2. GeneraI Data Fitting Method
(ch. 4). At the end of the analysis the diurnal and
geographic variations of the characteristic are repre As was mentioned in the introduction, the geo
sented by a relatively small. table of. coefficien~s graphic variation of eac~ F?urier coefficient (obt~ine~
defining a function of three vunubles: lat1tude, longl from the diurnal analvsIs) 1S represented by senes 01
tude and time of day. Such a function is referred
to a; a "numerical map" (ch. 7).
functions analogous io
surfaee spherical harmollirs,
The approach generally used in global analyses of
The methods used here are generaI enough to be geophysical data has been to fi~st draw. contonr Il1fipS
applied to any ionospheric characteristic. In fact, by hand and then to analyze 111 sphencal harmoulC';
they have already been snccessfull.. used to represent the vulues read from the maps at the interseetions 01' ,l
such characteristics as: the criticaI frequency (foF2 ) , regular 'rid. However, such methods incorporate
the 3000 km maximum usable frequency {ador
(F2-M3000) , the maximum electron densi~,y (N
max) the height of N-max, ancl the qum-ter tlncIrness
of a' layer. With only slight rnodification the
methods can also include variations with height
many ofthe undesirable features <!f the lutIl.dopem
tions used currently to produce lOnosphenc maps
(ch. 1).
We have attacked this problem from the opposite
direction by first analyzing the data directly as they
above the surface of the earth. For the sake of are obtained from the stations. Then contour
illustration \ve restrict ourselves here to the charac maps are computedjrom the analyses when desired.'
teristicjoF 2'.monthly meclian, sinc~ this chara~teristic
is the most unportant one for radIO propagatIOn, and Examples of 5110h contour maps e.re shown in figures 11a, llb, 12, and 13.
420
'Ihe method used is mathematically well defined,
entirely repeatable, well adapted to automatic com (2)
puting and, in a sense, more objective than the
band methods previously mentioned. As a result of has a minimum value with respect to all real coeffi
this new approach, we have had to face some addi cients Dk.6 It is easily shown that necessary il.nd
tional complications (eh. 5). In the expansion of sufficient conditions l'or E K to be minimized are
the geographic variation it is natural to use
orthogonul 5 functions, snce an optimum cutoff of EK=O
the series has to be made (eh. 4). Tbe classical k=O, l, ... , K. (3)
Dk '
spherical harmonic functions [Byerly, 1893, pp.
144-218] could not be used, however, since they are These give the well known normal equations
not orthogonal relative to the positions of stations.
'Ihus we have had to construct functions-analogous
Lo spherical harmonics (sec. 3.3) -which are orthogonal m=O, l, ..., K (4)
with respect to the irregularly spaced coordinates of
thc stations. The problem is even more complicated
by the fact that the set of available stations varies where we adopt the notation
from month to month, making it necessary to con
struct new orthogonal functions for the analysis of
each month's data.
For this pur1?ose we have employed the very and
generaI data-fittmg method described briefly in this
chapter. Of course, the method also applies to the (5)
Fourier analysis of the equally spaced measurements
of the diurnal variation. In the following discussion, and we williater use
tbe points Xi (where the measurements are made)
can be any set N
1,2, . . ., N
(y,y) = z:
;=1
1I"i
irregularly positioned in an M dimensionaI space. For solving the normal equations (and for a number
The coordinate functions Gk(x), which are fitted to of other reasons to be discussed) we have made
the data by the method of least squares, can be any cxtensive use of orthogonal functions.
linearly independent functions of .L11 variables (e.g.,
elementary transcendental functions, Chebychev 2.2. Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization
polynomials, or spherical harmonics).
A set of functions ~(X), Al (X), " AK(x) iB
2.1. Least Squares Method said to be orthogonal ,...'1tb respect to the points
XI, X2, ., XN, if
1et Yl, Y2, . " YN denote llleasurelllents of an
ionospheric characteristic taken at the points Xl,
X-;l, , XN. Suppose that a class oj junctions when krEm . (6)
Ya(x) is given and a criterion for evaluating how
well each of these functioIls fits the values Yt. (We Thus we Bee that if the coordinate functions Gk(x)
will take Ya(x) as linear SUlllS of coordinate functiolls were orthogonal, the systelll or normal eq (4) would
Gk(x).) Then the problelll of data-fitting is to be uncoupled and its solution would be simply
determine that function Y(x) from the given elass
whkh "best" fits the Yi relative to the given criterion. k=O, l, ... , K. (7)
We haye chosen the least squares rriterion sin ce it is
well-adapted to the analysis of data affected by
noise and it is far easier to compute than other On the other hand, we can apply the Gram
methods sueh as the minilllax [Stiefel, 1959]. The Schmidt orthogonalization process [D avis il.nd
question or choosing tbe proper classes of functions Rabinowitz, 1954]7 to form the system of functiollB
Ya(x) is discussed in chapter 3.
We assume given a set of linearly independent (8)
coordinate functions, Go (x) , GI(x) , . . ., GK(x), with
K<N, and it is requircd by the least squares
criterion to find that funetion k=1,2, ... ,K,
K
Y K(X) = z:
k=O
DtGk(x) (l)
6 For simp!icity we have wrltten D. with only one ~ubscrtpt k. However, we
musI. rememher that tbe terms in (I) are generally not independent and tberefore
for wbich the sum of sq uares of residuals ali 01 thc coefficients depend on tbe value or K.
7 Our procedure differs Irom tbat 01 Davis and Rabinowitz [19541 in that we
"orthogonal" is used here in the sense or Il discrete distribution llave reversed tbc order 01 orthogonalization and normalization in order to reduce
pp. 33-37]. thc accumulative rounding error. (Bee sec. 2.3 and also ch. 6.)
421
satlsfying (0), where the coefficients akp are given by of the orthogonal functions Ak(X) we use only the set
of points Xi and the functions Gk(x). Consequently
when several different sets oI values Yi are measured
(9) at the same set of points Xi and are to be fited by
sums of the same functions Gk(X) , only one orthogonal
Then the least squares solution YK(x) can be written system is required to uncouple aH or the resulting
in the form systems of normal equations. Thus in the repre
sentation of geographic variations of Fourier coeffi
(lO) cients, the same set of orthogonal functions can be
used for aH Fourier coefficients for a given month.
where This is an important [actor in the economization of
computer time, since-as will be shown in chapter
k=O,l, .. . ,K. (11) 4-there are 17 Fourier cO.fficients to be represented
in the analysis of f oF 2
The orthogonal series (lO) is, of course, sufficient
for many purposes, but in our applications it is 2.3. Normalization
useful to have YK(x) in the simpler forrn (l). For
this purpose we cornpute the triangular matrix A set of functions F1(x), F 2 (x), . . . , FK(x) is said
to be orthonormal with respect to the points Xl,
lO,K-2 lO,K-l lO.K X2, , XN if, in addition to tho orthogonality
conditions (6), they also satisfy
ll.K-2 ll,K-l
lK,O
(18)
where the elements lpk are obtained by
the orthonormal coe.fjicients dk have the simplified
lOk=ak formula
lpk= lp-l,k+lp-l,K- (p-l)aK- (p-l),k l~p~K (13)
k=O, 1, ... , K (19)
O~k~K-p .and
l~k~K. (20)
starting with the top row and going from left to One main advantage of this normalization is that the
right. Then we have for the desired coefficients significanco of eacb term dkFk (x) in (18)-dotormined
by the reduction it makes on the sum of squares of
(14) residuals (20)-is seen in the relative size or d~.
