4.1 List Nautical Publications carried onboard.

4.2 Describe that local authorities may require carriage of their own
publications.

4.3 Explain the use of Notices to Mariners, Cumulative Notices to

Mariners.

4.4 Explain the use of Admiralty sailing directions, List of lights, List of
Radio signals, Mariners Handbook.

4.5 Explain the use of Admiralty and other distance tables.

4.6 Describe the uses of Ocean Passages of the world.

Safe Navigation is the prime task of ships deck officer .It is important
to be aware of the hazards, facilities, precautions and methods for a
ships navigation by obtaining information from all relevant
publications. This can be achieved by covering the following areas:

Primary consideration is the route a vessel must take between the departure and
destination .To choose the best route requires the charts on which to lay the track
and monitor progress and provide the information concerning hazards. Therefore
each ship requires a set of nautical charts which covers the entire route from
berth to berth. In addition , publications are needed to provide detailed
information on the pros and cons of each route and the procedures required to
enter a countrys harbours.
A vessel needs information on sea and weather conditions and sufficient
warnings of adverse conditions.
Different ships have different requirements for carriage of publications and every
vessel must have up to-date publications which cover the intended passage.
Often referred to as Pilots, Sailing Directions are designed for use by the
merchant mariner on all classes of ocean-going vessels with essential
information on all aspects of navigation. Sailing Directions are
complementary to ADMIRALTY Standard Nautical Charts and provide
worldwide coverage in 74 volumes.

Each publication contains quality colour photography and views, as

well as information on navigational hazards, buoyage, meteorological
data, details of pilotage, regulations, port facilities and guides to major
port entry.

New Editions of ADMIRALTY Sailing Directions are published on

a regular basis. Navigationally significant information for these
publications is issued via the ADMIRALTY Notices to Mariners weekly
bulletin (Section IV).

Sailing Directions in Continuous Revision

Most volumes of Admiralty Sailing Directions are kept up to date in a

Continuous Revision cycle. This means that once a new edition is
published it will be continuously revised by its Editor for a period of
approximately 3 years using information received in the UKHO, and
then republished. During the life of the book, it is updated as necessary
by notices published weekly at Section IV of Admiralty Notices to
Mariners. These updates will normally be restricted to those critical to
the safety of navigation and information required to be published as a
result of changes to national legislation affecting shipping, and to port
regulations.

It is recommended that updates issued in this way are cut out and
pasted into the parent book. Mariners may, however, prefer to keep
updates in a separate file, and annotate the text of the book in the
margin to indicate the existence of an update.

Action on receipt of a volume of Admiralty Sailing Directions

Or Miscellaneous Nautical Publication.

(1) Check that the most recent Edition of the volume is held.

(2) Check that the updates at Part 2 or Part 4 of this volume have been
applied.

(3) Check that all updates published at either Sections IV and VII of
Admiralty Notices to Mariners subsequent to the publication of this
volume have been applied, using the most recent quarterly check-list at
Section IV or VII of the Weekly Edition.

Where it is found that the most up to date information is not held, the
most recent editions of all Admiralty publications can be obtained from
Admiralty Distributors, and back copies of Admiralty Notices to
Mariners can also be downloaded from the UKHO website
This latter method may be more appropriate in some volumes where
significant numbers of updates, sometimes overlapping, may make the
cut-and-paste method unwieldy and confusing

NP No Title EditionPublished/ correct from Weekly

Edition Number

1 Africa Pilot Vol 1 16th (2012) 29/12

2 Africa Pilot Vol 2 17th (2013) 10/14

3 Africa Pilot Vol 3 16th(2013) 22/13

Typical correction to SD BA 27

England Brixham Harbour Directions; direction light 145

Paragraph 5.72 1

Replace by:

Main Fairway is approached from a position NW of Victoria

Breakwater head. It leads SSE through Outer Harbour and is marked
by numbered light buoys (lateral).

ADMIRALTY List of Lights and Fog Signals

This series of books provides extensive information on all lighthouses,

lightships, lit floating marks (over 8m in height), fog signals and other
lights of navigational significance.

Each publication also gives the characteristics of lights and fog signals,
together with the equivalent foreign language light descriptions. Tables
can be used to calculate the geographical and luminous ranges of lights.
Details for all lights listed include the international number, location
and/or name, geographical co-ordinates, characteristics and intensity,
elevation in metres, range in sea miles and description of structure.

Admiralty publish new editions of the ADMIRALTY List of Lights and

Fog Signals on a rolling cycle of revision. They also list important
changes to lights in the weekly ADMIRALTY Notices to Mariners.
ADMIRALTY List of Radio Signals

The ADMIRALTY List of Radio Signals series provides comprehensive

information on all aspects of Maritime Radio Communications. The
data is organised into six volumes, some divided into several parts for
ease of handling. Each of the six volumes is presented in a user-friendly
format with full colour photographs and diagrams.

The contents range from a complete listing of stations handling

Maritime Public Correspondence to a full range of products and
services essential for compliance with the GMDSS (Global Maritime
Distress and Safety System). The volumes also feature radio stations
broadcasting weather services and forecasts and a detailed explanation
of the complexities of Global Satellite Position Fixing Systems. ALRS
publications are presented in a user-friendly format and are updated
through Section VI of the weekly editions of ADMIRALTY Notices to
Mariners. New Editions are published annually containing all changes
to information held.

NP281 (Parts 1 & 2) - Maritime Radio Stations

NP282 - Radio Aids to Navigation, Satellite Navigation Systems,

Differential GPS (DGPS) Legal Time, Radio Time Signals and
Electronic Position Fixing Systems

NP 283 (Parts 1 & 2) - Maritime Safety Information Services

NP 284 - Meteorological Observation Stations

NP 285 - Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS)

NP 286 (Parts 1 - 8) - Pilot Services, Vessel Traffic Services and Port

Operations
ADMIRALTY Distance Tables (NP350 1-3)

A three part series of tables, sub-divided by region, giving the shortest

distances between ports. There are supporting diagrams and text as well
as link tables for places not in the same or adjacent table.
Catalogue of ADMIRALTY Charts and Publications (NP131)

A comprehensive reference in graphical and textual form of all

ADMIRALTY charts and publications worldwide, listed by region. The
catalogue gives full details for each chart and publication, including
details of all digital products and ADMIRALTY distributors worldwide.
Updated and published annually.
Paper Chart Maintenance Record (NP133A)

Record your ADMIRALTY chart updating details, weekly Notices to

Mariners and new charts and editions. Use the index to check Notices to
Mariners against all ADMIRALTY charts.
How to Keep Your ADMIRALTY Products Up-to-Date (NP294)

A comprehensive guide to updating all ADMIRALTY products.

IALA Maritime Buoyage System (NP735)

Describes the Cardinal and Lateral Buoyage system with diagrams and
written explanations of the five types of marks: lateral, cardinal,
isolated danger, safe water and special marks.
Ocean Passages for the World (NP136)

This classic volume on ocean voyage planning has routeing details for
powered and sailing vessels; individual chapters on each of the world's
oceans; advice on winds, weather, climate, seasonal factors, currents,
swell, ice hazards; and the shortest routes between ports and important
positions.
Symbols and Abbreviations Used on ADMIRALTY Charts, Chart
NP5011 (INT 1)

This convenient A4 book details ADMIRALTY and INT paper chart

symbols in full colour with information on hydrography; topography;
navigational aids and services; abbreviations of principal terms shown
on English and foreign charts; and general information on the content
of ADMIRALTY paper charts.
ADMIRALTY Guide to ENC Symbols used in ECDIS (NP5012)

A companion to NP5011, intended to be used both as a training aid and as a

reference during passage planning and navigation, this guide contains
comprehensive information relating to ENC symbols.

The publication provides graphics showing both the traditional and the simplified
forms of symbols, as well as descriptions of the use of the symbol that can be
understood by the intended users (international seafarers) with reference to the
chart 5011 / INT1 equivalent symbol where applicable.

ADMIRALTY Guide to the Practical Use of ENCs (NP231)

A comprehensive reference guide to assist ENC users gain a high level of

understanding of the practical use of ENCs

ADMIRALTY Guide to ECDIS Implementation, Policy and Procedures

(NP232)

NP232 offers clear guidance to support the implementation of ECDIS on board

and in operating procedures, helping fleets to adopt ECDIS efficiently and aid
compliance.

Produced by the UKHO in conjunction with other maritime professionals, this

guide aims to further enable the safe use of ECDIS for primary navigation and
give users the knowledge needed to operate confidently using ECDIS.

The publication offers:

Important information about ECDIS implementation, helping fleets to adopt

ECDIS efficiently

Guidance on ECDIS procedures, which can be used to assist crews and fleet
managers with ISM code compliance

Assistance with planning the transition to ECDIS, ensuring that implementation is

fit for purpose

This publication is the latest in a series of three to support the transition to

ECDIS, which include the ADMIRALTY Guide to ENC Symbols used in ECDIS
(NP5012) and the ADMIRALTY Guide to the Practical use of ENCs (NP231). Clear
and comprehensive, NP5012 and NP231 help bridge crews to gain a solid
understanding of practical ENC use and offer key information on ECDIS
procedures.

The Mariner's Handbook (NP100)

A compendium of essential maritime information on charts; operations and
regulations; tides, currents and characteristics of the sea; basic meteorology;
navigation in ice, hazards and restrictions to navigation; and the IALA Buoyage
system.

NP131 Catalogue of Admiralty Charts and Publications, Yearly Edition

A comprehensive reference in graphical and textual form of all

Admiralty Charts and Publications worldwide.
Listed by region for easy reference with a composite inde.
Full details of individual title, scale, coverage and UK recommended retail price
for each chart and publication.
Includes details of Admiralty distributors worldwide
Includes details of electronic charts - ARCS
 Essential work of reference for Admiralty Chart users
Updated and published annually

Guide to Port Entry:

Present on the bridge of the majority of commercial vessels, Guide to Port
Entry is quite simply the most accurate and comprehensive port information
resource available to the shipping industry. This extensive four-volume, hardback
guide is published biennially and provides port information sourced directly from
port authorities, agents and operators on over 9,800 ports and terminals
worldwide.

Make seamless port calls a reality. With over 70 standard headings available,
important port details are provided, including details of documentation required
by the port, berth dimensions and cargoes handled, plus any restrictions the port
might have. Over 20,000 port service providers, together with their contact
details, are also given for quick access to the facilities you need. Plus, when
using our port information guide in conjunction with navigational information,
you will have a clear understanding of the location of the facilities available by
using our port plans, of which over 4,800 are available.

Included within this edition is access to the latest port information updates via
unique port QR codes, which can be scanned using a smartphone or tablet. More
information about the QR system is available .
Nautical Almanac:
A book published annually by the governments of the principal maritime nations
which contains the astronomical data required for navigation by observations of
celestial objects; an abridged version is known as the abridged nautical almanac.

A nautical almanac is a publication describing the positions of a selection of

celestial bodies for the purpose of enabling navigators to use celestial navigation
to determine the position of their ship while at sea. The Almanac specifies for
each whole hour of the year the position on the Earth's surface (in declination
and Greenwich hour angle) at which the sun, moon, planets and first point of
Aries is directly overhead. The positions of 57 selected stars are specified relative
to the first point of Aries.

In Great Britain, The Nautical Almanac has been published annually by HM

Nautical Almanac Office, ever since the first edition was published in 1767. In the
United States of America, a nautical almanac has been published annually by the
US Naval Observatory since 1852. Since 1958, the USNO and HMNAO have jointly
published a unified nautical almanac, for use by the navies of both countries.

Also commercial almanacs were produced that combined other information. A

good example would be Brown's which commenced in 1877 - and is still
produced annually.
The International Code of Signals (ICS):
The International Code of Signals (ICS) is an international system of signals and
codes for use by vessels to communicate important messages regarding safety
of navigation and related matters. Signals can be sent by flaghoist, signal lamp
("blinker"), flag semaphore, radiotelegraphy, and radiotelephony. The
International Code is the most recent evolution of a wide variety of maritime flag
signalling systems.

"The purpose of the International Code of Signals is to provide ways and means
of communication in situations related essentially to safety of navigation and
persons, especially when language difficulties arise." It has done this by first
establishing a standardized alphabet (the letters A to Z, and the ten digits), along
with a spoken form of each letter (to avoiding confusing similar sounding letters,
such as 'b', 'p', and 'v'), and associating this alphabet with standardized flags.

Combinations of these alphanumeric characters are assigned as codes for

various standardized messages. For instance, the master of a ship may wish to
communicate with another ship, where his own radio may not be working, or the
other ship's call sign is not known, or the other ship may not be maintaining a
radio watch. One simply raises the Kilo flag or sends the Morse Code equivalent
(dash-dot-dash) by flashing light; this has the assigned message of "I wish to
communicate with you."

One of the elegant aspects of the ICS is that all of the standardized messages
come in nine languages (English, French, Italian, German, Japanese, Spanish,
Norwegian, and, since 1969, Russian and Greek). That the sender and receiver(s)
are using different languages is immaterial; each language has a book with
equivalent messages keyed to the same code. This is also useful in
radiotelephony, or even when ships are within hailing distance, if there is no
common language:

The code also covers procedural aspects (how to initiate a call, the format of a
message, how to format date and time, etc.), how naval ships (which usually use
their own codes) indicate they are using the ICS (by flying the code pennant), use
in radiotelephony (use of the spoken word "Interco"), and various other matters
(such as how an aircraft directs a vessel to another vessel in distress, and how to
order unidentified submarines to surface)
Ship routeing or managing the shipping traffic can be easily called the most important
aspect of entire maritime industry. Managing shipping traffic, especially in regions of
high traffic load or congested areas, ship routeing comes as even more important task.
The International Maritime Organization looks into maintaining all the shipping routes to
keep the traffic smooth and avoid accidents. All the governments adhering to guidelines
of this organization follow a standardized protocol. The key points of ship routeing as
mentioned by IMO are:

Ship routeing is done with prime motive of traffic management. Taking into
account activity over a particular shipping route, appropriate traffic lanes need to
be set to avoid accidents.

All the key elements for ship routeing are well defined. These elements include
traffic lanes, separation zones and roundabouts.

Traffic lanes are provided only for purpose of one way traffic. Such shipping
routes are found mainly in congested regions so as to avoid ships being stuck in
a spot.

Separating zones are given special importance as they help in maintaining

different traffic lanes simultaneously. They also help in keeping a tab on ships
moving in opposite directions

IMO defines recommended routes for vessels in a particular region or on a

particular voyage. These routes are the generally routes with undefined width
and are safest for travel. Deep water routes are monitored and defined
especially for underwater marine traffic. Such routes are surveyed for clearance
of sea bottom and are devoid of any submerged articles that could hinder the
vessels journey. Precautionary areas are especially defined by IMO as areas
where extra caution is advised. Locating and monitoring such areas becomes one
of the many key functions performed by various nations under IMOs guidelines.
Traffic volume and flow direction is carefully regulated at all times on such
maritime shipping routes. IMO also defines Areas to be avoided as the shipping
routes which are almost prohibited for ship navigation because of extreme
danger they pose. Such routes could be considered dangerous for a certain class
or all types of vessels. All these maritime shipping routes are further demarcated and
managed by participating governments. IMO and its guidelines were established as a
means of regulating ship traffic better.