Another advantage is obtained from tbe simplified
A number of advantages are gained from the use of interpretation of these functions as unit (orthogonal)
orthogonal functions. As was proviously shown the vectors in an N dimensionaI vector spaco (eh. 6).
Ak(X) uncouple the system oI normal equations so Using the relation J
that terms in the series (lO) are independent. As a \
consequence we obtain automaticaHy the least
squares solution Yk(x) for aH degrees from zero (21)
through K, and therefore can test the physical
l
signifirance of each term to determine where the
series should be truncated (ch. 4). Moreover, the and (8), the generation of the orthonormal funetions
computation or E K is greatly facilitated since by Fk (x) becomes
substituting (lO) into (2) and applying (6) and (11),
We obtain
(15) where
O~p~k-l
Hence Ek is computed recursively for each degree by
and
E o= (y,y) -a5 (Ao,A o) (16) 1
du = "I7'=O=~ (23)
...)(Ak,Ak )
for l~k~K.
Then from (19), (22), and (11), the coefficients iu
It should a.lso be mentioned that in the construction the solution (18) become
422
(24) are made. As will be shown, Fourier analysis pro~
vides a simple means for such corrections. The
The applicution of the Gram-Schmidt orthogonoJ ~~st important use of Fourier analysis, howcver,
ization proeess to least squarcs pl'oblcms has been IS m the separation of "nose" (randol1l error) from
treated in a paper by Davis and Ri1hino,vitz [1954]. the "real" diurnal vuriation of the data (eh. 4).
For completefi(~ss we included here aB outline Or "We give here the essentil11 fonnulas employedj
their development with one modificatioll~the order for more comprehensive treatment, the readpr can
or orthogonalization Il,nd Ilormalizatioll is reversed. refer to numerous texts on Fourier llnalysis. Let
Tbe I1dVantlge of this modificution is thl1t accumulu x denote the zone time hour angle (degrpps) defined by
tve l'ounding error can be considentbly reduced.
Whereas we compute (Ak,A k ) lS a sum of squares, (25)
the procedure in the referenee cited above is to com.,
pute it as li difference or positive numbers where Z'I' is given in hours. Thus, for example
x=Oo at noon (Z'I'). vVe let Yl, Yz, .... , Y'24 dpnote
t
the homly measurements eorresponding to the hours
14 16
~
<.J
5 12
,j
I- IO
z l
w Z
U W
Li: U
LL iL
W "
w
8 o(.)
o:: 6 IN POLYNOMIAL IN Il:
w SIN w
ir 1<' I
e ~ ''''"-?OLYNOMIAL IN X l.... POLYNOMIAL IN SIN),
O~~~L-L-L-~L-L-~~~~~~~~~
60' 30' O' 30' 60' 90' 90' 60' 30' O' 30' 50' 90'
NORTH ,OUTH HORTH
=LATITUDE )"=LATITUDE
FiGURE. 2. . Repre.~~ntaton of main latitudinal variaUon of FIGURE, 3. . Repre8~ntation 01 main latitudinal variation of
Founer (trme senes) coe.fficnts ao lor foF z monthly median Founer (trme sene.q) coe,tfcwnts ao for f oF 2 monthly median
by least squares pulynomials of degree 10. by least squares polynomials 01 degree 18.
Deccmber 1957 95 stations. Deeember 1957 96 stations,
424
..
l1J
o
hence the grcatcr stability of n~ (sin ) ncnr the
poi es. In addition we see that near the center ol
u the interval the distances between successive maxma
o:: and minima are less for the Fi2l (sin X) than for the
I
~
:::l
Fk1l (). Thus we cnn understand the bctter rep
fZ resentation of equatorial variatioll by Yk~ (sin X).
To conclude this discussion we note that the
behnvior of the polynomials Fil) (X) l'es embI es that
of the classical Legendre polynomials [Byerly, 1893,
pp. 184-185]. On the other hl1ud, thc amplitude
O~-L--~--L-~ __ ~ __ L-~ __- L_ _ _ _~ distribution of the Fi21 (sin ) more nearly approx
-I -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I imates the exactly uniform distribution of the
SOUTH
SIN).
NORTH classical Ohebyche/J l)()lynomials [Jones, .:\1illcr, Conn,
().=LATITUDE)
and Pankhurst, 1946, pp. 194-195]. It is well known
FIGURE 4. Repre8entaiion of man latiiudinal vanation oJ
that orthogonal scries of Legendre polynomials telld
Pourier (Ume 8enes) coefficienls 8Q for f oF 2 monthly median to blow up near the end points [Lanczos, 1938, pp.
by least squares polynomial (degree 10) in sin . 144-145], whereas series or Chebychev polynomils
December 1957 96 stations. lllinilllize the maximum ('l'l'or, and therefore are as
POLYNOMIALS IN ). POLYNOMIALS IN SIN ).
1.0 1.0
b(Il
z
iii 0.8
tiii
z 0.6 I \
I
"I ;"',
m'":>c I I
<Il 0.4 1.1.. 0.4 i
I
I
\:
F
ci
:i
~ 0.2
II)
...J
z 0.2
,
I I
:1
;I
~ ~
o :I
~ O~~~~,~~~~ ..,.. . z
.J
~ ~
,i: '; I
~ -0.2 -0.2 :I
Cl
oJ:
...J
z
I:
1
l
o I:
li:O -04 8I
-0.4
l':...:
l
Cl
I:l -0.6
l"'- o::
o -0.6
I
\ I
I
- - DEGREE 8
:J Cl
\ I
- - - - DEGREE 9 LLI
\.1 - - DEGREE 8
~ -0.8
o
..... " ..... DEGREE IO N
::::i -0.8
- - - - DEGREE 9
z :lE ............ DEGREE IO
o::
-1.0 oz -IO
425
stable at the end points as they are at the center. discuss here the choice of functions for representing
Thus by analog,v one would expect the behavior these second order mixcd latitudinul and 10ngitudinal
demollstrated in figures 2 and 3. variations.
A similnr stutI,\' was also made with polynomials in The usual method of representing global variations
thc Vllriable sin [90 0 sin ], which is the natural Or geoph~vsienl phenomena is by spherical hurmonic
extension or thc spl'cmling process dcscrilwd a13ove. HTlHlysis [B~'erly, lh93, pp. 144~218]. Howevcr, the
In this case, tbe representation was improved even classical surf'ilce spherical harmollies-sntisfying La
more around the equator, but significullt geographic
varia tion in the temperate latitudes was squeezed
into thc poles and so lost. Therefore polynomials in
sin were chosen for reprcsenting thc muill lntitudi
nal tn'nd. The determination of the "I)('st degree"
for t}wse polynomials is discussed in chnptcrs 4 and 5.
Il
" 345' E - 45'E
a 4WE-I05E k a,(>.,O) k a,(>..O)
-1 v I05"E -165E
A 165E-225E
O 225'E-285'E O l k,+l cos
+ 2f1:5E -345E l sin }, ko+2 Co:;: )I.
-3
2 sin' ko+3 sin cos
ko+4 sin Cos
4
IO' 60' 30' O' 30' 60' 90'
SOUTH NORTH
;LATITUDE
r
It was previously lllcntiolled that ionospheric il (X) , whereas the others arp prodllced mainly by i2(X).
data are affected by noise (mndom fiuduation) TIte proper sepamtion or these harmonics and
j)roduced l'rolll a nUIll ber 01' SOUl'(ps. The noise resulting truncation of the Fourier scries give the
s due in part to limitations or equiplllent at various optimum smoothing (or filtering) as welI as the
stations and to errors of scaling and rounding. desired diurnal representation. For deterrnining
A brge part or tho noise is the result of statistical t he proper sepamtion of harrnonics 13 we ml1ke use of
fluctuations in the sample medians, tllo sample size certaill properties of thc Fourier spectrum which
bping at Illost 31 and frequently much lesso These characterize the two eomponent functions of i(x).
fluduatiolls are, to some degroe, caused by intrinsic As a by-product wc also obtain a quantitative esti
variation or the physical phenomena being measured. mate of tho noise 1]", whieh el1n be compared with
The Boiso is evidenced by such OCCUlTences as results from an indepPllJ en t method.
unusual roughness or unrealistic fiaUening of the
diurnal plots during certain hours. The presenco a. Spectrum for aReaI Ionospheric Characteristic flx)
or noise is also suggested by ralldom incollsistencies
or data at groups of neighboring stations as observed Tt is weH k.nowll that n, smooth, continuous funetion
from data-comparisons on a worldwido basis. In ti (:r) or period 27r can bo expanded in a FollI'ier
the present chapter, however, we give more objective series~o f runctions 1, cos jx and sin .jx (j = 1, 2,
evidence of the noise by moans or statistical and 3, ... )-and that the coefficients, given by integraI
mathematical data-analYses. Included are methods formulas analogolls to (28), approach zero as j
for quantitative estimation of the noise amI for its inerel1ses, Itt a rate deponding upon the smoothness
optimum separation from real physical vtriation. or il(X). It can be shown/' for example, that if
We slwll therefore consider ionospheric data as ii'l(X) is piecewise cOlltnuous in (-'lr,'Ir) then the
sampled values Yifr0H1 a functioni(x) which is the sum coefficients approach zero at leltst as fast as j~\
of 1,wo components: (1) the real physical charaeter whereas il f"l(X) is piecewisc eontinuous the rate is
st(' il (X), lllld (2) a rnndom noise componcnt j~2. In generaI the size of a in the j-a lnw increases
f2 (x). Thus we consider each value Yi as a SUlll or decrf'ases with tho smoothness of fl(X), so that in
a senso the smoothnpss of Il funetion is chal'ftct,erizf'd
(37) by the value of a.
wbere These sarne laws I1pply (approximntely) to the
(38) coefficients a j amI bj obt!tined from FollI'ier analysis
of a s11lllple, yPl, y~ll, . . . , yW, of hourly values
The values' of the noise yiZI are Ilssumed t.o be, of iI(x). Thus the squared amplitude c;=a}+b1
independently, norlllltlly distributed with melln decre!tses at lettst as fast as j-Za. \Vhf'll c~ is plotted
zero and standard deviation 1]", Il quantity taken against j in a log..log scale, the curvp dpfiue<! by
I
to be the measure oi the 71oise. smoothing the points on the graph wiU have l slope
Generally the noise is small compared to the main less tlHW or equal to -2a. \Ve reCer to this value
physical variation, but its effect must be careful1y as the slope 01 the Fourier spectrum. It is safe to
studied sillce we wish to represcnt the physicnl assume that the real diurnal variation of an iono
characteristic with as much detail as possible. spheric characteristic lws at least n piecewise con
The noise would produce a very rough and physicaHy tinuous first derivative. Thus the slopc of its spec
unacceptable representation if the originaI data trum should be -2 or lesso
were fitted exactly without time ltnd space smooth
ing. Thus a certain amount of smoothing is neces b. Spectrum for a Random Noise Component!2(x)
sary, but too much smoothing would produce a
representation which does not respect weH enough Let y;2), y~2), . , yJ~l denote a sample of valucs of
the true physicl1.1 variation of the data. OllI' prob the raIHlom noise component f2(x)--each value hav
lem is therefore to represent as accurately as "This type or fil!.er i8 analogous to" "lowpaRs ele.trical filter-!.e., a filter
designed 1.0 pass only low frequencies while elirniu"ting ali frequ~ncies above a
possible the component il (x), given onlv the sampled ccrtain point [Holloway, 1958]. Sucll a filt~ring process is frequently referred 1.0
values YI of f(x). \Ve trel1t first the 'separation of as,.,0smootbing. H
427
, l'
IO IO ~------------~~--~ IO
-
2 3 4 5 6 8 Il 234568 Il 2 3 56811
j =HARMONIC NUMBER j HARMONIC NUM8ER j =HARMONIC NUM8ER
18 16
:i1! 14 14
'-'
~ 12
~
@
:;
~
~
z
o
:;
N
LI..
.;?
428
harmollics and would then level off aI'ound a constant
yalue u2 /6. The point at which the leveling off takes
pla,ce separates the hal1ll0nics l'epresenting mostly
true physical variation from those produced mainly
by noisc. Thus we determine the optirnum cutoff for
the Fourier series. It is inevitable that a few har
monics wiU be in a "twilight zone" where the ampli.
tude oC tl1<\ real physic!tl variation is the same as that
of the noisc. However, it is not oC vital importance IO
wherc the cutoff is made in this region, except that
the series should not be extended too far.
To illustrate thc method we consider the monthlv
medians of JOF 2 from threc typical stations (fig. 7).
These c:.:amples illustrate the rclation between
I
but the twilight zone is somctimes more extended.
FIGlJRE 8. Average Fourier spectrumfor f oF 2 monthly medianI!.