Notices to Mariners
Keep informed about safety critical information.
Admiralty Notices to Mariners (NM) are British Crown
Copyright; UKHO
Admiralty Notices to Mariners (NMs)
Admiralty Charts and Publications should be
maintained so that they are fully up-to-date for the
latest safety-critical navigational information. The
Admiralty Notices to Mariners service provides all of
the data you need to maintain our products.
Admiralty NMs contain all the corrections, alterations
and amendments for the UKHO's worldwide series of
Admiralty Charts and Publications. They are published
weekly in several formats but best known as the
weekly booklets, which are despatched directly from
the UKHO.
The publication, NP294, How to Keep your
ADMIRALTY Products up-to-date, should be
consulted for practical guidance on applying Notices
to Mariners
CUMULATIVE LIST OF ADMIRALTY NOTICES TO
MARINERS
Example January 2014
This publication records the date of issue of the
current edition of each navigational chart and of
subsequent relevant Notices to Mariners issued since
Weekly Edition 1 of 2012 dated 5 January 2012.
This list reflects promulgated information up to
Notice to Mariners Weekly Edition 52 of 2013 dated
26 December 2013 (last notice number 5457/13).
Users should keep it updated from the information
given in Sections I and II of the subsequent Weekly
Editions unless NP 133a is in use.
The next list will be published in 6 months time
Chart numbers refer to navigational charts in the
Admiralty series, including adopted Australian, New
Zealand and Japanese charts (indicated by the
prefixes AUS, NZ and JP respectively).
The edition date quoted indicates the month and year
of publication of the current edition; that publication
may have been in the form of a new chart or a new
edition (the relevant date is given in the bottom
outside margin of the chart). A chart carrying an
earlier edition date than that quoted in this list is no
longer valid and should be replaced.
Newly published New Charts and New Editions are not
included in this list until publication is announced in
the Weekly Editions of Admiralty Notices to Mariners.
The Notices to Mariners quoted for each chart are
those which have been issued over the past 2 years.
Figures in bold indicate the week the notice was
issued.
Temporary and preliminary notices are not included.
If no notice has been issued during the past 2 years,
the most recent notice affecting the chart concerned
is quoted.
The annual summary of admiralty notices to mariners, also popularly known by its
publication number NP 247 (1) and (2), is a publication issued by admiralty (UKHO) on
yearly basis. The notices advice mariners on important matters related to ships
navigation, hydro graphic information, aids to navigation, and changes in shipping
channels.

The current edition of Notices to Mariners, superseding and cancelling the previous one,
is divided into two sections. This annual summary is of prime importance to mariners in
keeping navigational chart folio up to date for corrections pertaining to temporary and
preliminary notices for ships navigation and sailing directions. The annual summary
serves as a database with details of history of corrections for all the charts and sailing
directions published by the British Admiralty or UKHO.

The Annual Summary of Admiralty notices to mariners is divided into two parts:

1. NP 247(1)

2. NP 247(2)

What are the contents of NP 247(1)?

In this publication the contents are in two sections namely

Section 1 Annual Notices to
Mariners

Section 2 Temporary and Preliminary Notices

Starting with an index which consists of a note displaying that the current annual
summary replaces the previous one, which should be cancelled and destroyed, the first
section deals with annual notices for the current year for e.g. an edition of 2013 of
Annual summary would deal with notices applicable till the end of year 2012
comprehensively.

A detailed index of notices is provided regarding navigational importance with respect to

the British Isles, along with vital information about tide tables, suppliers of admiralty
charts and publications, safety of British ships in event of war crisis, voluntary reporting
schemes, firing practice areas, mine laying operations, protection of historic, dangerous
and military wreck sites etc.

The publication also includes an exhaustive list of traffic separation schemes and
information related to ship routeing system shown on admiralty charts. It contains port
state notifications issued under the EU Directives and some parts of ship navigation
related regulations issued by the United States. The annex provided with the notice
contains extracts from the US navigation safety rules.

The second important section of the navigation publication contains a numerical index of
temporary and preliminary notices which are in force since the end of the previous year.
The index is preceded by further detailed description of each notice mentioned in it, thus
enabling mariners to check any chart or any T & P correction applicable to the chart
right from its edition date. This information is significant for mariners to keep a track of
any previous notice that has been missed out, cancelled or not in force any further.
Mariners can thus always refer to the Annual Summary and keep their navigational chart
folios up to date.

Often during Oil Major Inspections observations, navigational charts are found marked
with Temporary and Preliminary notices which are no more in force or have been
cancelled or some notices are found missing. Thus while preparing for such inspections,
the ships navigating officer can always refer to Annual Summary of Notice to appraise
the status of corrections before planning passage in order to keep navigational charts up
to date.
4.7 Explain the principles and rules of the International Association of
Lighthouse Authorities (IALA), Maritime
Buoyage System, Systems A and B.
IALA Buoyage System
1.The severest test of buoyage system occurs
when the mariner is confronted unexpectedly at
night or in low visibility by the lights marking
an uncharted danger, such as a recent wreck;
immediately, he must decide which way to go.
2. The fact that the existing systems of
buoyage are not always sufficiently understood
was illustrated by a disaster in the Dover Strait
in 1971. Although marked under the existing
system, the wreckage of the Texaco Caribbean
was struck by the Brandenburg, which sank. A
few weeks later the wreckage, despite being
marked by a wreck-marking vessel and many
buoys, was struck by the Niki, which also sank.
On sighting a navigational mark, every
mariner's reaction should be instinctive,
positive and correct.
In 1976, there were more than 30 different
systems in use world-wide.
The International Technical Committee of the
International Association of Lighthouse
Authorities (IALA) examined the problems of
Uniform Maritime Buoyage System and
promulgated two sets of Rules namely Region
'A' the Combined Cardinal and Lateral System
(Red to Port) and Region 'B' Lateral System only
(Red to Starboard).
At the IALA conference convened at Tokyo in
1980, it was agreed to harmonise Systems 'A'
and 'B' into a single IALA Maritime Buoyage
System.
Subsequently an agreement on the IALA
Maritime Buoyage System came into force in
April, 1982 when 28 Maritime countries of
Region 'A', including India, have signed the
agreement.
The Rules for Region 'A' have been agreed to by
the International Maritime Organisation (IMO).
They are particularly suitable for use in Europe,
Africa, India, Australia and some Asian waters.
With-in both regions, use was made of the full
range of cardinal and other marks established
for Region 'A'.Some minor features, appropriate
in both regions, added to the existing system,
the most significant being the provision of a
modified lateral mark for indicating the
preferred route where a channel divides. These
changes and additions unlikely to give rise
significant alteration in the areas where IALA
Buoyage system had already been
implemented.
In the IALA System the regional (of the systems
A and B) principle of painting of the lateral
signs was maintained. The countries that
accepted the red colour for the left hand lateral
signs have been included in the region A. The
countries that use the green colour for the left
hand lateral signs were included in the region
B. In both the regions, the fairway direction is
the one leading from the sea (when a different
manner is used than an adequate notice is
provided). Following the division into the IALA
System regions, marine maps contain
respective notice, i.e. the "IALA System Region
A" or the "IALA System Region B".
The IALA System has five types of signs that are
used in various associations.
The signs have specific identification elements
that make them easily recognizable to the
sailors.
The lateral signs in the Regions A and B are
different, but the other four signs are common
for these both regions.
The lateral buoys and marks are placed
according to the direction accepted for marking
of the right and left side of the fairway.
In the Region A, during the day and night, the
green colour is used to mark the right side of
the fairway, and the red colour - to mark the
left side.
Description of Lateral Marks used in Region A.
Lateral marks are generally used for well-
defined channels; they indicate the port and
starboard hand sides of the route to be
followed, and are used in conjunction with a
conventional direction of buoyage.
This direction is defined in one of two ways:
1. Local direction of buoyage is the
direction taken by the mariner when
approaching a harbour, river estuary,
2. or other waterway from seaward.
2. General direction of buoyage is determined
by the buoyage authorities, following a
clockwise direction around continental
 land-masses, given in sailing directions, and, if
necessary, indicated on charts by a large open
arrow symbol.
In some places, particularly straits open at both
ends, the local direction of buoyage may be
overridden by the general direction.
Port Hand Marks
Colour :Red
Shape (Buoys) :Cylindrical (can) pillar or spar
Top-mark (if any) :Single red cylinder (can)
Light (when fitted)
Colour :Red
Rhythm :Any, other than that for Mid-channel
Starboard Hand Marks
Colour :Green
Shape (Buoys) :Conical, pillar or spar
Topmark (if any) :Single green cone, point
upward
Light (when fitted)
Colour :Green
Rhythm :Any, other than that for Mid channel
In the Region B the colours are reversed, ie the
red colour is used for the right side, and the
green colour - for the left side.
Description of Lateral Marks Used in Region B.
Port Hand Marks
Colour :Green
Shape (Buoys) :Cylindrical (can) pillar or spar
Topmark (if any) :Single green cylinder (can)
Light (when fitted)
Colour :Green
Rhythm :Any, other than that for mid-channel
mark
Starboard Hand Marks
Colour :Red
Shape (Buoys) :Conical, pillar or spar
Topmark (if any) :Single red cone, point upward
Light (when fitted)
Colour :Red
Rhythm :Any, other than that for mid-channel
mark
When the path is divided on a fairway, then the
direction of the main path is shown with a
modified lateral buoy in order to indicate the
direction of this main path.
Modified Lateral Buoys and Marks for the
Region A.
At the point where the channel divides, when
proceeding in the ''Conventional Direction of
Buoyage'', a preferred channel may be
indicated by a modified Port or Starboard
lateral mark as follows:
Preferred Channel to Starboard:
Colour :Red with one broad green horizontal
band
Shape (Buoys) :Cylindrical (can), pillar or spar
Topmark (if any) :Single red cylinder (can)
Light (when fitted)
Colour :Red
Rhythm :Composite group flashing (2+1)
Preferred Channel to Port:
Colour :Green with one broad red horizontal
band
Shape (Buoys) :Conical, pillar or spar
Topmark (if any) :Single green cone, point
upward
Light (when fitted)
Colour :Green
Rhythm : Composite group flashing (2+1)

Modified Lateral Buoys and Marks for the

Region B.
At the point where the channel divides, when
proceeding in the ''Conventional Direction of
Buoyage'',a preferred channel may be indicated
by a modified Port or Starboard lateral mark as
follows:
Preferred Channel to Starboard:
Colour :Green with one broad red horizontal
band
Shape (Buoys) :Cylindrical (can), pillar or spar
Top-mark (if any) :Single green cylinder (can)
Light (when fitted)
Colour :Green
Rhythm :Composite group flashing (2+1)
Preferred Channel to Port:
Colour :Red with one broad green horizontal
band
Shape (Buoys) :Conical, pillar or spar
Top-mark (if any) :Single red cone, point
upward
Light (when fitted)
Colour :Red
Rhythm : Composite group flashing (2+1)
General Rules for Lateral Marks.
(a) Shape: Where lateral marks do not rely
upon cylindrical (can) or
conical buoy shapes for identification they
should, where practicable,
carry the appropriate topmark.
(b) Numbering and Lettering: If marks at the
sides of a channel are numbered or lettered,
the numbering or lettering shall follow the
"conventional direction of buoyage".
Cardinal Buoys.
A cardinal mark may be used to:
1. Indicate that the deepest water in an
area is on the named side of the mark.
2. Indicate the safe side on which to pass a
danger.
3. Emphasize a feature in a channel, such as a
bend, junction, bifurcation, or end of a shoal.
Cardinal Buoys indicate that the deepest water
occurs at the
side of the mark's name. They are placed to the
north,
south, east or west from the hazard. The
cardinal buoys have
mainly the shape of columns or poles.
They are painted in horizontal, yellow and
black stripes, and
their top-marks (two cones) are painted black.
The arrangement of cones at the top is an
indication of the
black stripe (or stripes) position on the buoy.
cones with tops up: the black stripe is above
the yellow one,
cones with tops down: the black stripe is under
the yellow one,
cones with bases towards one another: the
black stripes
above and below the yellow one,
cones with tops towards one another: the black
stripe
with the yellow stripes above and below
North Cardinal Mark
Top-mark :2 black cones, one above the other,
points upward
Colour :Black above yellow
Shape :Pillar or spar
Light (when fitted)
Colour :White
Rhythm :VQ or Q

East Cardinal Mark

Top-mark :2 black cones, one above the other,
base to base
Colour :Black with a single broad horizontal
yellow band
Shape :Pillar or spar
Light (when fitted)
Colour :White
Rhythm :VQ(3) every 5s or or Q(3) every 10s
South Cardinal Mark
Top-mark :2 black cones, one above the other,
points downward
Colour :Yellow above Black
Shape :Pillar or spar
Light (when fitted)
Colour :White
Rhythm : VQ(6)+long flash every 10s or
Q(6)+long flash every 15s
West Cardinal Mark
Top-mark :2 black cones, one above the other,
point to point
Colour :Yellow with a single broad horizontal
black band
Shape :Pillar or spar
Light (when fitted)
Colour :White
Rhythm :VQ(9) every 10s or or Q(9) every 15s

Marks Indicating Isolated Dangers.

Marks indicating isolated dangers are placed
directly over minor obstacles around which the
water is navigable.
An isolated danger mark is erected on, or
moored on or above, an isolated danger of
limited extent which has navigable water all
around it.
The extent of the surrounding navigable water
is immaterial; such a mark can, for example,
indicate either a shoal which is well offshore or
an islet separated by a narrow channel from the
coast.
Position
On a chart, the position of a danger is the
centre of the symbol or sounding indicating
that danger; an isolated danger buoy may
therefore be slightly displaced from its
geographic position to avoid overprinting the
two symbols.
The smaller the scale, the greater this offset
will be.
At very large scales the symbol may be
correctly charted
The have shapes of columns, poles or other;
however, they are difficult to confuse with the
cardinal buoys.
They are black with horizontal red stripes. The
topmarks consists of two black spheres one
above the other.
The light is white - a group flash light Fl(2) with
two flashes in a group.
 Marks Indicating Safe Water.

They indicate that water is navigable around the mark and they do not show any
hazards. They can be used to mark, eg a fairway axis or as approach signs ,used as a
centre line, mid-channel, or landfall buoy.

The safe water marks appearance is completely different from any one of the buoys
that indicates the hazard. They may have a shape of a sphere, a column or a pole, with a
red sphere as a top-mark. These are the only marks painted in vertical stripes (red and
white).
When the light is installed, then its colour is white and its rhythm may be iso-phase,
occulting, long flash or the Morse Code letter "A".

Special Buoys and Marks. Special Buoys and Marks do not represent navigational
aids.

A special mark may be used to indicate a special area or feature which is apparent by
referring to a chart, sailing directions, or notices to mariners. Uses include:

1. Ocean Data Acquisition System (ODAS) buoys

2. Traffic separation marks

3. Spoil ground marks

4. Military exercise zone marks

5. Cable or pipeline marks, including outfall pipes

6. Recreation zone marks

Another function of a special mark is to define a channel within a channel. For example,
a channel for deep draft vessels in a wide estuary, where the limits of the channel for
normal navigation are marked by red and green lateral buoys, may have its boundaries
or centre line marked by yellow buoys of the appropriate lateral shape.

These special marks are painted yellow and have a top-mark in the shape

of a yellow lying cross (X).

The light (if installed) is also yellow. As in poor visibility it is possible to mistake the
yellow colour for the white, the yellow lights of the special marks cannot have the
rhythm adopted for marks with the white light.

The shape of the special marks cannot be confused with the shape of navigational
marks, i.e. if special marks have been used to mark,

eg the left side of the fairway, then they must have a cylindrical and not conical shape.

The special marks may have letters or numbers painted on them.

New Danger.

Attention is being drawn to the fact that a "new danger" that has not yet been
announced in nautical documents may be indicated with a duplicating mark being
identical (in all details) with the principal mark. The duplicating mark should stay until
the news about the new danger has been adequately announced. The "new danger"
mark should be equipped with a Racon sending out the letter "D" in the Morse Code

Emergency Wreck Marking Buoy.

The emergency wreck-marking buoy is designed to provide high visual and radio aid to
navigation recognition. It should be placed as close to the wreck as possible, or in a
pattern around the wreck, and within any other marks that may be subsequently
deployed.

The emergency wreck marking buoy should be maintained in position until:

(a) The wreck is well known and has been promulgated in nautical publications;
(b) The wreck has been fully surveyed and exact details such as position and least depth
above the wreck are known; and

(c) A permanent form of marking of the wreck has been carried out.

Characteristics. The buoy has the following characteristics:

(a) A pillar or spar buoy, with size dependant on location.

(b) Coloured in equal number and dimensions of blue and yellow vertical
stripes(minimum of 4 stripes and maximum of 8 stripes).

(c) Fitted with an alternating blue* and yellow flashing light with a nominal range of 4
nautical miles (authorities may wish to alter the range depending on local conditions)
where the blue and yellow 1 second flashes are alternated with an interval of 0.5
seconds.

B1.0s + 0.5s + Y1.0s + 0.5s = 3.0s

(d) If multiple buoys are deployed then the lights should be synchronized

(e) Consideration should be given to the use of a racon Morse Code D

and/or AIS transponder.

(f) The top mark, if fitted, is to be a standing/upright yellow cross.

A brief summary of the Maritime Buoyage System (Region 'A'),

including the symbols and abbreviation used for charting the buoys under the system, is
given in

NP 735 (IALA Buoyage System) and Indian Chart 5020 (Int 1) .

Fixed light
A fixed light, abbreviated "F", is a continuous and
steady light.
Flashing light
A flashing light is a rhythmic light in which the total
duration of the light in each period is clearly shorter
than the total duration of the darkness and in which
the flashes of light are all of equal duration. It is most
commonly used for a single-flashing light which
exhibits only single flashes which are repeated at
regular intervals, in which case it is abbreviated
simply as "Fl". It can also be used with a group of
flashes which are regularly repeated, in which case
the abbreviation is "Fl.(2)" or "Gr Fl.(2)", for a group
of two flashes. Another possibility is a composite
group, in which successive groups in the period have
different numbers of flashes, e.g. "Fl. (2+1)" indicates
a group of two flashes, followed by one flash.
A specific case sometimes used is when the flashes
are longer than two seconds. Such a light is
sometimes denoted "long flashing" with the
abbreviation "L.Fl".If the frequency of flashes is large
(more than 30 or 50 per minute) the light is denoted
as a "quick light", see below.
While light characteristics can be described in prose,
e.g. "Flashing white every three seconds", lists of
lights and navigation chart annotations use
abbreviations. The abbreviation notation is slightly
different from one light list to another, with dots
added or removed, but it usually follows a pattern
similar to the following .
An abbreviation of the type of light, e.g. "Fl." for
flashing, "F." for fixed. The colour of the light, e.g.
"W" for white, "G" for green, "R" for red, "Y" for
yellow. If no colour is given, a white light is generally
implied. The cycle period, e.g. "10s" for ten seconds.
Additional parameters are sometimes added : The
height of the light above the chart datum for height
(usually based on high water). e.g. 15m for 15
metres.The range in which the light is visible, e.g.
"10M" for 10 nautical miles.
An example of a complete light characteristic is "Gp
Oc(3) W 10s 15m 10M". This indicates that the light is
a group occulting light in which a group of three
eclipses repeat every 10 seconds; the light is white;
the light is 15 metres above the chart datum and is
visible for 10 nautical miles (19 km).
Occulting light
An occulting light is a rhythmic light in which the
total duration of light in each period is clearly longer
than the total duration of darkness and in which the
intervals of darkness (occultations) are all of equal
duration. Like a flashing light, it can be used for a
single occulting light that exhibits only single
occultations which are repeated at regular intervals
(abbreviated "Oc"), a group (Oc (3)) or a composite
group (Oc (2+1)).
Isophase light
An isophase light, abbreviated "Iso", is a light which
has dark and light periods of equal length. The prefix
derives from the Greek iso- meaning "same".

Quick light
A quick light, abbreviated "Q", is a special case of a
flashing light with a large frequency (more than 30 or
50per minute). If the sequence of flashes is
interrupted by regularly repeated eclipses of constant
and long duration, the light is denoted "interrupted
quick", abbreviated "I.Q".
Group notation similar to flashing and occulting lights
is also sometimes[1] used (e.g. Q.(9)).
Another distinction sometimes[1] made is between
quick (more than 50 and less than 80 flashes per
minute), very quick (more than 80 and less than 160
flashes per minutes, abbreviated "V.Q") and ultra
quick (no less than 160 flashes per minute,
abbreviate "U.Q"). This can be combined with
notations for interruptions, e.g. I.U.Q. for interrupted
ultra quick, or grouping, e.g. V.Q.(9) for a very quick
group of nine flashes. Quick characteristics can also
be followed by other characteristics, e.g. V.Q.(6)+L.Fl.
for a very quick group of six flashes, followed by a
long flash.
Morse code
A Morse code light is light in which appearances of
light of two clearly different durations (dots and
dashes) are grouped to represent a character or
characters in the Morse Code. For example, "Mo. (A)"
is a light in which in each period light is shown for a
short period (dot) followed by a long period (dash),
the Morse Code for "A".
Fixed and flashing
A fixed and flashing light, abbreviated "F. Fl", is a
light in which a fixed low intensity light is combined
with a flashing high intensity light.
Alternating
An alternating light, abbreviate "Al", is a light which
shows alternating colors. For example "Al WGB" show
white, green and blue lights alternatively.
Geographic range
The distance at which a certain light, as that of a
lighthouse, is visible to the eye at a given elevation,
assuming that the weather is clear and that the light
is sufficiently powerful to be visible from any point at
which it appears above the horizon.
Luminous range
The distance at which a certain light, as that of a
lighthouse, is visible in clear weather, disregarding
interference from obstructions and from the
curvature of the earth and depending on the power of
the light.

4.9 Calculate the distances of sighting lights and

dipping distances.
A light is said to be raised when the light is first
sighted on the bridge of the ship. Similarly a light is
dipped when the light is seen for the last time before
it dips below the horizon .Hence dipping or rising
distance will be the maximum range of that particular
light.
The geographical range of the light depends upon the
height of the lighthouse above the sea level and also
upon the height of the observer. The distance of
visible horizon due to the height of light is fixed
,while the observers distance of visible horizon
changes because the height of eye is not constant.(It
depends upon the draft of ship).

The distance of the visible horizon will depend on the

height of the observers eye and also the height of
the object.
It may be calculated as follows:
a)If height of object and height of eye is given in feet
then
Dist (d) of horizon = 1.15 H + 1.15 h
Where d is distance in miles ,H is height of object
(eg light) and
h is height of eye ,in feet
b)If height is in metres the
Dist (d) of horizon = 2.08 H + 2.08 h
Where d is distance in miles ,H is height of object
(eg light) and
h is height of eye ,in metres
The two ranges of visible horizons ie for the height of
object and that of the observer are calculated
separately and when added together will give the
geographical range of a light.
It must be emphasized here that Rising and Dipping
ranges calculated in the manner shown are called
Geographical Ranges and these are theoretical ranges
only .A light will be seen at the Rising and
Dipping range only if luminosity of the light is
sufficient for the range calculated.
The list of lights now show Nominal/Luminous ranges
of lights . Admiralty charts show the Nominal ranges
of the lights which depends on the candle power of
the light.
Ex A shore light ,height 144 feet ,is observed to
dip ,ht of eye 36 ft.Calculate the dist of light from the
observer.
Distance of visible horizon of light = 1.15144
= 1.15x 12
=13.8 Miles
Distance of visible horizon of the observer=1.15 x 36
 =
1.15x 6 = 6.9 Miles
Geographical range of light = 13.8 + 6.9 = 20.7 Miles
Dist of visible sea horizon for various heights are
available in Nautical Tables.
Note:
Older BA charts (printed before 1972)have
geographical range printed on them. The
geographical range shown on chart is calculated for
height of eye 15 feet (4.57metres).The light then will
be visible at range of light shown on chart ,provided
it is a dark night with clear atmosphere ,under
normal conditions of refractions.
Eg If Range of light is 20 miles as per chart then light
will be raised or dipped at 20 miles ,provided the
observers height of eye is 4.57 metres (15 feet)
Exercise
The Range of light given on a chart is 17 miles ,and
height 36.58metres(120 feet). Find raising distance of
this light ,if the observers height of eye is 11 metres
(36 feet)
Solution
Range of the light (from chart ) = 17
miles
Sea horizon for 15 feet (4.57m) 1.1515 =
4.45 miles
Range of light at sea level =
12.55 miles
Sea horizon for 11 metres (36 ft) 1.1536 =
6.90 miles
Raising Distance of the light =
19.45 miles
Second method
Range for height of light 36.58m(120 feet) =
12.5 miles
Sea horizon for 11 metres (36 feet) 1.1536 =
6.90 miles
Raising distance of light =
19.5 miles
(subject to light having sufficient luminosity)
Notes :
1.Since height of lighthouse is given on chart ,sea
horizon for same is obtained direct from tables
and then visible sea horizon for height of eye is
allowed.
2.When calculating raising or dipping distance of
light ,whose visibility is taken from chart the
given range to be reduced to sea level by
subtracting range of visible horizon for height of
eye 15 feet (4.57metres)ie 4.45 miles and then
add the distance of visible horizon for height of
eye of the observer.
Exercise:
1.Find dipping distance of light Gp Fl (2) 17M if height
of eye is 12 metres(39.5 feet)
Answer : Dipping distance = 19.9 miles
2.Find raising distance of light Fl 27 M if ht of eye is
10 metres (33 feet)
Answer : Raising distance = 29.2 miles
LUMINOUS RANGE
Geographical range of light is maximum distance at
which a light can be seen at a given time , determined
by elevation of light and height of eye of observer ,as
affected by the earths curvature .But luminosity of
light and meteorological visibility prevailing at that
time are other important factors which also affect the
range at which light will be sighted .However these
factors are ignored when calculating geographical
range of a light. Thus the geographical range of a
light is not accurate.
Luminous range of a light is the range of the light
determined by the luminosity (Candle power) of the
light and the meteorological visibility prevailing at
that time .Elevation of light and height of eye is
ignored.
Nominal Range of the light is given in admiralty
charts now a days but charts printed before 1972
have Geographical range printed.
Nominal Range of a light is luminous range when the
meteorological
Visibility is 10 miles.List of countries following
Nominal range is given in the Admiralty list of lights.
4.10 Explain the danger of approaching navigational aids
too closely.

Passing at safe distance from a buoy

Buoys are floating aids to navigation. They mark

channels, indicate shoals and obstructions, and warn
the mariner of dangers. Buoys are used where fixed aids
would be uneconomical or impractical due to the depth
of water. By their colour, shape, top-mark, number, and
light characteristics, buoys indicate to the mariner how
to avoid hazards and stay in safe water.
There are many different sizes and types of buoys
designed to meet a wide range of environmental
conditions and user requirements. The size of a buoy is
determined primarily by its location. In general, the
smallest buoy which will stand up to local weather and
current conditions is chosen.
Even in clear weather, the danger of collision with a
buoy exists. If struck head-on, a large buoy can inflict
severe damage to a large ship; it can sink a smaller one.
Reduced visibility or heavy background lighting can
contribute to the problem of visibility.
The placement of a buoy depends on its purpose and its
position on the chart. Most buoys are placed on their
charted positions as accurately as conditions allow.
However, if a buoys purpose is to mark a shoal and the
shoal is found to be in a different position than the chart
shows, the buoy will be placed to properly mark the
shoal, and not on its charted position .
Buoys require moorings to hold them in position.
Typically the mooring consists of chain and a large
concrete or cast iron sinker. Because buoys are
subjected to waves, wind, and tides, the moorings must
be deployed with chain lengths much greater than the
water depth.
The scope of chain will normally be about 3 times the
water depth. The length of the mooring chain defines a
watch circle within which the buoy can be expected to
swing. It is for this reason that the charted buoy symbol
has a position approximate circle to indicate its
charted position, whereas a light position is shown by a
dot at the exact location. Actual watch circles do not
necessarily coincide with the position approximate
circles which represent them.
A wreck buoy usually cannot be placed directly over the
wreck it is intended to mark because the buoy tender
may not want to pass over a shallow wreck or risk
fouling the buoy mooring.
For this reason, a wreck buoy is usually placed as closely
as possible on the seaward or channel ward side of a
wreck.
In some situations, two buoys may be used to mark the
wreck, one lying off each end. The Local Notice to
Mariners should be consulted concerning details of the
placement of wreck buoys on individual wrecks. Often it
will also give particulars of the wreck and what activities
may be in progress to clear it.
The charted position of a wreck buoy will usually be
offset from the actual geographic position so that the
wreck and buoy symbols do not coincide. Only on the
largest scale chart will the actual and charted positions
of both wreck and buoy be the same. Where they might
overlap, it is the wreck symbol which occupies the exact
charted position and the buoy symbol which is offset.
Sunken wrecks are sometimes moved away from their
buoys by storms, currents, freshets, or other causes.
Just as shoals may shift away from the buoys placed to
mark them, wrecks may shift away from wreck buoys.
Fallibility of Buoys
Buoys cannot be relied on to maintain their charted
positions consistently. They are subject to a variety of
hazards including severe weather, collision, mooring
casualties, and electrical failure.
Mariners should report discrepancies to the authority
responsible for maintaining the aid.
The buoy symbol shown on charts indicates the
approximate position of the sinker which secures the
buoy to the seabed.
The approximate position is used because of practical
limitations in keeping buoys in precise geographical
locations. These limitations include prevailing
atmospheric and sea conditions, the slope and type of
material making up the seabed, the scope of the
mooring chain, and the fact that the positions of the
buoys and the sinkers are not under continuous
surveillance. The position of the buoy shifts around the
area shown by the chart symbol due to the forces of
wind and current. A buoy may not be in its charted
position because of changes in the feature it marks. For
example, a buoy meant to mark a shoal whose
boundaries are shifting might frequently be moved to
mark the shoal accurately.ALocal Notice to Mariners will
report the change, and a Notice to Mariners chart
correction may also be written.
In some small channels which change often, buoys are
not
charted even when considered permanent; local
knowledge is advised in such areas. For these reasons, a
mariner must not rely completely upon the position or
operation of buoys, but should navigate using bearings
of charted features, structures, and aids to navigation
on shore.
Further, a vessel attempting to pass too close aboard a
buoy risks a collision with the buoy or the obstruction it
marks.
4.11 Explain the use of clearing bearings and ranges:

CLEARING BEARINGS:
Clearing bearings, also known as danger bearings,
are an excellent method during coastal navigation to
monitor the vessels position against dangers.
It is very simple and provides the navigator with a
quick visual reference of the ships position in relation to
shoals, isolated dangers or wrecks for instance.
Clearing bearings are determined and prepared whilst
planning your voyage.

Step1
In figure 1, the voyage plan has a planned course of 000T
with a intended SOA (Speed of Advance) of 15 knots.
To port of the track line are several dangers close to the land,
and a light on a peninsular.

Step2

A line, with the dangers on the port side, and shallow water
on the
starboard side, is drawn towards the light.
The bearing shown is 325, and it is marked NMT which
means
Not More Than. This is the clearing bearing.