A number of other stmlies have been madc to
Deeember 1957 113 statio1l!l
determine the average oplimum cutoff, in addilioJl
-
u="\,,6
te: [1"3 2J
11
~ c j
1/2
=0.25 Mc/s, (41)
tlH' parametel's (h'fining the normal and Rayleigh
or the average noise in f oF2 medians made over a resid llls. We take as an unbiased estimate o] the
period of several years have been found t.o be dosely variance o] the residuals
cOIIC'bted witl! solaI' activity. The details or thpse
studies, however, will be given in a subsequent
paper. (42)
TABLE 2. Noise in foF. med1'ans for December 1957
wh('re Ek is the SUlli or squnres of residuals (20), N
Station Noise u is tho number ol' stations, amI (N-k-l) is the
number of degrees of freedom remaining after sub
'Icjs tmction of one d('gree for pll,ch term in the series
0.18
Y k (,I1) [Kendall, 1951, pp. 5961]. From (42) it is
.28
.58 possible for the estimate of the variance e: (or of the
standard devio,tion e,,) of th(' residuals to inCl'elSe 11S
The same estimates of noise have been made by
k increascs, since thc diminishing of E" nmy lweome
very slow after a certain degrec. For Silllplicity we
an entirely independent TnetItod. .:VIaking use oI shall refer to e" HS th(' standard demation (if the
thc distributions of dnily measurelllents, we have residuals. In the analyses under pres(,lIt considem
computcd the standard deviations of the sample tion, the values e" usually decrease quite mpidly at
medians. TIte good agreement or these independent first, then taper ofr and oease to diminish appreeably
results gives added strength not only to tIte (~sti i1ftl'l'iL certan point. This point defim's tlH' d('sirf'd
mates of noise, but also to the determim1tion or the optimml1 eutoff.
optimum smoothing. In order to determine this eutoff objectively we
Each of the Fourer coefficients is equallv affected makc use of Il, statistiml t('st l'or thc signifi('Hnce of
by noisc, but \-ve lHwe ShOWll thnt for the lower eaeIt coefficieut d k (in (36)) based on the "Stud(,nt's"
harmonics (j ~ 8) the physical variation is thc t distribution [Fisher, 1922]. Under tll(' usunl
domintnt, pttrt, whereas for higheT harmonics mostly assumption that thc observed values Yi have inde
noise is presenL. By truncuting the Fourer series Jwnd('nt llorlllnl distributions abollt a lIIe!Il l'l'p'('ssion
we have pliminated about 30 percellt or the noise sud,tee with eommon variance (T2, il rollo\\"s that
the part C'ontaIlPd in the truncated terms-at no the quantity
10ss or real physietll variation. A large pltrt of the
remaining 70 percent of the noiso is filtered in a
similar manner by analysis or tIte geographic varia
Hon of the Fourier coeffieicnts. This problern is
treated in the following st'etion. where o" is the expected va1ue or d k , has a "Student's"
4.2. Separation of Noise From Geographic
t distribution with (N-k-1) degrees or freedom.
Therefore we test the null hypothesis Ho (i.e., (h=O)
Variation using a 5 pen'pnt l'ejeetion Cl'it('rion
The noise. is sepurated from the real geographic
yariation or Fourier coefficients by a filtering process 15
similar to that used in the preceding soction. Having I~I >tO.05.
c:xpinded the geogmphic variution in a series (36) of
ort.honormal fUlletions F k C,8) as in scction 3.3 we In most of our applications thc value oI (N-k-l)
obtain the smoothing (or filtering) bv truncating tIte has been large enougll so that t O05 is approximately 2.
series. In this case, however, we <io not have the Although the tpst described aboH' is probably the
elegant theory associated with Fourier analvsis for best possible for the present problelll, we note ilere
det(,l'lnining thc optimum eutoff. . the following limitation. It was assumed t hat the
TIH' lIH'thod E'mployed is bascd on the resluals distributions of alI the observed vlu('s Yi have a
betwecll tlte originaI Fourier coeffieients being fitted eOInmon VlriaIlcc (T2. It is known, howev('r, thal (Ti
and the eorresponding vt!ues or thc representution varips sigllifit'Hlltly with geogmphie locntion, so that
functiou Y K \,(1) giveu by (36). Sinee orthonormal the tlteoryappli('s only approxinmtely to our problem.
funetions were used in the development of l''"K( 8) As a l'esult thc representations are somewhat oV<'r
we can inspeet the residuals l'cmaining after et~el~ smoot!ted in certain regions and undersmoothed in
te l'm d k F k C,(1) is tl,dded to tlte series. Tbc residuals olhers. Sinee we prorer il sligh tly unders1l1oothed
approach zero as the nUlIIber K + l or terms in the reprcsentation (in order to represent the phvsieal
series is inereased, aud they would actuullv altain details as weIl as possible) we have chosen a 5 p~rcent
this limit (exeept for rounding error) when'K+ l is rejection a,s opposed to a l percent.
equa1 to the number of stations. However, wc As an illustrntion we consider the determination
know that tho Fourier coeffieients are affected bv or the OptilllUIll eutofr of the main l1titudinal \('l'l11S
noise; hence zero residuals are not desired. " (tnble 1) for representing the Fourier coefficient
Tlw criterion adopted for dotermining th(' optimum shown in figure 6. The last term fouwl to be signifi
cutoff is to lIIinilni"c tIte st1ndard deviation of the cant was dlO and we havc therefore termnnted thc
lS. the discussion on Hsmoothing of obs{irvatonal data bv the nlethod oi
sel'ies at this point. A grnph of ek through dqp:ee 15
squares" tU .S. Dept. of Commare", NBS, AMS 9, 1952, PP. 16-18]. is shown iII figure 9 nd sOlIle of thC' vlllues e" und di;
430
are given in table 3. In a silllibr manner we deter ql = 12, and q~=6 (sec. 3.3). Frorn our test we filld
mille the optimum cutoffs for the first and sccond the optimum cutoffs specified by ql =7 and qo=5.
order terms in longitudc (Lable l). In figure lO is In addition to statistical tests we have also been
shmyn the graph 01' el; corresponding to thc sct of guidcd by certa In physical propcrties known lo exist
coordinate functions Gk(, 8) spccified by qo= lO, in the ionosphere and by SOIl1P knowkdge of the
II1orphology or our mathelllnticall'unctions. For ex
ampIe, for a polynoIllial or drgrrc k in sin the dis
tance between two adjacent rnaxiIlla will have to be
1.8 at least (360jk) dcgrees. Therefore, in OIdpr to
reprrsent the sharp dip in critic,tl frrquellcies known
to exist near the magnetic equator (figs. 2 and 3),
1.8
wc know a priori that very high degree polynomials
are needed.