Step3

If the bearing of the light at any point becomes greater than

325,
it is clearly apparent that you are standing into danger. An
example is shown in figure 3, where if the bearing becomes
355 you are already outside the clearing bearing and placing
the vessel at risk.
Step4

In another example, if the danger was on the starboard side,

the clearing bearing would be marked NLT, which means
Not Less Than.
If the bearing of the light becomes less than 045 you would
be standing into danger. In the figure 4 the bearing is 010,
with that bearing you would be outside the clearing line and
the vessel would be at risk.
Execution and Monitoring
As you are proceeding along the track line,
regularly check the bearing of the light
to confirm your location in relation to the clearing bearing.
4.13 Find ranges using luminous range diagram:
Luminous Range Diagram
This diagram enables the mariner to determine the
range at which a light may be First sighted or Last
sighted at night ,in the meteorological visibility
prevailing at time of observation.
The diagram is entered from the top border,using
nominal range given on the chart or in Admiralty List
of lights .The figures along the curves represent the
estimated meteorological visibility at time of
observation and those along the left hand border
give the luminous range under those conditions.
Note:
1.The light is said to be Raised or Dipped when
Geographical range of light is used and the words
first sighted or last sighted is used when
luminous range is used.
2.In the day time,the light will be first sighted or
last sighted at the meteorological visibility
prevailing at that time.Therefore Luminous
Range diagram must not be used in the day time.
Caution : when using Luminous /Geographical Range
of lights for fixing Ships position
1.The Ranges obtained are approximate.
2.Transparency of atmosphere is not necessarily
consistent between the observer and the light.
3.Glare from background lights will considerably
reduce the range at which lights will be sighted.
4. Distance of an observer from a light cannot be
estimated from its apparent brightness.
5. Distance at which lights are sighted varies greatly
with atmospheric conditions and this distance may be
increased by abnormal atmospheric conditions and
this distance may be increased by abnormal
atmospheric refraction.
6.When ice conditions are prevalent ,the windows of
the lights may be covered with frost or ice ,which will
greatly reduce the sighting range.
7.Lights placed at a great elevation are frequently
obscured by cloud than those near the sea level.
4.14 Recognize coastlines, coast and radar-responsive targets:

RADAR INTERPRETATION
In its position finding or navigational application,
radar may serve the navigator as a very valuable tool
if its characteristics and limitations are understood.
While determining position through observation of
the range and bearing of a charted, isolated, and well
defined object having good reflecting properties is
relatively simple, this task still requires that the
navigator have an understanding of the
characteristics and limitations of his radar. The more
general task of using radar in observing a shoreline
where the radar targets are not so obvious or well
defined requires considerable expertise which may be
gained only through an adequate understanding of
the characteristics and limitations of the radar being
used. An associated problem is the fact that certain
features on the shore will not return echoes, even if
they have good reflecting properties, simply because
they are blocked from the radar beam by other
physical features or obstructions. This factor in turn
causes the chart-like image painted on the scope to
differ from the chart of the area.
If the navigator is to be able to interpret the chart-
like presentation on his radarscope, he must have at
least an elementary understanding of the
characteristics of radar propagation, the
characteristics of his radar set, the reflecting
properties of different types of radar targets, and the
ability to analyze his chart to make an estimate of
just which charted features are most likely to reflect
the transmitted pulses or to be blocked from the
radar beam.
LAND TARGETS
On relative and true motion displays, landmasses are
readily recognizable because of the generally steady
brilliance of the relatively large areas painted on the
PPI. Also land should be at positions expected from
knowledge of the ships navigational position. On
relative motion displays, landmasses move in
directions and at rates opposite and equal to the
actual motion of the observers ship. Individual pips
do not move relative to one another. On true motion
displays, landmasses do not move on the PPI if there
is accurate compensation for set and drift. Without
such compensation, i.e., when the true motion display
is sea-stabilized, only slight movements of
landmasses may be detected on the PPI While
landmasses are readily recognizable, the primary
problem is the identification of specific features so
that such features can be used for fixing the position
of the observers ship
The following hints may be used as an aid in
identification:
 (a) Sand spits and smooth, clear beaches
normally do not appear on the PPI at ranges
beyond 1 or 2 miles because these targets have
almost no area that can reflect energy back to the
radar. Ranges determined from these targets are
not reliable

(b) Mud flats and marshes normally reflect radar

pulses
only a little better than a sandspit. The weak echoes
received
at low tide disappear at high tide. Mangroves and
other thick
growth may produce a strong echo. Areas that are
indicated
as swamps on a chart, therefore, may return either
strong or
weak echoes, depending on the density and size of
the
vegetation growing in the area.
(c) When sand dunes are covered with vegetation and
are well
back from a low, smooth beach, the apparent
shoreline
determined by radar appears as the line of the dunes
rather than
the true shoreline. Under some conditions, sand
dunes may
return strong echo signals because the combination
of the
vertical surface of the vegetation and the horizontal
beach may
form a sort of corner reflector.
(d) Lagoons and inland lakes usually appear as blank
areas on a PPI because the smooth water surface
returns no energy to the radar antenna. In some
instances, the sandbar or reef surrounding the lagoon
may not appear on the PPI because it lies too low in
the water.
(e) Coral atolls and long chains of islands may
produce long lines of echoes when the radar beam is
directed perpendicular to the line of the islands. This
indication is especially true when the islands are
closely spaced. The reason is that the spreading
resulting from the width of the radar beam causes the
echoes to blend into continuous lines. When the chain
of islands is viewed lengthwise, or obliquely, however,
each island may produce a separate pip. Surf
breaking on a reef around an atoll produces a ragged,
variable line of echoes.
(f) Submerged objects do not produce radar echoes.
One or two rocks projecting above the surface of the
water, or waves breaking over a reef, may appear on
the PPI. When an object is submerged entirely and
the sea is smooth over it, no indication is seen on the
PPI.
(g) If the land rises in a gradual, regular manner from
the shoreline, no part of the terrain produces an echo
that is stronger than the echo from any other part. As
a result, a general haze of echoes appears on the PPI,
and it is difficult to ascertain the range to any
particular part of the land.
(i) Low islands ordinarily produce small echoes.
When thick palm trees or other foliage grow on
the island, strong echoes often are produced
because the horizontal surface of the water
around the island forms a sort of corner reflector
with the vertical surfaces of the trees. As a result,
wooded islands give good echoes and can be
detected at a much greater range than barren
islands.
RADAR SHADOW
While PPI displays are approximately chart-like
when landmasses are being scanned by the radar
beam, there may be
sizable areas missing from the display because of
certain features being blocked from the radar
beam by other features. A shoreline which is
continuous on the PPI display when the ship is at
one position may not be continuous when the ship
is at another position and scanning the same
shoreline.The radar beam may be blocked from a
segment of this shoreline by an obstruction such
as a promontory

An indentation in the shoreline, such as a cove or

bay,
appearing on the PPI when the ship is at one
position may not
appear when the ship is at another position
nearby. Thus, radar
shadow alone can cause considerable differences
between the
PPI display and the chart presentation. This effect
in
conjunction with the beam width and pulse length
distortion
of the PPI display can cause even greater
differences.
BEAM WIDTH AND PULSE LENGTH DISTORTION
The pips of ships, rocks, and other targets close
to shore may merge with the shoreline image on
the PPI. This merging is due to the distortion
effects of horizontal beam width and pulse length.
Target images on the PPI always are distorted
angularly by an amount equal to the effective
horizontal beam width. Also, the target images
always are distorted radially by an amount at
least equal to one-half the pulse length .The
navigator must be able to recognize various
abnormal echoes and effects on the radarscope so
as not to be confused by their presence.
Indirect (False) Echoes
Indirect or false echoes are caused by reflection
of the main lobe of the radar beam off ships
structures such as stacks and kingposts. When
such reflection does occur, the echo will return
from a legitimate radar contact to the antenna by
the same indirect path. Consequently, the echo
will appear on the PPI at the bearing of the
reflecting surface. This indirect echo will appear
on the PPI at the same range as the direct echo
received, assuming that the additional distance
by the indirect path is negligible. Characteristics
by which indirect echoes may be recognized are
summarized as follows:
(1) The indirect echoes will usually occur in
shadow sectors.
(2) They are received on substantially constant
bearings although the true bearing of the radar
contact may change
 appreciably.
(3) They appear at the same ranges as the
corresponding direct
echoes.
(4) When plotted, their movements are usually
abnormal.
(5) Their shapes may indicate that they are not
direct echoes.

Side-lobe Effects
Side-lobe effects are readily recognized in that they
produce a
series of echoes on each side of the main lobe echo at
the same
 range as the latter. Semi-circles or even complete
circles may
be produced. Because of the low energy of the side-
lobes,
these effects will normally occur only at the shorter
ranges.
The effects may be minimized or eliminated through
use of the
gain and anticlutter controls. Slotted wave guide
antennas have
largely eliminated the side-lobe problem .

Multiple Echoes
Multiple echoes may occur when a strong echo is
received from another ship at close range. A second
or third or more echoes may be observed on the
radarscope at double, triple, or other multiples of the
actual range of the radar contact.
Blind and Shadow Sectors
Stacks, masts, samson posts, and other structures
may cause a reduction in the intensity of the radar
beam beyond these obstructions, especially if they
are close to the radar antenna.
If the angle at the antenna subtended by the
obstruction is more than a few degrees, the reduction
of the intensity of the radar beam beyond the
obstruction may be such that a blind sector is
produced. With lesser reduction in the intensity of the
beam beyond the obstructions, shadow sectors, as
illustrated in figure 4.11, can be produced. Within
these shadow sectors, small targets at close range
may not be detected while larger targets at much
greater ranges may be detected .
Spoking
Spoking appears on the PPI as a number of spokes or
radial lines. Spoking is easily distinguished from
interference effects because the lines are straight on
all range-scale settings and are lines rather than a
series of dots. The spokes may appear all around the
PPI, or they may be confined to a sector.
The appearance of spoking is indicative of need for
equipment maintenance.
Sectoring
The PPI display may appear as alternately normal and
dark
sectors. This phenomenon is usually due to the
automatic
frequency control being out of adjustment.
Serrated Range Rings
The appearance of serrated range rings is indicative
of need for
equipment maintenance.
PPI Display Distortion
After the radar set has been turned on, the display
may not spread immediately to the whole of the PPI
because of static electricity inside the CRT. Usually,
this static electricity effect, which produces a
distorted PPI display, lasts no longer than a few
minutes.
Overhead Cable Effect
The echo from an overhead power cable appears on
the PPI as a single echo always at right angles to the
line of the cable. If this phenomenon is not
recognized, the echo can be wrongly identified as the
echo from a ship on a steady bearing. Avoiding action
results in the echo remaining on a constant bearing
and moving to the same side of the channel as the
ship altering course. This phenomenon is particularly
apparent for the power cable spanning the Straits of
Messina.

4.17 Recognize traffic lanes and separation zones.

Traffic separation schemes
 (a) This rule applies to traffic separation schemes
adopted by the Organization and does not relieve any
vessel of her obligation under any other rule.
(b) A vessel using a traffic separation scheme shall:
(i) proceed in the appropriate traffic lane in the general
direction of traffic flow for that lane;
(ii) so far as practicable keep clear of a traffic separation
line or
separation zone;
(iii) normally join or leave a traffic lane at the termination
of the lane, but when joining or leaving from either side
shall do so at as small an angle to the general direction of
traffic flow as practicable.
(c) A vessel shall, so far as practicable, avoid crossing
traffic lanes but if obliged to do so shall cross on a heading
as nearly as practicable at right angles to the general
direction of traffic flow.
(d) A vessel shall not use an inshore traffic zone when she
can safely use the appropriate traffic lane within the
adjacent traffic separation scheme. However, vessels of less
than 20 metres in length, sailing vessels and vessels
engaged in fishing may use the inshore traffic zone.
(ii) Notwithstanding subparagraph (d)(i), a vessel may use
an inshore traffic zone when en route to or from a port,
offshore installation or structure, pilot station or any other
place situated within the inshore traffic zone, or to avoid
immediate danger.
(e) A vessel other than a crossing vessel or a vessel joining
or leaving a lane shall not normally enter a separation zone
or cross a separation line except:
(i) in cases of emergency to avoid immediate danger;
(ii) to engage in fishing within a separation zone.
(f) A vessel navigating in areas near the terminations of
traffic separation schemes shall do so with particular
caution.
(g) A vessel shall so far as practicable avoid anchoring in a
traffic
separation scheme or in areas near its terminations.
(h) A vessel not using a traffic separation scheme shall avoid
it by as wide a margin as is practicable.
(i) A vessel engaged in fishing shall not impede the
passage of any vessel following a traffic lane.
(j) A vessel of less than 20 metres in length or a sailing
vessel shall not impede the safe passage of a power-driven
vessel following a traffic lane.
(k) A vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre when
engaged in an operation for the main-tenance of safety of
navigation in a traffic separation scheme is exempted from
complying with this rule to the extent necessary to carry out
the operation.
(l) A vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre when
engaged in an operation for the laying, servicing or picking
up of a submarine cable,within a traffic separation scheme,
is exempted from complying with this rule to the extent
necessary to carry out the operation.

4.18 Carry out simple passage planning and execution:

Appraisal, Planning, Execution and Monitoring.

The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has adopted

Assembly Resolution A.893 (21).

ANNEX TO IMO RESOLUTION A.893 (21) GUIDELINES FOR
VOYAGE

PLANNING

Objectives

The development of a plan for voyage or passage, as well as the

close

and continuous monitoring of the vessels progress and position

during

the execution of such a plan, are of essential importance for safety of

life at sea, safety and efficiency of navigation and protection of the

marine environment.

The need for voyage and passage planning applies to all vessels.

There are several factors that may impede the safe navigation of all

vessels and additional factors that may impede the navigation of

large

vessels or vessels carrying hazardous cargoes. These factors will

need to

be taken into account in the preparation of the plan and in the

subsequent monitoring of the execution of the plan.

Voyage and passage planning includes

appraisal,

i.e. gathering all information relevant to the contemplated voyage or

passage; detailed planning of the whole voyage or passage from
berth to berth, including those areas necessitating the presence of a
pilot; execution of the plan; and the monitoring of the progress of the
vessel in the implementation of the plan. These components of
voyage/passage planning are analysed below.

Appraisal

All information relevant to the contemplated voyage or passage

should be considered.

The following items should be taken into account in voyage and

passage planning:
 the condition and state of the vessel, its stability,

and its equipment; any operational limitations; its permissible

draught at sea in fairways and in ports; its manoeuvring data,
including any restrictions;

any special characteristics of the cargo (especially if

hazardous),and its distribution, stowage and securing on board
the vessel;

the provision of a competent and well-rested crew to undertake

the voyage or passage

requirements for up-to-date certificates and documents

concerning the vessel, its equipment, crew, passengers or
cargo;

appropriate scale, accurate and up-to-date charts to be used for

the intended voyage or passage, as well as any relevant

permanent or temporary notices to mariners and existing radio

navigational warnings;

accurate and up-to-date sailing directions, lists of lights and lists

of radio aids to navigation; and any relevant up-to-date
additional information, including:

1. mariners routeing guides and passage planning charts,

published by competent authorities;

2. current and tidal atlases and tide tables;

3. climatological, hydrographical, and oceanographic data as

well as other appropriate meteorological information;

4. availability of services for weather routeing ;

5.existing ships routeing and reporting systems, vessel traffic

services, and marine environmental protection measures;

6.volume of traffic likely to be encountered throughout the

voyage or passage;

7.if a pilot is to be used, information relating to pilotage and

embarkation and disembarkation including the exchange of

information between master and pilot;

 8.available port information, including information pertaining to
the availability of shore-based emergency response
arrangements and equipment; and

9.any additional items pertinent to the type of the vessel or its

cargo, the particular areas the vessel will traverse, and the type
of voyage or passage to be undertaken

On the basis of the above information, an overall appraisal of

the intended voyage or passage should be made. This appraisal
should provide a clear indication of all areas of danger; those
areas where it will be possible to navigate safely, including any
existing routeing or reporting systems and vessel traffic
services; and any areas where marine environmental protection
considerations apply.