~ 1.4
~ TABLE 3. Least squal es jitting oJ spherical harmonic functions
~
Gk(X,II) to Fourier (lime series) coefficienl~ al for f oF 2 monthly
"
I/)
rnAdians
J 1.2
"c
::> December 1957 113 stations.
in
UJ STANDARD DEVIATlOII
o: ORTHONORMAL COEFFICIENTS FOR
LO OF RESIDUALS COEFFICIENTS FUNCTIONS Gk (A,81
"
o
z
k ek dk D,
o
o O.1791255~E 01 O.28253230E 02
~
;;: 0.8
l O.148T8412E 01 0.10660 .. S3E 02 :~::~~~;~ :~
g0.21119S11E
..J 2 0.14296S2"E 01 -o ... S103221E 01 02
UJ Z
c
z o
zo ;:: " 3
s
0.12992993E
0.9"U2991E
01
00
-0.6388911"E 01
-0.939963"1 E 01
-0.1833022,E
-0.10238298E
02
03
o: ;"i 2 :'! 0.16460B36E 00 -0.S1'3S,"1E 01 0.1S1t44211E 02
o 0.13123422E 00 -0.222316..1E 01 0.2"343033E 03
"
c 0.6 OPTIMUM cuTOFF
:IO;:: Ir
" ">
z 7 0.13989S19E 00 -0.36166392E-oO -0.9h28048E 02
qo = IO ..J 8 0.14338301E 00 -0.91018918E-Ol -0.26629260E 03
"
l-
I/)
10
0.14431083E
0.11160986"'E
00
00
0.63343991E 00
0.2321964,E 01
o .39049190E
0.10210413E
02
03
pEGREE k
15
"o!::D=>
..J
23
20
0.S6SS5211E
0.S4421645E
00
00
-o.828S'40SE 00
-o .15484624E o l
-0.2292110~E 02
-0.16010904E 02
" I~
To obtain a "best" representation of the gr.ographic
varintion, onc must consider IIIore than the optimum
I/)
J
sepamtion of noisc (filtering)-i.e., more thall just
"
:> 1.2
Q
CI)
M1XED LATITUDINAL ANO LONGITUOINAL VARIATIQN the residuals at tbe stations where data are given.
UJ
o: 1.0
The heavy grouping of stations in sOllle regions such
"
o
HS Europe (Iig. 1) and thc absence of sLations in other
z 08
o
J'cgions, particularly in the oceans and near the poles,
~ tends to produce a sort of "mathematical instability"
;;: 06
UJ
c
OPTIMuM CUTOFF
in thf' representation function-that is, unrealistic
D
o: Q IO behavior in the areas where no data are available.
O.~
<!
431
from the maps at the intersections of a regular grido (analogous to (4 are uncoupled by the condition of
Thus the (synthetic) values used in the analysis are orthogonality (6) imposed on the Ak(x). Thus all
uniformly spaced and the mesh or the grid citn be terms on the left side of (43) vanish except those or
made sufficicntly small to prevent instabilities in the the form am(Am,A m ), so that the coefficients ak are
representation function. This method has the dis given by (11). Although (11) is algebraically exact,
advantage of introducing error (noise) both in draw it will be shown that the ooefficients thus obtained
ing and in reading the maps. Moreover, the hand could be strongly affected by accumulative errors or
work involved is relatively slow and cumbersome. rounding. We let a~ denote the theoretl:cally exact
Wc have eliminated these two difficulties by first solution to (43) and write for the error in ak (as
analyzing the data directly as they are obtained at computed from (11
thc ionospheric stations. However, as a result we
have had to face still another problem, that of K
mathematical instability described above. &Lk=a~-ak=-::E a~AmA: (44)
m=O
For a region where therc are no available stations, mr'1r.
the representation function gives a two-dimensional where
interpolation determined by the data from alI A (A~,Ak)
stations, both near the region and far away. Thus (45)
mA: (Ak,A k)'
the best representation that could be expected is a
smooth continuation of the variations from sUITound As an approximation to oak we compute
ing stations. Strong departures from such smooth
continuations are probably artificial and physically K
meaningless. f1ak=-::E amAmk' (46)
1lI~O
Examples 16 of instability can be seen in the contour mr'k
map (fig. Ila) computed from an analysis using the
coordinate functions G k(X, O) (table 1) specified by Thus if some of the numbers A mk , m,=k, differ sig
qq=lO, ql=7, q2=5-these were the optimum nificantly from zero (i.e., have nonzero digits among
cutofis (sec. 4.2) from the viewpoint of separation of those retained hy the computer), it is likely that large
noise. Included in the map are the residuais values of !:lak ",ilI occur. When we look elosely at
between the originaI Fouricr coefficients and the the orthogonalization process (sec. 2.2), it is not too
corresponding values of Y38(X, O). Although the surprising to find that some of the Amk are signifi
fluctuations in this map are not large, there is a cantly difierent from zero, particularly if the coordi
definite appearance or instability in the souihern nate functions Gk(x) are not approximately ortho
hemi8phere, particularly near the pole. By further gonal. This can he seen as follows.
truncating the orthonormal series Y3S (X, O) so as to - The functions Ak(X) are constructed successively
correspond to the set of Gk(X, O) specified by qo= lO, according to (8) Imd (9). In fact, multiplying (8) by
(l! =6 and q2=2, very little damage is caused in terms Am(x), m<k, and summing over the Xi gives
of increased residuals. However, as can be verified
from the map in figure 11b, considerable advantage
is gained in terms or increased stability near the
south pole. Table 3 gives the values or ek and the
cocfficients d k and Dk corresponding to these functions. Then imposing the orthogonality condition (6) on the
Thus it is sometimes necessary to make the cutofi left member ahove, we have
slightly ahove thc optimum level (determined by
noise) in order to preservo the stability and physical
soundnoss of the representation function. Tho (48)
amount of increase required in the residuals dcpends
upon tho world wide coverage of ionospheric stations.
and (9) follows by neglecting the terms -ak~pm,
(p,-6.m) which are (theoretically) zero. From (48)
6. Reorthogonallzation and the Accumula we ohtain as an estimate of the relative error in akm
tion of Error
(49)
6.1. Accumulatian af Errar in the Gram-Schmidt
Orthaganalizatian Pracess
As was pointed out in chapter 2, the normal making use of (9) l (21), (23), and (45). ~-\t this point
equations it is convenient to consider the functions Gk(X) ,
Ak(x), and Fk(x) as N dimensionaI vectors whose
components are the functional values at the points
m=O, 1, . . ,K (43) Xl, X2, , XN' Then a number such as (Gk,Fp)
can be interpreted as the component of the vector
16 Other examples in one dimension are illustrated in the behavior near the
Gk in the direction of F p For the present we shall
poles oi the polynomials in (figs. 2 and 3.) consider a typical term on the far right side or (49);
432
B. LONGITUDE
40'
t.b",,+-+-r'+-+-+--j 30'
-=::::--t:""'+-~<.!f--hl-+--:JL-+--I 20'
"-::1>-""'-+=-1->-001 IO' r
'="
~~~~~~~+-~~'~~~~~~~~~~~~~PT~--~J7~~~~~+-~~ ~
C
~~--rl~rc~~~~~~~~~~~b-~==~~~~~~~~~~t-~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~-~ IO' ~
Il ~"~:---j,,-'I ~O'
--=""""'--=--f'-=i 60' g
...