Planning

On the basis of the fullest possible appraisal, a detailed voyage

or passage plan should be prepared which should cover the
entire voyage or passage from berth to berth, including those
areas where the services of a pilot will be used.

The detailed voyage or passage plan should include the

following factors:

1. the plotting of the intended route or track of the voyage or

passage on appropriate scale charts: the true direction of the
planned route or track should be indicated, as well as all areas
of danger, existing ships routeing and reporting systems,
vessel traffic services,and any areas where marine
environmental protection considerations apply;

2. the main elements to ensure safety of life at sea, safety and

efficiency of navigation, and protection of the marine
environment during the intended voyage or passage; such
elements should include, but not be limited to:

safe speed, having regard to the proximity of navigational

hazards
along the intended route or track, the maneuvering
characteristics of the vessel and its draught in relation to the
available water depth;

necessary speed alterations en route, e.g., where there may be

 limitations because of night passage, tidal restrictions, or
allowance for the increase of draught due to squat and heel
effect when turning;

minimum clearance required under the keel in critical areas with

restricted water depth;

positions where a change in machinery status is required;

course alteration points, taking into account the vessels turning
circle at the planned speed and any expected effect of tidal
streams and currents;

the method and frequency of position fixing, including primary

and secondary options, and the indication of areas where
accuracy of position fixing is critical and where maximum
reliability must be obtained;
use of ships routeing and reporting systems and vessel traffic
services;
considerations relating to the protection of the marine
environment; andcontingency plans for alternative action to
place the vessel in deep water or proceed to a port of refuge or
safe anchorage in the event of any emergency necessitating
abandonment of the plan, taking into account existing shore-
based emergency response arrangements and equipment and
the nature of the cargo and of the emergency itself
The details of the voyage or passage plan should be clearly
marked and recorded, as appropriate, on charts and in a voyage
plan notebook or computer disk.

The ships master prior to the commencement of the voyage or

passage

should approve each voyage or passage plan as well as the

details of the

plan.

Execution

Having finalized the voyage or passage plan, as soon as time of

departure and estimated time of arrival can be determined with

reasonable accuracy, the voyage or passage should be executed

in accordance with the plan or any changes made thereto.

Factors which should be taken into account when executing the plan,

or deciding on any departure there from include:

1. the reliability and condition of the vessels navigational

equipment;

2. estimated times of arrival at critical points for tide heights and

flow;

3. meteorological conditions, (particularly in areas known to be

affected by frequent periods of low visibility) as well as weather

routeing information;

4. daytime versus night-time passing of danger points, and any effect

this may have on position fixing accuracy; and

5. traffic conditions, especially at navigational focal points.

It is important for the master to consider whether any particular

circumstance, such as the forecast of restricted visibility in an area
where position fixing by visual means at a critical point is an essential
feature of the voyage or passage plan, introduces an unacceptable
hazard to the safe conduct of the passage; and thus whether that
section of the passage should be attempted under the conditions
prevailing or likely to prevail.

The master should also consider at which specific points of the

voyage or passage there may be a need to utilize additional deck or
engine room personnel.

Monitoring

The plan should be available at all times on the bridge to allow

officers of the navigational watch immediate access and reference to
the details of the plan.

The progress of the vessel in accordance with the voyage and

passage plan should be closely and continuously monitored. Any
changes made to the plan should be made consistent with these
guidelines and clearly marked and recorded.

For efficient passage planning:

01 Largest scale charts being used. Charts corrected up to NM _

02 Courses drawn on charts and double checked for accuracy. All
 old courses to be erased.

03 Courses to be marked on charts in 360o notation, and checked

against actual course.

04 Distances between waypoints marked.

05 Waypoint co-ordinates marked.

06 Waypoints entered into all electronic navigation equipment.

07 Distance to go marked at each waypoint.

08 Hazards, no-go and dangerous areas to be marked on charts .

09 Cross track error margins to be indicated, as applicable, on

charts.

10 Bearing and distance from alteration points marked.

11 Radar conspicuous objects, coastline radar objects / shapes,

indicated on charts.

12 Raising / dipping distances for lights indicated on charts.

13 Danger clearing bearings and distances indicated on charts.

14 Parallel indexing distances to be indicated.

15 Safe and practical speeds for each stage of passage to be

decided.

16 Areas where restricted visibility may be expected, and additional

lookout may be required, is to be indicated on charts.

17 Areas where traffic may be heavy to be indicated.

18 Minimum under-keel clearance for each stage to be decided.

19 Best positions fixing methods for each area to be decided and

indicated.

20 Contingency planning against emergencies to be made and

included in

the plan, with recommended actions to be decided and included.

(e.g. emergency anchorage, abort manoeuvre, etc.)

21 Strength of navigational watch to be decided for the various

 stages of the passage, and detailed in the plan

22 Position fixing frequency to be decided for the various stages

of the passage, and included in the plan.

23 Tides written on chart along with areas where strong currents

may

be encountered.

24 Master in consultation with CE to ensure the requirement of fuel,

water, lubricant,chemicals, expendable and other spare parts

tools,

supplies are adequate.

25 Reporting points marked on the chart.

Following Information should be displayed on Navigation

Charts where

it enhances safe navigations

Parallel indexing (not from floating objects unless they have been
first

checked for position) This is useful method of monitoring cross track

tendency in any condition of visibility. It is a particularly valuable tool

approaching port and during pilotage when the master is able to

continually monitor the vessels position in this way while the OOW
plots

the position obtained from other data.

Chart changes

Prepare all the necessary Charts (BERTH TO BERTH) for the intended

voyageUse charts of an Appropriate Scale. Among charts on the

same

scale, choose the suitable one which covers the Ships Farthest Track.
Put the charts into the correct order of use and also number them on

reverse in serial order of use. Prepare the Port Plans and Navigation
 Information Charts for the coastal part of the voyage (the adjacent
sea

area).All nautical Charts & Publications for the voyage should be fully

corrected to the latest available Notice to Mariners, including

Navigational Warnings and T & P notices.

Methods and frequency of position fixing .

The frequency of the position fix, as a maximum, should be such that

the ship is kept free from danger between fixes and if a deviation
occurs, avoiding action can be taken to guarantee the safety of the
ship.

Prominent navigation and radar marks.

No go areas(the excessive marking of no-go areas should be

discouraged)

While safely navigable waters are restricted by such factors as

draught, under keel clearance and tidal conditions, there are some
Cautionary Zones called 'No-Go Area' where the ship cannot navigate
safely. These areas must be shown by cross hatching (using only
Pencil) in regions close to charted track.To minimize the risk of
getting stranded even in the occurrence of trouble on the Engine or
Steering system, secure as much distance as possible from the
Cautionary Zone. Put down the Distance off Clearly on the chart
using Parallel Indexing from the obstacles.

Landfall targets and lights

Clearing lines and bearings

Transits, heading marks and leading lines

Significant tides and currents

Where the waters are affected by large tidal variation, adequate UKC

may sometimes be attainable only during the period that the

predicted

tide has achieved a given height and vessel would need to wait for
the
suitable time to Cross the Bar.

Safe speed and necessary speed alterations

Changes in machinery status

Minimum under keel clearance

Positions where the echo sounder should be activated

Crossing and high density traffic areas

Safe distance off

Anchor clearance

Contingency plans and Abort positions

Even if a Passage Plan has been well planned and conducted, there
may be some cases in restricted waters when the Passage Plan will
have to be abandoned due to change in circumstances (like
equipment failure, port instructions etc)

The Abort Point is a position to be marked on the charted course

where

the ship may abandon her passage and be able to return (or hold
position safely).
Take care when marking an abort. At the abort position, there should
be sufficient sea room for the ship to undertake any of the following
maneuvers in safety: :
Turn around ,Stop in safe waters or Anchor
Once this point is passed , the ship is committed and must continue
on the passage. Contingency Planning by the Master shall be done in
advance which may include Alternative routes, Safe anchorages,
Waiting areas, Emergency berth etc., after passing the Abort Point.

VTS and reporting points etc

Margins of safety plotted

Plotted tracks

Alteration points should be marked off with bearings/ranges of

terrestrial targets and/or geographical coordinates.

Have we calculated the wheel-over points and what are they?

Wheel over positions shall be marked using ships maneuvering data

while navigating in confined waters and large scale charts.

Other Information:

Other information may be included in passage plan such as reporting

points, Pilot boarding area, Tug engagement, Heavy traffic area and

Crew call out position. Also, Anecdotal information to be included

basis previous voyages or experience.

Changes or deviation in Passage Plan

Any changes or deviation made to the plan should be made

consistent with this procedure. Bridge team meeting shall be held &
new supplementary passage plan shall be made to cover changes or
deviation in route to ensure safe passage of vessel. Such changes or
deviation clearly marked and recorded in Deck Log book.

Additional Information required for Entering / Departure Port and / or

Restricted Water Point of S / B Engine
Point for Calling the Master and/or the Chief Engineer.
Point of SBE ( Standby Engine)
Distance to go to the pilot station

Prior to proceeding to sea, the Master shall ensure that the

intended voyage has been planned using appropriate charts
and publications for the area concerned. (SOLAS V/34 and
IMO Res. A.893)

Notes: The passage plan should be completed by the

navigating officer and verified and approved bythe Master. It
should be comprehensive, contain full details of the voyage
and be easy to interpret.

The passage plan should be written on each applicable chart,

which may be supported by a conning notebook, or
equivalent. . Excessive information in the navigational areas
of a chart must be avoided by recording the information away
from the track and drawing attention to it by a line or
reference letter.

Ship Inspection Report (SIRE)Programme

The following should be marked on the chart, where it

enhances safe navigation:
 Parallel indexing (not from floating objects unless they have
been first checked for position);

Chart changes;

Methods and frequency of position fixing;

Prominent navigation and radar marks;

No-go areas (the excessive marking of no-go areas should

be discouraged see below);

Landfall targets and lights;

Clearing lines and bearings;

Transits, heading marks and leading lines;

Significant tides or current;

Safe speed and necessary speed alterations;

Changes in machinery status;

Minimum under keel clearance;

Positions where the echo sounder should be activated;

Crossing and high density traffic areas;

Safe distance off;

Anchor clearance;

Contingency plans;

Abort positions;

VTS and reporting points, etc.

In the event that ECDIS is the primary means of navigation,

the above should be taken into account.

Charted passage planning information should not obscure

printed details, nor should the information on charts be
obliterated by the use of highlight or felt-tip pen, red pencil,
etc.

No-go areas should be highlighted, but should be reserved

for those areas where the attention of the navigator needs to
be drawn to a danger such as shallow water or a wreck close
to the course line.
Extensive use of no-go areas should be discouraged. No-go
areas vary with change of draft and tide and will therefore
also vary with the time of passage. They should not therefore
be permanently marked.

All courses previous to the last voyage should have been

erased. Course lines must not be marked in ink,although it is
acceptable to plot alter course positions in ink where these
are frequently in use.

4.19 Recognize suitable passages, approaches and

anchorages in clear weather and thick weather:

Weather routeing:
Historical Perspective
The advent of extended range forecasting and the
development of selective climatology, along with
powerful computer modeling techniques, have
made ship routing systems possible. The ability to
effectively advise ships to take advantage of
favorable weather was hampered previously by
forecast limitations and the lack of an effective
communications system.
Development work in the area of data accumulation
and climatology has a long history. Benjamin
Franklin, as deputy postmaster general of the
British Colonies in North America, produced a chart
of the Gulf Stream from information supplied by
masters of New-England whaling ships. This first
mapping of the Gulf Stream helped improve the
mail packet service between the British Colonies
and England. In some passages the sailing time was
reduced by as much as 14 days over routes
previously sailed.
In the mid-19th century, Matthew Fontaine Maury
compiled large amounts of atmospheric and
oceanographic data from ships log books. For the
first time, a climatology of ocean weather and
currents of the world was available to the mariner.
This information was used by Maury to develop
seasonally recommended routes for sailing ships
and earlysteam powered vessels in the latter half of
the 19th century. In many cases, Maurys charts
were proved correct by the savings in transit
time.Average transit time on the New York to
California via Cape Horn route was reduced from
183 days to 139 days with the use of his
recommended seasonal routes.
In the 1950s the concept of ship weather routing
was put into operationby several private
meteorological groups and by the U.S. Navy. By
applying the available surface and upper air
forecasts to transoceanic shipping, it was possible
to effectively avoid much heavy weather while
generally sailing shorter routes than previously.
The development of computers, the internet and
communications technology has made weather
routing available to nearly everyone afloat.
Some people are weather wise, but most are
otherwise Benjamin Franklin
Introduction
Weather is inevitably the first thing that
defense lawyers look for in litigations
involving loss or damage to ships or cargo at
sea. After all, its easy to blame the weather.
Act of God, peril of the sea and rogue
waves of unprecedented magnitude suddenly
coming from nowhere are often invoked
when placing blame for damages at sea.
It is astounding that modern advances in
weather forecasting and satellite
communications provide unprecedented
amounts of weather information to ship
masters, yet ships and seafarers lives
continue to be lost at an appalling rate, and
hundreds of containers are washed overboard
every year due to heavy weather.
So the question we should be asking is, why
have the advances in computer technology,
marine weather forecasting, ship design and
satellite communications failed to reduce
significantly the danger of heavy weather
damage at sea?
With all these high-technology resources
available to us, cannot we find a better way to
protect the lives of ships, cargoes and
seafarers from the ravages of heavy weather?
Or shall we just continue to plod along in the
traditional way, accepting the weather as one
of the unavoidable risks of doing business
and letting the lawyers and insurance
companies sort it all out after the disaster
occurs.
All Weather Routing Services Are Not Equal
More than 50% of weather routing services
are ordered by charterers to monitor their
chartered vessel for speed claims. As a result,
there are a few good enough weather
routing companies with minimal technology to
perform post voyage analysis. Accuracy of the
wind and wave forecasts is not a top concern.
The criteria for routing and speed claims are
still based on Beaufort Wind Force Scale
invented in the 1800s, regardless of the size
of the ship and loading condition reacting to
varying forecast wave height period and
direction.
Traditional shore-based weather routing
services operate on the principle of storm
avoidance. The so-called route analyst
typically plans a route using a set of generic
speed reduction curves to predict ship
position to avoid storms as depicted by the
lows on surface pressure charts. After trying
out several candidate routes, the
recommended route, is sent in a brief
email/telex to the ship requesting the service
and updates when workload permits or
requested again by the ship.
Modern good Ship weather routing develops
an optimum track for ocean voyages based on
forecasts of weather, sea conditions, and a
ships individual characteristics for a
particular transit.
Within specified limits of weather and sea
conditions, the term optimum is used to
mean maximum safety and crew comfort,
minimum fuel consumption, minimum time
underway, or any desired combination of
these factors.
Principle of Weather Routeing
Introduction
Ship weather routing helps to develop the
most efficient track for ocean voyages based
on forecasts of:
Weather, Sea conditions, and The ships
individual characteristics for a particular
transit.
Within specified limits of weather and sea
conditions, the most efficient is used to mean:
Maximum safety and Crew comfort,
Minimum fuel consumption, Minimum time
underway, or Any of one of the above or a
mixture of the above factors.
The mariners first resources for route
planning in relation to weather are the
routeing charts and the sailing directions.
These publications give climatic data, such as
wave height frequencies and ice limits, for the
major ocean seas of the world.
They recommend specific routes based on
probabilities, but not on specific conditions.
A ship routing agency, acting in an advisory
service, attempts to avoid or reduce the
effects of specific adverse weather and sea
conditions by issuing:
Initial route recommendations prior to sailing
Recommendations for track changes while
underway (diversions), and Weather
advisories to alert the master about
approaching unfavorable weather and sea
conditions which cannot be effectively
avoided by a diversion.
The initial route recommendation is based on
a survey of weather and sea forecasts
between the point of departure and the
destination. It takes into account the hull
type, speed capability, cargo, and loading
conditions. The ships progress is continually
monitored, and, if adverse weather and sea
conditions are forecast along the ships
current track, a recommendation for a
diversion or weather advisory is transmitted
to the ship.
By this process of initial route selection and
continued monitoring of the ships progress
for possible changes in the forecast weather
and sea conditions along a route, it is possible
to maximize the ships speed and safety.
The greatest potential advantage for this ship
weather routing exists when:
(1)The passage is relatively long, about 1,500
miles or more;
(2)The waters are navigationally unrestricted,
so that there is a choice of routes; and
(3)Weather is a factor in determining the
route to be followed.
Use of this advisory service in no way relieves
the master of responsibility for prudent
seamanship and safe navigation. There is no
intent by the routing agency to inhibit the
exercise of professional judgment and
prerogatives of masters.
Why & How of Weather Routeing
The advent of extended range forecasting and
the development of selective climatology,
along with powerful computer modeling
techniques, have made ship routing systems
possible.
The short-range dynamic forecasts of 3 to 5
days are derived from meteorological
equations.
These forecasts are computed twice daily
from a data base of northern hemisphere
surface and upper air observations, and
include surface pressure, upper air constant
pressure heights, and the spectral wave
values.
A significant increase in data input,
particularly from satellite information over
ocean areas, can extend the time period for
which these forecasts are useful For extended
range forecasting, generally 3 to 14 days, a
computer searches a library of historical
northern hemisphere surface pressure and
500 millibar analyses for an analogous
weather pattern.
This is an attempt at selective climatology by
matching the current weather pattern with
past weather patterns and providing a logical
sequence of events forecast for the 10 to 14
day period following the dynamic forecast.
 It is performed for both the Atlantic and
Pacific oceans using climatological data for
the entire period of data stored in the
computer.
For longer ocean transits, monthly values of
wind, seas, fog, and ocean currents are used
to further extend the time range.
Automation has enabled ship routing agencies
to develop realistic minimum time tracks.
Computation of minimum time tracks makes
use of:
1. A navigation system to compute route
distance, time en-route, estimated times of
arrival (ETAs), and to provide 6 hourly DR
synoptic positions for the range of the
dynamic forecasts for the ships current track.
2. A surveillance system to survey wind, seas,
fog, and ocean currents obtained from the
dynamic and climatological fields.
3. An environmental constraint system
imposed as part of the route selection and
surveillance process. They are determined by
the ships loading, speed capability, and
vulnerability.
The constraint system is an important part of
the route selection process and acts as a
warning system when the weather and sea
forecast along the present track exceeds
predetermined limits.
 1. Ship speed characteristics used to
approximate ships speed of advance
towards the destination while transiting the
forecast sea states.