:c
~~~~l;=t==~~-~-+--+-~~~1--+--+-~~--+-~-4~~-.--~-+~70
b
FIGURE 11. Maps oJ Fourier (lime smes) coeJficient al (Mc/a) and residuals Jrom analyses made with geographic junctio7ls
G k 0\, (J) jor f oF 2 medians.
December 1957 113 stations.
433
thus we can assume, without los8 oC generulity, that 6.2. Grarn-Schrnidt Reorthogonalization
the Gk are normalized in the sense oi (17). Suppose
now that GI: has a large component in the dircction of In section 6.1 we flTri\Ted at tbc following three
F p (say (Gk,Fp) %) but a very small component in important results: (l) large errors can be produced
thc direction of F m , so that (Gk,FTT.) is oi the same by the process of Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization,
order of magnitude as (Fp,Fp). 'l'hen the resulting (2) eq (46) gives an effective method for estimating
error in a"m could be as lmge as 50 percent. such err01"8, and (3) once started, an error has a
strong accumula Live effect, but its main source
I t is dear from the preceding discussion how initially is elosely related to the "directions" of the
significant errors can be introduced, the most import coordinate functions Gk(x). If thc Gk(x) are nearly
ant factor being the direction o[ each GI; relative to linearly dependent, the error woulrl develop quickly,
the preceding F p , p<k. Although such an error whcreas iI they are approxirnately orthogonal, the
may be small, its effect accumulates rapidly since source of error wouId be greatly reduced. Upon
each subscquent AI;(:r) is constructed in terms of all this fnet we justiCy a Gram-Schmidt l'eortJwgorwhza
preceding Am(x) , m< k. 'l'hus a small initial error tion 17 process, following the same lines as section
in one Ak(X) can have disastrous effects on the later 2.2, but taking as coordinate functions the Ak(X)
steps of the processo instead oI the Gk(x). For, a1though the Ak(X) may
As an illustration we consider the geographic not be sufficiently orthogonal Ior our purpose, they
rcpresentation of thc Fourier coefficient, used in would in generaI be considerably more so than the
section 4.2, expandcd in terms of the coordinate originaI coordinate functions. 'l'hus the initial
functions Gk (,8) specified by qo=lO, ql (12=2 source oC the error woulcl be recluced. 'l'he reortho
(see table 1). 'l'he least square8 coefficients ak gonalization process can, of course, be repeated as
computcd from (11) and the estimates of the relative many times IlS necessary to kccp tlte error uncler
error (tla<!ak) from (46) are given in table 4. As controi. Berore giving a numericai example, we
c an be seen the precision of the al; for k>
7 is very outline briefly the steps involved in the proccss.
doubtfuL It is shown in thc following section that Following the procedure oi" scction 2.2, we [orrn a
ag is off by 5 percent, and other coefficients by new set of orthogoIl!11 functions
considerably morc, thus illustrating the usefulness
" 'l'lw notion or reorthogonalilation was suggested by thc Numerical Allalysis
of error estimates. Sccton (IL01) oC thc :-';ational Bureau oC Stalldards.
434
.~L'~~~__.~____________________________________________________________________________~
Bo(x) =Ao(x) (50) Thf' analysis begins with the actual observations as
thoy ure tabulated t the stations, each in its own
zone timo. The diurnal representation is obtained
from Fourier analysis of tbe 24 hOUl'l~" values (for
where each stntion), the conections to LMT being pro
duced by an appropriate shiFt of the phase, detf'r
(51) mincd by the station locations. The OptllllUll
scparation of the noise from thc real physicnl variu
Then the least squares solution can be written in tion of the data is madc by truncating thc high
tbe form frequency harmonics (low-pass filterillg). Thus 101'
the charactcristic f oF 2 , only 8 harmollics are nocdcd.
(52) Thc geographic variatioll of each of thc 17 Foul'ior
coeffieicnts
where
(y,Bk ) (54)
(53)
(B",Bk )
is represented by an orthonormal sel'ies, unalogous
To obtain YK(x) in the simpler form (l), we computo to sphericul harmonic unu1ysis. Sincc the functions
fil'st the coefficients a; for expressing (52) in terrns of in thcse series llIust be orthogonal relative to the
the A,,(x). This is done by means of (13) 11Ild (14) coordinates (Xi, fJi) of the stations, they cannot be
with ak, akp, and Dk replaced by b", b"p, and a;, known a priori; hence they rnust be constructed.
respectively. Then the desired coefficients Dk are Gram-Scbmidt orthogoI1<llization nnd reorthogonuli
obtaIled using (13) and (14) with aie replaced bva;. zation are used for this purpose. Tho smoothing
The normalization of the solution is made by means (fi1tering) in the geographic dimensions is then pCl'
of a similar modification of section 2.3. formed by truncating tbe orthonormal series for
For illustration we continue with the sarne example ea.ch of the 17 Fourier coefficien ts.
I given at tho end of section 6.1. The coefficients bk