There are two general types of commercial ship

routing services. The first uses computer
simulations and analyses these into direct
forecast conditions and routing
recommendations. The second assembles and
processes weather and sea condition data and
transmits this to ships at sea for on-board
processing and generation of route
recommendations. The 1st system allows for
greater computer power to be applied to the
routing task because powerful computers are
available ashore. The 2nd system allows greater
flexibility to the ships master in changing
parameters, selecting routes, and displaying
data. Ship and cargo as a factor
Ship and cargo characteristics have a
significant influence on the application of ship
weather routing.
Ship size, Speed capability, and Type of
cargo is an important considerations in the
route selection process prior to sailing and
the surveillance procedure while underway.
A ships characteristics identify its
vulnerability to adverse conditions and its
ability to avoid them.
Generally, ships with higher speed capability
and less cargo encumbrances will have
shorter routes and be better able to maintain
near normal speed of advance towards the
destinations than ships with lower speed
capability or cargoes. Some routes are unique
because of the type of ship or cargo.
Avoiding one element of weather to reduce
pounding or rolling may be of prime
importance .For example, a 20 knot ship with
a heavy deck cargo may be severely
hampered in its ability to maintain a 20 knot
speed of advance towards the destination in
any seas exceeding moderate head or beam
seas because of the possibility of damage
resulting from the deck loads characteristics.
A similar ship with a stable cargo under the
deck is not as vulnerable and may be able to
maintain the 20-knot speed of advance
towards the destination in conditions, which
would drastically slow the deck-loaded vessel.
In towing operations, a tug is more vulnerable
to adverse weather and sea conditions, not
only in consideration of the tow, but also
because of its already limited speed
capability. Its slow speed adds to the difficulty
of avoiding adverse weather and sea
conditions.
Ship performance curves (speed curves) are
used to estimate the ships speed of advance
towards the destination while transiting the
forecast sea areas.
The curves indicate the effect of head, beam,
and following seas of various significant wave
heights on the ships speed.
Weather - Wind
Environmental factors of importance to ship
weather routing are those elements of the
atmosphere and ocean that may produce a
change in the status of a ship transit.
In ship routing, consideration is given to
wind, seas, fog, ice, and ocean currents.
While all of the environmental factors are
important for route selection and
surveillance, optimum routing is normally
considered attained if the effects of wind and
seas can be optimized.
The effect of wind speed on ship performance
is difficult to determine. In light winds (less
than 20-knots), ships lose speed in headwinds
and gain speed slightly in following winds.
For higher wind speeds, ship speed is reduced
in both head and following winds. This is due
to the increased wave action, which even in
following seas results in increased drag from
steering corrections, and indicates the
importance of sea conditions in determining
ship performance.
In dealing with wind, it is also necessary to
know the ships sail area. High winds will
have a greater adverse effect on a large, fully
loaded container ship or car carrier than a
fully loaded tanker of similar length.
This effect is most noticeable when docking,
but the effect of beam winds over several
days at sea can also be considerable. Weather
- Wave height
Wave height is the major factor affecting ship
performance. Wave action is responsible for
ship motions, which reduce propeller thrust,
and cause increased drag from steering
corrections.
The relationship of ship speed to wave
direction and height is similar to that of wind.
increased drag from steering corrections
This happens because the course steered is
not uniform, the auto pilot keeps correcting
the course steered too frequently as such,
instead of a steady course the ship steers a
course that is slightly off on either side of the
course. Vessels speed remaining the same the
speed towards the destination suffers. Head
seas reduce ship speed, while following seas
increase ship speed slightly to a certain point,
beyond which they retard it. In heavy seas,
exact performance may be difficult to predict
because of the adjustments to course and
speed for ship handling and comfort.
Although the effect of sea and swell is much
greater than wind, it is difficult to separate
the two in ship routing .
Weather - Fog
Fog, while not directly affecting ship
performance, should be avoided as much as
possible, in order to maintain normal speed in
safe conditions.
Extensive areas of fog during summertime
can be avoided by selecting a lower latitude
route than one based solely upon wind and
seas.
Although the route may be longer, transit
time may be less due to not having to reduce
speed in reduced visibility. In addition, crew
fatigue due to increased watch keeping
vigilance can be reduced. Weather - Abnormal
Waves
During the northern hemisphere autumn and
winter, the waters to the north of the gulf
stream in the north Atlantic are at their
coldest,while the gulf stream itself remains at
a constant relatively warm temperature. After
passage of a strong cold front or behind a
developing coastal low pressure system,
arctic air is sometimes drawn off the mid-
Atlantic coast of the united states and out
over the warm waters of the gulf stream by
northerly winds. This cold air is warmed as it
passes over the Gulf Stream, resulting in
rapid and intense deepening of the low-
pressure system and higher than normal
surface winds. Higher waves and confused
seas result from these winds. When these
winds oppose the northeast set of the
current, the result is increased wave heights
and a shortening of the wave period. If the
opposing current is sufficiently strong, the
waves will break.
These phenomena are collectively called the
north wall effect, referring to the region of
most dramatic temperature change between
the cold water to the north and the warm Gulf
Stream water to the south.
The most dangerous aspect of this
phenomenon is that the strong winds and
extremely high, steep waves occur in a
limited area and may develop without
warning. Thus, a ship that is laboring in near-
gale force northerly winds and rough seas,
proceeding on a northerly course, can
suddenly encounter storm force winds and
dangerously high breaking seas.
Numerous ships have foundered off the North
American coast in the approximate position of
the Gulf Streams north wall.
A similar phenomenon occurs in the North
Pacific near the Kuroshio Current and off the
southeast African coast near the Agulhas
current.
Ocean currents
Ocean currents do not present a significant
routing problem, but they can be a
determining factor in route selection and
diversion.
This is especially true when the points of
departure and destination are at relatively
low latitudes. The important considerations to
be evaluated are the difference in distance
between a great-circle route and a route
selected for optimum current, with the
expected increase in speed of advance
towards the destination from the following
current, and the decreased probability of a
diversion for weather and seas at the lower
latitude.
Direction and speed of ocean currents are
more predictable than wind and seas, but
some variability can be expected.
Major ocean currents can be disrupted for
several days by very intense weather systems
such as hurricanes and by global phenomena
such as the ocean current originating off the
West coast of S. America known as EL NINO.
Ice
The problem of ice is twofold:
Floating ice (icebergs) and
Deck ice.
If possible, areas of icebergs or pack ice
should be avoided because of the difficulty of
detection and the potential for collision. Deck
ice may be more difficult to contend with from
a ship routing point of view because it is
caused by freezing weather associated
with a large weather system.
While mostly a nuisance factor on large ships,
it causes significant problems with the
stability of small ships.
Latitude
Generally, the higher the latitude of a route,
even in the summer, the greater is the
problems with the weather.
Ships, which are not capable of handling bad
weather like tows, should avoid latitudes in
excess of 40 especially during the non-
summer months.
Weather Patterns
A ship routing should avoid seas associated
with extra tropical low-pressure systems in
the mid and higher latitudes and the tropical
systems in low latitude.
Seasonal or monsoon weather is also a factor
in route selection and diversion in certain
areas.
Low-pressure systems though not a severe
problem for most ships however, may
generate prolonged periods of rough seas,
which may hamper normal work aboard ship.
Relatively small ships, tugs with tows, low
powered ships, and ships with sensitive
cargoes can be significantly affected by
weather systems weaker than gale intensity.
Gales and storms in the open sea can
generate very rough or high seas, particularly
with an adverse ocean current. This can force
a reduction in speed in order to gain a more
comfortable and safe ride.
But because of the extensive area covered by
these low-pressure systems, once ships
speed is reduced the ability to get away from
these areas is also reduced.
Thus, exposure to potential damage and
danger is greatly increased. Gales and storms
in the open sea can generate very rough or
high seas, particularly with an adverse ocean
current.
This can force a reduction in speed in order to
gain a more comfortable and safe ride. But
because of the extensive area covered by
these low-pressure systems, once ships
speed is reduced the ability to get away from
these areas is also reduced.
Thus, exposure to potential damage and
danger is greatly increased.
Routeing Advice
An initial route recommendation is issued to a
ship normally 48 to 72 hours prior to sailing,
and the process of surveillance begins.
Surveillance is a continuous process,
maintained until the ship arrives at its
destination. Initial route recommendations
are a composite representation of experience,
climatology, weather and sea state forecasts,
operational concerns, and the ships seagoing
characteristics.
A planning route provides a best estimate of a
realistic route for a specific transit period.
Such routes are provided when estimated
dates of departure are given to the routing
agency well in advance of departure, usually a
week to several months.
Long- range planning routes are based more
on seasonal and climatological expectations
than the current weather situation.
While planning routes is an attempt to make
extended range (more than a week) or long
range (more than a month) forecasts, these
recommendations are likely to be revised near
the time of departure to reflect the current
weather pattern.
An initial route recommendation is more
closely related to the current weather
patterns by using the latest dynamic
forecasts than are the planning route
recommendations. These, too, are subject to
revision prior to sailing.
Departure
A Departure advice is a recommendation for
delay in departure, or early departure if
possible, and is intended to avoid or
significantly reduce the adverse weather and
seas forecast on the first portion of the route,
if sailing on the original departure date.
The initial route is not revised, only the timing
of the ships transit through an area with
currently unfavorable weather conditions.
Adjusting the departure time is an effective
method of avoiding a potentially hazardous
situation where there is no optimum route for
sailing at the originally scheduled time.
Diversion
A diversion is an underway adjustment in
track and is intended to avoid or limit the
effect of adverse weather conditions forecast
to be encountered along the ships current
track. Ships speed generally is reduced by
the encounter with the heavy weather. In
most cases the distance to destination is
increased in attempting to avoid the adverse
weather, but this is partially overcome by
being able to maintain near normal speed of
advance towards the destination.
Diversions are also recommended where
satisfactory weather and sea conditions are
forecast on a shorter track. Speed of advance
towards the destination
Adjustment of speed of advance towards the
destination is a recommendation for slowing
or increasing the ships speed as much as
practicable, in an attempt to avoid an adverse
weather situation by adjusting the timing of
the encounter.
This is also an effective means of maintaining
maximum ship operating efficiency, while not
diverting from the present ships track.
By adjusting the speed of advance towards
the destination, a major weather system can
sometimes be avoided with no increase in
distance.
The development of fast ships gives the ship
routing agency the potential to make the
ships weather by adjusting the ships speed
and track for encounter with favorable
weather conditions. Evading Bad weather
Evasion is a recommendation to the master to
take independent action to avoid, as much as
possible, a potentially dangerous weather
system. The ship routing meteorologist may
recommend a general direction for safe
evasion but does not specify an exact track.
The recommendation for evasion is an
indication that the weather and sea
conditions have deteriorated to a point where
ship handling and safety are the primary
considerations and progress toward
destination has been temporarily suspended,
or is at least of secondary consideration.
Weather Notices
Weather advisory is a transmission sent to
the ship advising the master of expected
adverse conditions, their duration, and
geographic extent.
It is initiated by the ship routing agency as a
service and an aid to the ship.
The best example of a situation for which a
forecast is helpful is when the ship is
currently in good weather but adverse
weather is expected within 24 hours for which
a diversion has not been recommended, or a
diversion where adverse weather conditions
are still expected. This type of advisory may
include a synoptic weather discussion, and a
wind, seas, or fog forecast.
The ability of the routing agency to achieve
optimum conditions for the ship is aided by
the master adjusting course and speed where
necessary for an efficient and safe ride.
At times, the local sea conditions may dictate
that the master takes independent action.
Routeing for Southern hemisphere
Available data on which to base analyses and
forecasts is generally very limited in the
southern hemisphere. Weather and other
environmental information obtained from
satellites offers the possibility of
improvement in southern hemisphere forecast
products. Passages south of the Cape of Good
Hope and cape horn should be timed to avoid
heavy weather as much as possible, since
intense and frequent low pressure systems
are common in these areas.
In particular, near the southeast coasts of
Africa and South America, intense low-
pressure systems form in the lee of relatively
high terrain near the coasts of both
continents. Winter transits south of cape horn
are difficult, since the time required for
transit is longer than the typical interval
between storms.
Remaining equator ward of about 35s as
much as practicable will limit exposure to
adverse conditions.
If the frequency of lows passing these areas is
once every three or four days, the probability
of encountering heavy weather is high.
Tropical cyclones in the southern hemisphere
present a significant problem because of the
sparse surface and upper air observations
from which forecasts can be made.
Satellites provide the most reliable means by
which to obtain accurate positions of tropical
systems, and also give the first indication of
tropical cyclone formation.
In the southern hemisphere, ship weather
routing services is available, but are limited in
application because of sparse data reports,
from which reliable short and extended range
forecasts can be produced.
Strong climatological consideration is usually
given to any proposed southern hemisphere
transit.
Communications
A vital part of a ship routing service is
communication between the ship and the
routing agency. Reports from the ship show
the progress and ability to proceed in existing
conditions. Weather reports from the ship
enrich the basic data on which analyses are
based and forecasts derived, assisting both
the reporting ship and others in the vicinity.
A vital part of a ship routing service is
communication between the ship and the
routing agency. Reports from the ship show
the progress and ability to proceed in existing
conditions.
Weather reports from the ship enrich the
basic data on which analyses are based and
forecasts derived, assisting both the
reporting ship and others in the vicinity.
Benefits
The benefits of ship weather routing services
are primarily in cost reduction and safety. The
savings in operating costs are derived from
reductions in transit time, heavy weather
encounters, fuel consumption, cargo and hull
damage, and more efficient scheduling of
dockside activities.
The savings are further increased by fewer
emergency repairs, more efficient use of
personnel, improved topside working
conditions, lower insurance rates as preferred
risks under weather routing, and ultimately,
extended ship operating life. An effective
routing service maximizes safety by greatly
reducing the probability of severe or
catastrophic damage to the ship, and injury of
crewmembers. Avoiding heavy weather also
enhances the efficiency and health of the
crew. This is especially important on modern,
automated ships with reduced crews.
Conclusion
The success of ship weather routing is
dependent upon the validity of the forecasts
and the routing agencys ability to make
appropriate route recommendations and
diversions. Modern ship designs, exotic
cargoes, and sophisticated transport methods
require individual attention to each ships
areas of vulnerability.
Any improvement in the description of sea
conditions by ocean wave models will improve
the output from ship routing and sea keeping
systems. Advanced planning of a proposed
transit, combined with the study of expected
weather conditions, both before and during
the voyage, as is done by ship routing
 agencies, and careful on board attention to
sea keeping (with instrumentation if
available) provide the greatest opportunity to
achieve the goal of optimum environmental
conditions for ocean transit.

4.20 Explain the general provisions of Ships Routeing

and explain use of publication IMO ships Routing Guide:
Ships routeing

Traffic separation schemes and other ship routeing

systems have now been established in most of the
major congested, shipping areas of the world, and the
number of collisions and groundings has often been
dramatically reduced.
The practice of following predetermined routes
originated in about 1898 and was adopted, for reasons
of safety, by shipping companies operating passenger
ships across the North Atlantic. Related provisions were
subsequently incorporated into the International
Conventions for the
Safety of Life at Sea.
The 1960 Safety Convention referred to the same
practice in converging areas on both sides of the North
Atlantic. The Contracting Governments undertook the
responsibility of using their influence to induce the
owners of all passenger ships crossing the Atlantic to
follow the recognized routes and to do everything in
their power to ensure adherence to such routes in
converging areas by all ships, so far as circumstances
permit.
In 1961 the institutes of navigation of the Federal
Republic of Germany, France and the United Kingdom
undertook a study of measures for separating traffic in
the Strait of Dover and, subsequently, in certain other
areas where statistics indicated an increased risk of
collision. Their studies resulted in proposals for the
separation of traffic in those areas as well as for certain
basic principles of ships' routeing.
These proposals were submitted to the International
MaritimeOrganization (IMO), the specialized agency of
the United Nations responsible for maritime safety and
efficiency of navigation, and were generally adopted.
This initial step was further developed by IMO and the
basic concept of separating opposing traffic was applied
to many
areas throughout the world.
The increase in recent years in the size and draught of
ships has produced problems in certain shallow- water
areas and led to the establishment of deep-water
routes.
Similarly, the hazards to navigation in certain areas and
the associated dangers to the marine environment and
ecology have resulted in the establishment and
adoption of ``areas to be avoided'' by certain ships.
Today, in accordance with regulation 8(b), chapter V of
the International Convention for the Safety of Life at
Sea, 1974 (1974 SOLAS Convention),
 IMO is recognized as the only international body for
establishing and adopting measures on an international
level concerning routeing and areas to be avoided by
ships or certain classes of ships; whilst, in accordance
with regulation 8-1(b), chapter V of the International
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, IMO is
recognized as the only international body for developing
guidelines, criteria and
regulations on an international level, including adoption
of ship reporting systems.
Ships' Routeing is intended primarily for Administrations
responsible for planning and supporting routeing
systems for use by international shipping.
Part A consists of General Provisions on ShipsRouteing
which have been developed to ensure that all adopted
routeing systems conform to the same general criteria
and principles. Parts B to F include descriptions of
routeing systems and associated rules and
recommendations on
navigation which have been adopted by the
Organization. A new Part G includes descriptions of ship
reporting systems and mandatory routeing measures
which have been adopted by the Organization.
Rule 10 of the International Regulations for Preventing
Collisions at Sea, 1972 (COLREG 1972), as amended by
Assembly resolutions A.464(XII),
A.626(15) and A.678(16), prescribes the conduct of
vessels within or near traffic separation schemes
adopted by IMO. The text of rule 10 is reproduced in part
B.Through its appropriate bodies, IMO keeps the subject
of ships' routeing under continuous review by adopting
new routeing systems and amending or, when
necessary, withdrawing existing systems.
Elements used in traffic routeing systems include:
traffic separation scheme: a routeing measure aimed at
the separation of opposing streams of traffic by
appropriate means and by the establishment of traffic
lanes
traffic lane: an areas within defined limits in which one-
way traffic is established. natural obstacles, including
those forming separation zones, may constitute a
boundary
 separation zone or line: a zone or line separating traffic
lanes in which ships are proceeding in opposite or nearly
opposite directions; or separating a traffic lane from the
adjacent sea area; or separating traffic lanes designated
for particular classes of ship proceeding in the same
direction
roundabout: a separation point or circular separation
zone and a circular traffic lane within defined limits
inshore traffic zone: a designated area between the
landward
boundary of a traffic separation scheme and the
adjacent coast
recommended route: a route of undefined width, for the
convenience of ships in transit, which is often marked by
centre-line buoys
deep-water route: a route within defined limits which
has been accurately surveyed for clearance of sea
bottom and submerged articles
precautionary area: an area within defined limits where
ships must navigate with particular caution and within
which the direction of flow of traffic may be
recommended
area to be avoided: an area within defined limits in
which either navigation is particularly hazardous or it is
exceptionally important to avoid casualties and which
should be avoided by all ships, or by certain classes of
ships

The precise objectives of any routeing system will depend

upon the particular hazardous circumstances which it is
intended to alleviate, but may include some or all of the
following:
.1 the separation of opposing streams of traffic so as to
reduce the incidence of head-on encounters;
.2 the reduction of dangers of collision between crossing
traffic and shipping in established traffic lanes;
.3 the simplification of the patterns of traffic flow in
converging areas;
 .4 the organization of safe traffic flow in areas of
concentrated offshore exploration or exploitation;
.5 the organization of traffic flow in or around areas where
navigation by all ships or by certain classes of ship is
dangerous or undesirable;
.6 the organization of safe traffic flow in or around or at a
safe distance from environmentally sensitive areas;
.7 the reduction of risk of grounding by providing special
guidance to vessels in areas where water depths are
uncertain or critical; and
.8 the guidance of traffic clear of fishing grounds or the
organization of Traffic through fishing grounds.
Rule 10
Traffic separation schemes
(b) This rule applies to traffic separation schemes
adopted by the Organization and does not relieve any
vessel of her obligation under any other rule.
(b) A vessel using a traffic separation scheme shall:
(ii) proceed in the appropriate traffic lane in the general
direction of traffic flow for that lane;
(ii) so far as practicable keep clear of a traffic separation
line or
separation zone;
(iii) normally join or leave a traffic lane at the termination
of the lane, but when joining or leaving from either side
shall do so at as small an angle to the general direction of
traffic flow as practicable.
(c) A vessel shall, so far as practicable, avoid crossing
traffic lanes but if obliged to do so shall cross on a heading
 as nearly as practicable at right angles to the general
direction of traffic flow.
(d) A vessel shall not use an inshore traffic zone when she
can safely use the appropriate traffic lane within the
adjacent traffic separation scheme. However, vessels of less
than 20 metres in length, sailing vessels and vessels
engaged in fishing may use the inshore traffic zone.
(ii) Notwithstanding subparagraph (d)(i), a vessel may use
an inshore traffic zone when en route to or from a port,
offshore installation or structure, pilot station or any other
place situated within the inshore traffic zone, or to avoid
immediate danger.
(e) A vessel other than a crossing vessel or a vessel joining
or leaving a lane shall not normally enter a separation zone
or cross a separation line except:
(i) in cases of emergency to avoid immediate danger;
(ii) to engage in fishing within a separation zone.
(f) A vessel navigating in areas near the terminations of
traffic separation schemes shall do so with particular
caution.
(g) A vessel shall so far as practicable avoid anchoring in a
traffic
separation scheme or in areas near its terminations.
(h) A vessel not using a traffic separation scheme shall avoid
it by as wide a margin as is practicable.
(ii) A vessel engaged in fishing shall not impede the
passage of any vessel following a traffic lane.
(j) A vessel of less than 20 metres in length or a sailing
vessel shall not impede the safe passage of a power-driven
vessel following a traffic lane.
 (k) A vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre when
engaged in an operation for the main-tenance of safety of
navigation in a traffic separation scheme is exempted from
complying with this rule to the extent necessary to carry out
the operation.
(l) A vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre when
engaged in an operation for the laying, servicing or picking
up of a submarine cable,within a traffic separation scheme,
is exempted from complying with this rule to the extent
necessary to carry out the operation.

4.21 Define set, rate, drift and leeway due to wind:

Wind and its effects:

Leeway is the leeward motion of the vessel due to the
effect of wind. It may be expressed as a distance, speed or
angular difference between course steered and course
made good through the water. Look at the figure below.

In the adjoining figure, say your vessel is steering the direction

OA (090 ). The effect of the wind from north is to cause the
vessel to make good the course OB. To counteract this effect
of wind, the vessel must steer a course OC to make good
the course OA.

On board a merchant ship as most of the above factors

vary considerably, it is impractical to formulate a table to
accurately tabulate the amount of leeway that should be
given. This allowance is usually done on board on a trial

and error basis gaining knowledge with experience. In practice, it is impossible to calculate the
effect of wind alone on the ships course and speed. It is usually a combination of both wind and

4.23 Find the course and distance made good with a tidal stream or
current.

4.24 Find the course to steer allowing for tidal stream or current.

HOW to do a SET and DRIFT problem:

(1) Plot your starting position, call this "A"

(2) Find the true course you are steering.
(3) Draw a line from "A" and lay off your true course.
(4) Call the end of your course "D"
(5) Find the amount of time you have steamed for.
(6) Find your speed.
 (7) On the line (A,D) measure the distance you will go in
the time your given. (E.g.) if your going at 10 knots
for 3 hours then the distance is 30 miles so you would
measure 30 miles on the (A,D) line.
(8) At the end of the line you steamed for call this "B"
(9) Find out the course and speed of the tide, make sure
the hours your are steaming for and the tide are the
same. (E.g.) you steamed for 3 hours and the tide is
set at 0400 2 knots, you would have to multiply 2
knots by 3 hours which is 6 miles of tide.
(10) At "B" measure off your tide for its course and
distance.
(11) At the end of the tide call this "C"
(12) Give the line (B,C) 3 arrows.
(13) From "A" draw a line to "C" this is the course you
will be streaming.
(14) Give the line (A,C) 2 arrows.
(15) The rate of the tide = (B,C) speed of tide
The amount of hours steamed

Track Made good, the course the tide will take you.

(1) Plot your start position "A"

(2) Find the true course you are steering.
(3) From "A" draw a line for the true course.
(4) At the end of this line call this "D"
 (5) On the (A,D) line measure the distance you will go
in 1 hour.
(6) Call this "B"
(7) Find the course and speed of the tide.
(8) From "B" lay of your course of the tide for 1 hour.
(9) Call this "C"
(10) From (A - C) this is the course and speed you
will go in 1 hour (Ground track)

1 arrow = true course.

2 arrows = the course and speed made good.
3 arrows = speed and course of tide

Make sure all distances are for 1 hour, some

questions gives you the tide for 1 hour but
you're steaming for 6 hours.
Measure the distance covered as well as the
course from (A to C)

Remember: If wind and current are given

together when doing set and drift problems
apply wind and then current.

4.25 Find the set rate of tidal stream or current from

charts or tables:
Chart 3. What will be the direction and rate of the tide at Diamond A, at HW+5 hours, if the range of
the tide was 3.6m?

From the chart, the spring rate is 2.0kn and the neap 1.0kn.

As a range of 3.6m this tide in not a spring or neap tide, to answer this we need to use the computation
of rates diagram, which is found on page 26 of the Training Almanac. These are normally found in
Admiralty tidal atlases as well as Reed's Almanac.

To use the diagram:

Mark with a cross the neap and spring tidal rates on the dotted lines which denote the ranges for those
tides at that port. Note that the figures along the top and bottom are in tenths of a knot.

Then draw a sloping line through and past both crosses.

On the left side, find the range of the tide in question, and draw a line to the right, until it crosses the
sloping line.

From the point where the two lines cross, draw a line up or down to find the rate of the tide for that
range.

The tidal rate is 1.5kn for a tidal range of 3.6m.

You could probably have guessed at this figure because the range of the tide was midway between the
spring and neap ranges, therefore the rate would also be half way between the spring and neap rates, it
is not always that simple.
4.25 Find the set rate of tidal stream or current from charts or
tables:
Since Tidal streams are horizontal movements of water in response to tide-raising
forces, they can be predicted for any period in future. Tidal streams which are
semi-diurnal in character may be predicted by reference to a suitable standard port
and are displayed in tables printed on the published chart. Since there is no
necessity for daily predicted tidal streams to be published these tables show
the rate and direction of the predicted tidal stream of springs and neaps by
reference to the time of high w ater at a suitable standard port. The area of
prediction is indicated on the chart by means of a symbol with an alphabet
which can be referred to in the table.

4.26 Determine ships position by the Running Fix, with

and without current:

Running fix (Without tide or wind)

(1) You are given 2 bearings of a point of land and

the times when they where taken.
(2) Measure these courses off on your chart.
(3) Anywhere on the 1st bearing of the point of land,
draw a line for your true course.
(4) Call the starting position "A" and the end "D"
(5) The time given between the 2 bearings, work out
the distance you will go in that time.
(6) From "A" measure this distance on the (A,D) line.
(7) Call this "B"
(8) Using a parallel rules, lay them on the line from
"A" to the point of land, move the parallel rules onto
"B"
(9) Draw a line from "B" along the parallel rules onto
the 2nd bearing of the point of land.
(10) This is your ships position
Running fix (With tide and/or wind)

(1) You are given 2 bearings of a point of land and

the times when they were taken.
(2) Measure these bearings off on your chart.
(3) Anywhere on the 1st bearing of the point of land,
draw a line for your true course.
(4) Call the starting position "A" and the end "D"
(5) The time given between the 2 bearings, work out
the distance you will go in that time.
(6) From "A" measure this distance on the (A,D) line.
(7) Call this "B"
(8) From "B" lay off the tide for 1 hour.
(9) At the end of the tide call this "C"
(10) Using a parallel rules, lay them on the line from
"A" to the point of land, move the parallel rules onto
"C"
(11) Draw a line from "C" along the parallel rules onto
the 2nd bearing of the point of land.
(12) This is your ships position.