and estimates of tbe relative error (tlbk/b k) from one
The end product of tlw analysis is a table or numer
ica1 cocfficients D.k dcfining a funetion l'(X,fJ,t) of
Fouricr
analysis
Mostly ()rtllOn,orma! {'-Dnstruct,ion
real
physical Gk-C'hoief' of coon.lin"1t<' funC'tions
variation Ak'- First orthogonal1zation
Pk~-RC'cond orthogonali7.ation
Fk-Normuli7.atioJ
I,
separation of Ilois('
(lntcrmca,te !'('sults)
or Or!g-)
435
TABI.E 6. Coefficients D,k defining the function r (;1',8, t,) for monthly median f UF'2 (Mc/s), Decernber 1957
I-main JatitudiIml variatioIl. Mixcd latitudinal vuriDtion: II-fust order in longitude, III-sacand order in Jongitude. Notation: ]'or each cntry the number given by the first eight digit~ and sign is mul
tiplied by the power of 10 defincd by tbc last two diglts
TIME VARIATION
Hormonic O I 2 3 4
~ O 1 2 3 l, 5 6 1 8
O !.09!4267E al 7.1372089E-OI 7.283.9~2E-OI -9.2623643E-OI 8.1422963E-OI -1.1848102E-Ol -3.1885388E-OI 2.968H41E-01 -2. 5333249E-01
1 -7.89~3766E-Ol 4.8821~10E-Ol 2.6530059E 00 -1.5247263E 00 8.09U360l-01 -9.4284316E-Ol -1.7684491E 00 -4.3241333E-()l -~.7663186E-01
2 2.9886163E 00 1.6714562E 01 2.1189511E 01 6.5370734E-OI -3.3546S72E 00 -2.3955230E-Ol -I,4676821E 00 -1.4250625E 00 -4.1630~91E-OI
3 1.5785812E al 1.7292880E 00 -1.8330226E 01 3.4795284E 00 -4.3119376E ')0 6.4229818E 00 !.0~86009E al 9.2466606E 00 2.8930649E-02
lo -7.308l383E 01 -1.0531759E 02 -1.0238298E 02 2 .160i8~5E 00 8.6228165E CO -6.891474IE-OI 1.0163215E al 100430091E 01 6.131752~E 00
I 5 -4.6525828E 01 -4.1977129E 00 7.5444276E 01 2.0150497E 00 1.6324815E 01 -30464169~E 01 -2.6678432E 01 -3.740461SE 01 -5.6494755E-Ol
6 !.9878676E 02 2.5~49198E 02 2.4343033E 02 -4.3352216E 00 -~.4578"~8E 00 -7.5223076E 00 -2.2052303E 01 -3.n42693E al -2.019H37E 01
z 7 4.9101l51E 01 8.4645829E 00 -9.8828049E 01 -2.6254765E 00 -1.7152290E 01 6.0494795E 01 301563195E 01 5.07543llE 01 4.2224289E 00
O 8 -2.1057517E 02 -2.6631189E 02 -2.6629260E 02 1.1159160E 01 -1.8912893E-Ol 2.3693942E 01 2.5115734E 01 5.3091602E 01 2.1815168E 01
~ 9
IO
-1.1550868E
1.b640091E
01
01
-6.6710028E
100001l13E
00
02
3.9049190E
1.0210414E
01
02
-1.4319514E 00
-S.8129838E 00
5.0414002E 00
-5.9311831E-Ol
-3.1529641E 01
-1.5101959E 01
-io3718612E 01
-1.1413124E 01
-2.21b0749E 01
-2.30544llE 01
-3.1592644E 00
-1.3278131E 01
ii
~ 11
12
-5.29610947E-01
2.6902534[-01
2.4364168E-03
9.4759300E-02
8.0027 715E -o l
-6.885912IE-Ol
6.0721534E-Ol
1.310591o86E-01
-1.2101l91E-01
1.1502589E-Ol
-1.040382IE-OI
-5.0371087E-02
1.6257809E-OI
30 1251521E-Ol
-1.06103796E-01 6.2551100E-02
-1.81002439E-02 6.3306112E-02
..J 11 2. U49603E-02 -3.953848I 00 3.4758501E-OI 3.0601999E 00 -1.281l614E-01 -4,8954588E-02 9.11712102E-01 -4.7842801E-Ol
et -1.8609319E-02
Ilo 3.1711371E 00 1.7516081E 00 -l. 5318H9E-Ol 1.296'1>863E 00 1.3990802E-Ol -8.4662998E-OI 2.2158654E-Ol -2.2917208E-02 -1.0258091E-OI
~ 15 1.6633119E (l'l -305908690E 00 -1.1218609E 01 -5.7828038E 00 -5.0241930E-Ol 1.0223299E-Ol -1.4589699E 00
::t: io 10110558E 00 -5.0288115E-OI
ti. 16 -5.3166566E 00 -5.6ll5S13E 00 -4.2479382E 00 -7.8961211E 00 1.1927313[-02 2.7583UIE 00 -1.71011o663E 00 7.5675662E-Ol -8.2908363E-Ol
et 17 -1.91916 nE-OI 1.6253561E 01 -4.2751713E 00 -1.0306968E 01 'I>.1552535E-OI 1.0501295E-Ol -4.5479047E 00 8.5073202E-OI -2.4932280E-Ol
cr II le -2.H350SIoE 00 -6.0404139E 00 9.85110758E-02 -6.3966695E 00 -1.Io"09493E 00 303823205E 00 -1.9706686E 00 1.9711550E-02 -b.9674328E-03
<-' 19 Z.1291312E-OI 8.3133165E 00 3.0209412E 01 1.2918815E 01 2.0064190E 00 -1.4150301E 00 1.66b6640E 00 -1.5010523E 00 8.8937262E-Ol
....<-'
O
20 Io.13762104E 00 2.08581S1E 01 2.1029316E 01 1.83951ooE 01 ...... 31103J8E 00 -1.2203441oE 01 2.310003B9E 00 -1.0840088E 00 1.260662SE 00
....
c.:t
H
22
-1.31060412E 01
30 7958689E 00
5.3866998E 00
2.9883151E-Ol
1.1701701E 00
6.37G9797E GO
-8.9934126E-02
9.0028155E-Ol
-1.3007681E 00
-3.2101806E 00
4.4833956E 00
1.9325332E 00
CD 23 -6.2811868E 00 -2.2921706E 01 -8.3322061E 00 -2.3156345E-Ol 1.1989445E 00 6.02798GOE-Ol
24 -1.6428649E 01 -1.6010904E 01 -1.l .. 03061E 01 4.9586104E 00 1.1153906E 01 -6.5103689E-Ol
25 4.6818604E-Ol -8.1875202E-OI -1.89213108E-02 2.8565115E-Ol 8.5442873E-02 -3.1833852E-02
26 -1.4529204E-OI 5.32121079E-01 1.56910889E-01 -100888240e-01 1.77110674E-03 10410 13551E-G2
21 -9.60268~9E-02 9.01550..lE-01 2.10230455E-QI -5.1621379E-02
m 28 -2.7Q41523E-OI -1.5395824E-Ql Io.0790lo19E-01 8.3877255E-02
29 -1.Io39094IE 00 1.8835552E 00
30 1.3630296E 00 109063635E GO
Hormonic !5 6 7 8
.~ 9 IO 11 12 13 Ilo 15 16
z
O o 105531158E-01 2.3192567E-OI -6.4~60618E-G2 6.1802934E-02 1-7.2905,"OE-02 -6. 1891910E-Q2 7.4823447E-02 -1.3109944E-03
j:: l 3. n 90015E-Ol ...... 9630663E-OI h 76 75107E-Ol 3.1683339E-OI
et 1."'I>61850E-Gl 2.4323151E-OI 1.0825114E-Ol -100503997E-01
2 I.C122732E-01 -6.41081218E-01 1.4638798E 00 -5.1818543E-Ol 1-3.1733911E-OI -3.0163109E-Ol 5.3879264E-Ol -9.2140743E-03
ii -2.7126487E-OI 1.9842262E 010
~
I
..