Counteraction course (countering against tide/wind)

(1) Plot your start position and call this "A"

(2) Plot your finished position and call this "D"
(3) Draw a line from "A" to "D" (This is the course you want
to steer on)
(4) Find the speed and course of the tide.
(5) From "A" lay off the tide for 1 hour.
(6) At the end of the tide, call this "B"
(7) With a set of compasses, measure the distance your
vessel will go in 1 hour.(Engine speed)
(8) From "B" cut an arc on the "A" - "D" line, call this "C"
(9) Draw a line from "B" to "C" and A to C
(10) This is your course to steer and speed you make good
(speed you will do)
(11) Measure the line "A" - "D" and the line "A" - "C"
(12) The time is takes from "A" - "D" = distance AD
Distance AC

Remember : when counteracting current and Leeway ,apply

current and then allow for leeway.

4.28 Use Gnomonic charts for planning Great circle and

composite sailings:

A important projection used on board ships is the gnomonic projection on which

the meridians are converging. But most importantly, the parallels are arcs of a
circle while great circles appear as straight lines. On a sphere the shortest route
between A and B is not a straight line but an arc (part of a great circle). On a
gnomonic chart, this shortest route (a great circle) ends up as a straight line.
Hence, the gnomonic projection is particularly useful when sailing great circles
(especially transoceanic voyages).
 Gnomonic Projection

Great circle sailing

A great circle is the intersection of the surface of a
sphere and a plane passing through the centre of
the sphere. It is the largest circle that can be drawn
on the surface of the sphere, and is the shortest
distance along the surface between any two points.
The principal advantage of a rhumb line is that it
maintains constant true direction. A ship following
the rhumb line between two places does not change
its true course. A rhumb line makes the same angle
with all meridians it crosses and appears as a
straight line on a Mercator chart. For any other
case, the difference between the rhumb line and
the great circle connecting two points increases (1)
as the latitude increases, (2) as the difference of
latitude between the two points decreases, and (3)
as the difference of longitude increases .
Great circle sailing takes advantage of the shorter
distance along the great circle between two points,
rather than the longer rhumb line. The arc of the
great circle between the points is called the great
circle track.
The great circle crosses meridians at higher
latitudes, where the distance between them is less.
This is why the great circle route is shorter than the
rhumb line.
The decision as to whether or not to use great circle
sailing depends upon the conditions. The savings in
distance should be worth the additional effort, and
of course the great circle route cannot cross land,
nor should it carry the vessel into dangerous
waters.
Composite sailing may save time and distance over
the rhumb line track without leading the vessel into
danger.
Since a great circle other than a meridian or the
equator is a curved line whose true direction
changes continually , the navigator does not
attempt to follow it exactly. Instead, he selects a
number of waypoints along the great circle,
constructs rhumb lines between the waypoints, and
steers along these rhumb lines.
Great circle sailing involves the solution of courses,
distances, and points along a great circle between
two points .
Great Circle Sailing by Chart
The graphic solution of great circle problems
involves the use of two charts. NIMA (National
Imagery and Mapping Agency,USA )publishes
several gnomonic projections covering the principal
navigable waters of the world. On these great circle
charts, any straight line is a great circle.
The chart, however, is not conformal ; therefore,
the navigator cannot directly measure directions
and distances as on a Mercator chart.
The usual method of using a gnomonic chart is to
plot the route and pick points along the track every
5 of longitude using the latitude and longitude
scales in the immediate vicinity of each point.
These points are then transferred to a Mercator
chart and connected by rhumb lines. The course
and distance for each leg can then be measured,
and the points entered as waypoints in an
electronic chart system, GPS, or Loran C
Great circle sailing
The calculation of the great circle track between
two points A and B with given latitude and
longitude is an exercise in spherical trigonometry.
The points A and B form a spherical triangle with
the North Pole C. Each side of this triangle is an arc
of a circle centered at the center of the earth, i.e. a
great circle. The length of a great-circle arc can be
read off immediately from the corresponding
central angle: the measurement of the central angle
in minutes of arc gives the length of the arc in
nautical miles.
If we call a, b, c the sides opposite vertices A, B, C,
then in this triangle we know a, b, and C. Side a has
length 90o minus the latitude of vertex B, and vice-
versa. The angle C is the difference between the
longitudes of A and B. This is enough information to
solve for all the elements of the triangle, in
particular side c (the great-circle distance) and
angle A (the initial course).
Starting point and destination, together with the
North Pole, form a spherical triangle
Compute the distance and initial course by great
circle sailing from a point in Lat. 37 o-42' N., Long.
123o-04'W., near Farallon Island Lighthouse, to a
point Lat. 34o-50' N., Long. 139o-53' E., near the
entrance to the Bay of Tokyo.
In this case we compute a = 90 o - 37o42' = 52o18', b
= 90o - 34o50' = 55o10' and C = 360o - 123o04' -
139o53' = 97o03'.
We may solve for c using the spherical law of
cosines:
cos c = cos a cos b + sin a sin b cos C.
This gives c = 74.36o or 4461.6 nautical miles.
 Once c is known, A can be calculated using the
spherical law of sines:
sin A / sin a = sin B / sin b = sin C /sin c. Using the
known values for a, c, and C this gives A = 57.77 o,
or 57o46'19".

4.29 Checks that the chart is corrected up to latest notice to mariners:

Admiralty Notices to Mariners

All the admiralty charts and publications are required to be maintained so that they are fully up
- to-date for the latest safety-critical navigational information. The admiralty notices
to mariners contain all the corrections, alterations and amendments for the UKHO's
(United Kingdom Hydrographic Office) worldwide series of admiralty charts and
publications. These notices are published by way of weekly notices, cumulative notices and
annual summary of notices to mariners for issue to ships. Notices, and the weekly editions
containing such notices, are each numbered consecutively, commencing at the beginning of
each year.

Weekly editions

Each weekly edition consists of the following sections:

I. Explanatory Notes. Publications List

II. Admiralty Notices to Mariners. Updates to Standard Nautical Charts

III. Reprints of Radio Navigational Warnings

IV. Amendments to Admiralty Sailing Directions

V. Amendments to Admiralty Lists of Lights and Fog Signals

VI. Amendments to Admiralty List of Radio Signals

Each weekly edition is bound by staples to

enable Temporary and Preliminary Notices
and Sections III to VI to be detached for filing,
or to facilitate the correction of Admiralty
publications. In addition to the above
information the Weekly edition contains the
following information:

a. New charts and publications -

published during the week, information
on forthcoming charts and publications
(to be published), admiralty charts and
publications permanently withdrawn,
admiralty chart agent information, etc.
A list of current hydrographic
publications is published quarterly in
the weekly Editions of ANM. A notice
in Section II gives the dates of the
latest editions of the various volumes
of the sailing directions, list of lights,
list of radio signals and certain other
miscellaneous publications plus any
supplements affecting them.
b. Temporary and preliminary notices are marked as (T) and (P) respectively, and an
asterisk adjacent to the number of a notice indicates that the notice is one based
on original information, as opposed to one that republishes information from another
country. (T) And (P) notices which are in force at the end of the year are published in the
annual summary of admiralty notices to mariners. A list of T & P notices and corrections
to sailing directions in force is published monthly in the weekly editions of ANM.

Upkeep of the chart system

The publications used for chart upkeep of chart system are

Catalogue of Admiralty Charts and Publications (NP 131)

Paper Chart Maintenance Record (NP 133A)

Weekly Notices to Mariners

Cumulative List of Admiralty Notices to Mariners (NP234 A/B)

Annual Summary of Admiralty Notices to Mariners (NP 247 - 1 & 2)

Symbols and Abbreviations used on Admiralty Charts (Chart BA 5011)

How to keep your Admiralty charts up to date (NP 294)

a) Stationary used for Chart Correction

Pens with different sizes of nib such as 0.15mm and 0.25mm; 0.15mm nib used
to insert information and a 0.25mm nib to delete

2B Pencils - Used for entering T & P notices on charts and making entries in Chart

Correction Log and Folio Index

Eraser Hacksaw blade shall not be used

Ink - violet colour to draw the submarine cable as it

will damage the pen tip. Rather a
Adhesive - Preferably glue sticks
plastic ruler with similar teeth shall
Parallel ruler, Dividers, Compasses,
Set square and Scissors

Template with various sizes of holes should be used for drawing radar stations,

radio beacons, small circular limits, etc.

a) Updating paper charts

 The details of charts and publications available at the start of the year are mentioned in

BA publication Catalogue of Admiralty Charts and Publications (NP 131). Publication NP

294 provides the procedure for updating admiralty charts. Symbols and abbreviations

used on admiralty charts are mentioned in Chart BA 5011 which shall be consulted while
correcting the chart.

From the time a chart is published, it is kept updated in accordance with admiralty
notices to mariners. It is kept updated for all information essential to navigation by
notices to mariners until it is either withdrawn or replaced by a new edition or new chart.
While the chart is held with the supplier they usually undertake to keep the chart updated
until supplied on board.

Charts are maintained on board in a folio system. A folio clubs together the charts of a
given geographical location. The recommended numbers for the folios are also provided
in the admiralty chart catalogue. Some vessels may prefer to keep charts arranged in a
numerical order.

Upon receipt of chart it is checked for

edition number against the latest edition
available and the date of last correction
on it. Date of last correction is usually
recorded on the left hand bottom of the
chart. An entry is then made on the

backside of the chart showing the Folio Number for the chart, Date of receipt of chart

and Corrected up to Notice to Mariners no .. of Year .. for quick reference. The

details regarding the correction are made with pencil and updated regularly.

An entry for the chart is then made in the NP 133A mentioning the chart number and
edition. NP133A has sheets providing a numerical index of charts. Next to the chart
number, the column indicates the folio number in which the chart is held. This is followed
by space for logging numbers of Notices to Mariners affecting it. The chart edition
number for the chart carried on board is mentioned in the space followed by the year of
correction and correction number. The entries in NP133A are made by pencil. NP 133A
also serves as an inventory of the valid charts on board.
 Upon receipt of a weekly edition of notices to mariners, the following procedures are
followed. Weekly notices are dated for the Thursday appropriate to the week that the
printed version is dispatched from the UKHO.

Section I of weekly notices to mariners contains list of admiralty charts affected. It further
contains list of admiralty charts and publications newly published and av ailable, list
of new editions of admiralty charts and publications, list of admiralty charts to be
published in the following weeks and list of admiralty charts and publications
permanently withdrawn. Seeing these lists the inventory of charts held on board is
checked. The new charts, new editions and replacements for charts

withdrawn are ordered. The charts withdrawn are Charts should always be corrected
using notices of the same
prominently marked Cancelled. The cancelled hydrography department
charts are removed from the folios and stored thatpublished the chart.
separately with a separate inventory. The
replacements for the charts withdrawn shall be

ordered at the earliest. NP133A is updated accordingly.

Section II of weekly notices contains geographical index for

corrections to the charts in the format given below. This lists the
geographical areas affected by the corrections mentioned in the
notices.
This is followed by the index of notices and chart folios in the below format. The
corrections include the corrections for BA charts and charts under INT series, AUS series
and JP series.

With reference to above lists, charts held on board are checked in NP133A. For the
charts affected by any of the notices mentioned in the above lists, the numbers of the
Notices affecting them are recorded against the charts number in NP133A. As and when
the given chart is corrected, the correction number is struck off by pencil. The updates to
charts are categorized as permanent corrections and temporary and preliminary (T&P)
notices. The charts withdrawn/ cancelled are removed from the list by erasing all details
from NP133A. Record for the same is updated in the inventory of cancelled charts
maintained separately.

Correcting Charts for Permanent Corrections

Permanent corrections to charts are provided in the following format. Each notice carries
the following information as shown in the picture below.
For correcting the chart affected by the
notice, the notice and NP 133A is taken
out. The date of last correction as
recorded on the left hand bottom of the
chart is checked against the previous
update number mentioned in the notice. If
the chart is corrected for the previous
Geographical positions refer to the
horizontal datum of the current edition of
each affected chart which is stated in the
notice alongside the appropriate chart
number. Hence Datum shift is NOT to be
applied to positions for correcting charts.
 notice the current correction is then done and the number then recorded on the chart.
The entry for the notice number in NP 133A is struck off with pencil. In case the chart is

found not corrected for last correction, the last correction notice shall be taken out. The
process is continued till the last notice is tracked which is recorded on the chart.
Cumulative List of Admiralty Notices to Mariners (NP234 A/B) provides a quick reference
for the same. However, cumulative list is published every six months, with Part A in
January and Part B in July. The publication lists the corrections for the chart since the
last edition going up to last 2 years. Once the chart is corrected, it is updated on the note
on the reverse side of the chart stating Corrected up to notice no. .. of Year .

Basic principles to be observed during chart correction

When several charts are affected by one notice, the largest scale chart should be
updated first to appreciate the details of the update.

Voyage charts shall be corrected first followed by remaining charts.

 Positions are normally given in degrees, minutes and decimals of a minute, but may
occasionally quote seconds for convenience when plotting from the graduation of some
older-style charts.

Information shall always be inserted before deleting any

information. Information updated shall not unduly obscure

the printed data. The correction shall be made

neatly using the fine tip pens.

The notices shall be read and understood

prior correcting.

Symbols for the notice as prescribed in chart

5011 only shall be used.

The correction number shall be recorded on

the chart only after the correction is done.

If the reference details mentioned in the notice

are not mentioned on the chart, it means
some the previous corrections are missing.

Any deletion on the chart shall be using a

single neat line.

It is a good practice to refer to the latest cumulative summary while correcting any chart
to check the record of corrections on the chart.

Having made the correction on the chart, it shall be cross checked for correctness.

All positions must be exact, depths and symbols must be clear, legends and descriptions
must be readable.

Small arrows may be used to indicate positions in cases where sufficient space is
not available at the site of updating.

Block corrections require the blocks to be cut and pasted on to the chart. These are
printed in colour only on one side of the sheet.

The glue used shall be such as will not affect the

paper.
 No update, except those given in Section II
permanent correction of admiralty notices to
mariners, weekly editions, is made to any chart in
ink.

Use of tracings for chart corrections

Tracings are provided in separate envelopes to

facilitate quick updating of charts. Tracings are
used to locate the site of correction on the chart
quickly. The tracings shall be used in conjunction
with the weekly notices. Each tracing applies to
one chart only. The number of chart corrected is
printed on the bottom right hand corner of the
tracing. The number of previous correction
appears on the tracing also which shall be
checked on the chart. It should be noted that a
tracing is only a guide to illustrate the correction
and to pin-point a position. It should not be copied

directly onto a chart as many of the symbols are printer's symbols used to instruct the

printer or the chart plate maker. The instructions regarding use of chart correction
tracings are as follows:
Correcting charts for temporary and Care shall be taken not to erase
preliminary notices valid T&P notices from the chart
while making a new passage plan.

The temporary notices are notices

informing about temporary developments in
the given

area affecting navigation such as offshore exploration, naval exercises etc. These are
temporary in nature. Preliminary notices are regarding the operations that may have
started in the area such as making of a new berth, a new dredged navigation channel

etc. Such notices are printed in Section II of weekly notice to mariners after the
permanent corrections. The suffix (T) or (P) indicate temporary of preliminary nature.

Entries are made in NP133A for T&P notices. These corrections are made on the charts
using pencil and the number recorded on the left hand bottom of the chart. Usually the
affected voyage charts only are corrected for such notices. These notices are kept filed in
a separate folder for quick reference. Temporary and Preliminary Notices should be
rubbed out as soon as the Notice is received canceling them

The list of T&P notices in force is also published in the Annual Summary of notices to Mariners
(NP247). T&P notices are printed on one side of the paper in order that they may be cut up and filed.
To assist in filing, the year is indicated after the notice number