3
5
-2.00110091E 00
3.Q534070E-01
-9.5196921E-Ol
-3.1520131E 01
-108491821E GO
-1.0122759E 01
h9806334E 00
1.1859941E-OI
6.0368895E 00
-2.76101163E 00
104023915E 00
30 58510293E 00
7.4862415E 00
-2.1925556E 010
4.5672736E 00
7.0639567E-OI
1.10051245E GO
-3.1251251oE-01
-1.6983739E 00
..J 7.1719395E 00 2.5793256E 00 1.91271 05E 00
6 6.2490299E 00 1.6G074COE-0 l 2.9222164E 01 -1.9459016E 01 -8.468l50lE 00 -1.1661591E 01 3.48626103E 00 7.5111"4E !lO
tl 7 -2.5598317E 00 ".3334295E 101 -304801114E 00 3.)8519BE 00 -10051U23E 01 -1.0894292E 01 3.9185429E 00 -2.638291~E 00
fet 8
9
-8.5661732E 00
2.1710776E 00
Io.7626390E 00
-10940151ZE 01
-3.4945636E 01
9.0533099E-Ql
2.3111368E 01
-1.0651850E 00
7.8529029E 00
Io.6U7167E 00
101465121E 01
5.1017995E 00
S.0508122E 00
1.9346376E 00
-100165U9E 01
1.1577847E 00
cr lO Io.07649105E 00 -3.6110235E 00 1.4435610E 01 -9.1508738E 00 -2.4935791E 00 -10.0293859E 00 2.Io99U34E 00 4.31l86109E GO
8 11 5.2536049E-03 4. 544115~E-03 2.7549960E-02 4.8208075E-02 9.6815999E-04 -8. 5190815E-Q3 5. 1576599E-03 -8.1442986E-04
~ 12 -5.)775538E-02
7.1804160E-02
-3.1418646E-02
5.2992250E-02
6.6945602E-02
2.22641030E-02
2.Z418048E-02 -2.8802571E-02
1.7819777E-03
1.09C4388E-C2 2.(39)688E-02 1.2157885E-OZ
13 2.1159531 E-02 3.3S031018E-03 ... 6019688E-03 -2.2194990E-02
II 14 6. 1635942E-02 -3.0900826E-02 -8.3197396E-02 5.47102161 E-02 3.216498QE-CZ -1.8425215E-03 4.8023952E-OZ 1.Q659245E-C3 !
lS -l. 1925521E-Q2 -5.17~ 1125E-02 -5.0150350E-OZ -10120590bE-02
16 1.0552388E-Ol 4.91683S1E-02 -1.1215911E-01 -6.370'>289E-02
The function r(,e,t) therefore represents the con The authors give special aeknowledgment to the
tinuous time variations of an ionospheric charac valuable assistanec of Mrs. G. Anne Hcssing and
tcristic on a worldwide basis and can be used to com Miss Martha Hinds in tbe development and large
pute its vruue at any desired loeation and instant of scale application of computer prograrns and to
timI'. Such a function is referred to as a numerical Mrs. J. Kaye Myers for her contributions-partieu
map. The coefficients defining the numerical map of larly in the preparation of ionospherc data on
f oF2 median for December 1957 are given in table B. punched cards-essential for thc suecess 01' the proj
-:\Iany useful applieatons are made from numerical ect. Tlw uuthors also acknowledge thc hclpful
maps. For example, a variety of worldwide contour assistance givcn to thcm by thc operators in thc
maps and olber graphical representations of iono Computing Laboratorics of thc National Bunau of
spheric characteristics can be computed and plotted Standards (in Boulder, Colo., and in '\Vashington,
automatically by machine. As an illustration, D.C.), MI'. Walter B. Chadwick (Prediclion Services)
figures 12 and 13 show the variation of ioF2 median and the Ionosphere '\Vorld Data Center for supplying
for fixed instants of universal time (UT) and LMT, the raw ionosphcric data elllploycd, and the many
I
rt'spectivply. In addition, a gl'eat denI can be and other perSOIlS at the CentraI Radio Propagution
has heNl learned about the regularities of the iono Laboratory-too numerous to mention-who have
sphcre from numerical representations. The most rendered useful contributions to this work. Finally,
important immediate application, however, is the the i1,uthors cxprcss ther sincere appreeatioll to Dr.
predidion of long-term changes in ionospheric con Ralph J. Slutz who, as Chief of the Radio Propaga
ditions. Such predictions have ruready been pro tion Physics Division and latt'l' as consultant for thc
dueed using the methods described here. A further Upper Atmosphere and Space Physies DiviEion, gave
diseussion of these results and other applieations of strong support and unceasing eneoumgement during
nunwrieal mapping will be given in later papers. the entire coursc of the work.
-----
-6
/ ......
~
I \ I 1#~ ~ :::::
:---:.: ~ ~~ ~ r-s
SO'
70
~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ "~~
r--- f-..-- I; I~ /8" 7" ~ ~
z
o
60' ::u
J~ ~ %22;V
~ ~ [\'\ K~ ~ ~ i
"""'., ~~9,
) -i
::t
I--'
V
,4 -
/ ~ ~~ 1/( '\.-
V lJ
\ l\;~ ~ t;::- t---- t--- 1 --- 50
ra
40
r-- ~
~ t::-::
V
~V ~S 8 "~
--
"3-
~ / 1 ~ t::;: t=::::: 30
r-
~h\ 1\
I
(
V-
il 1/ (//V ~)
'- k- ~ 3::~ ~ ~
12
--
/ ,/ o
J ) II
IO !TI
- -- - -- --
V" .,-"
...- 20
I "", ..---
~ V ...... 10 ~
V--
7- ~ / ~,o V L
I
9_.........
8..".... ./
30
/
/ /'~ " I /' / (
~
( ~
l"- ~
40'
ij ) I
f
\1
V
\
- ""\
\ ) L
)
) ~.
\.. ./'
\
I
"
"- r--
---......' e-
rg-
,o'
---
/'
------ ~
,---
.-'"
e)i
7- V ___ 6
.'-..... ~ V'
-- r-
70
--
-..o.- 1-"-
\ ~ 6 r- i !
5
~
.-- H6~ r--.. .-+ "- r---
80
90
FIGURE 12. Maps 01 monthly median f oF 2 (Mc/s) in universal lime from the lunclion r (X, /J, t).
December 1957 UT=12h.
437
=LONGITUDE
r
O" 30" 60" 90' 120' 150" 180' !IO' 240' 270' 330' 36
J_
b ->~9 ' f-<. .
W - . <+-- "-r-<' 1---r--8 -
7
~.:=
80'
---
IO --i9
Il f:---.--= 70'
~ t::::
10-:_
3 .....
I~;;' t:::=+--: l--- z
- -
o
60' ::o
'] <1.. t--f 1:
-I
J:
....
-
j'
50'
1~
'-,
H ,.I -
14'
I--
- .13<
13 I-
~ I-""
'\ \ -- r- 40'
!
7 II
L I- 30'
'- -",Y
8
13
~ t-
/ I 20'
I f-13
/ 'V
>"
l\.. i
1---"12 I IO' r"
"'~
V """'-
V V
!
""- - v
Il
- IO_r--........... ,
;13/
~2
( ( /4 1/ .-.,.
\
"""'\
_ / ",,/ ./Y...,,..l,,,,, /
~ )
~
20'
O
I O' fTI
"''"""r- -
_II
~
'-o..... i- i-" lu' 50'
I
j )1 \
'"
CI)
i- 9 .....
,--- /
r-.:- I-
60' ~-I
-- +t=
>e I---<~ ,~ e J:
7
I
70'
1<
FF r 1
f- v
f--
90'
FIGURE 1:3. 1'vfaps of monthly median foF, (Mc/s) in loeal mean ti me from the fllnclion r (X, 0, t).
Decembcr 1957 L:!'.1T=12h.