PXGZ 6101

Research in Education
2nd Semester, Session 2011/2012
By:
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Loh Sau Cheong

1
ACTIVITY TO KNOW YOUR
COURSEMATE

WORK IN PAIR TO FIND OUT MORE ABOUT

YOUR FRIEND

- Name & family background

- Professional profile which includes past working
experiences
- One main problem that bothers him/her in the process
of attending this course
- What is/are the way(s) used to overcome the problem

2
 Questions

1. What is research?
2. Why do we need to do
research?

3
Basic Characteristics of
Research

Creative
Expanding
Careful inquiry
Replicable

4
Research in Education

Research that utilises scientific

approach in solving problems in
the education arena

5
 Educators

Professional

Knowledge through Research

Decision maker
6
 Scientific Approach to
Research in Education

1. Why is scientific approach needed

in educational research?

7
Purpose of Scientific Research
describe
predict
understand
create change
8
 Limitation of Scientific
Research in Social Sciences
Complexity of subject matter
Difficulties in observation
Difficulties in replication
Interaction of observer and subject
Difficulties in controlling
Difficulties in measuring
9
 Types of Research:

Quantitative Qualitative

10
 Quantitative Study

2. Non-
1. Experimental
Experimental

true experimental - descriptive survey

quasi experimental - causal comparative
- correlational
11
 1. Experimental Study

1. Intervention is given

2. Effect of intervention (independent

variable) on the other variable
(dependent variable)
12
Example:
To study the effect of on-line
feedback on students learning

13
 3. Other variables which might
affect students learning will be
controlled, such as:

- same tutor;
- same studying time;
- same learning materials, etc
14
 2. Non-Experimental

- Descriptive Survey
- Causal comparative research

- Correlational

15
Qualitative Research

16
 What is Qualitative Research?
Holistic inquiry in a natural setting
Human being is the instrument
E.g. interview, focus group

Purposive sampling
Inductive data analysis collect data, then
look for pattern or themes
Generation of theory

17
 Type of Qualitative Study

Historical study
Case study
Anthropology and/or ethnography
(cross cultural)

18
 Ethics in Research

- protection of subject from harm

- informed consent
- confidentiality
- right to privacy
- honesty
- objectivity in reporting

19
 Validity and Reliability of a
Research
Population External Validity the
results are able to be genaralised to the
larger population
Ecological External Validity obtain
the same findings in other settings
e.g. controlled experimental setting
20
 Validity and Reliability of a
Research

External Validity of Operations

will similar results would be expected
from different operational definitions?

21
 Questions

1. What are variables?

2. What are the characteristics of
variables?
3. Can studies be conducted
without variables?

22
 Type of Variables
Dependent
Independent
Extraneous

23
 Dependent Variables
Also refers to outcome of the study
Measurable by researcher
Changed according to intervention or
situation
Example
- Spelling test score
- Aptitude score
- Number of question answered in one
minute
24
 Independent Variables

It may be a form of intervention, example:

intervention to reduce mental patients
stress

Can be controlled/changed by the researcher

Example: Type of intervention sweet pills vs.
original drug

25
 Extraneous Variables

Unexpected factors that affect the dependent

and independent variables
To overcome: made them constant same for
each group
Build them into the design
Example:
- Both experimental and control group receive
extra tuition, television programme

26
 Example
The effect of temperature on
students achievement in
Mathematic test
1) Dependent variable: ???
2) Independent variable: ???
3) Extraneous variable: ???
27
 1) Mathematical test
2) Classroom temperature
3) Type of food consumed
4) The clothing material
5) Position in the classroom

28
 Exercise:
Identify the: 1) Dependent; 2)
Independent; and 3) Extraneous
variables for the following examples:

a) Effect of questioning on students

science concept mastery
b) Effect of teaching experience on
childrens intellectual development
29
 c) Correraltion of goal orientation
with the use of self-regulated
learning strategies
d) Emotional intelligence for male
and female students
e) Safe school policy: Exploration in
a zone within Kuala Lumpur
30
 Research Process

1. Identification of problem

2. Forming of hypotheses

3. Determine the method and

instruments of the study
31
 4. Data collection and
interpretation

5. Report on the findings

Question: What constitute a research

proposal?
32
 General Guidelines in
proposal writing (Quantitative)
Title page
- Title page
- Content
- List of table
- List of figure
- Bibliography
- Appendix
33
 Chapter 1: Introduction
- Background
- Rationale of the study
- Statement of problem
- Research objective
- Research question
- Research Hypothesis (if any)
34
- Significance of the study
- Limitation of the study
- Definition Operational
- Summary

35
 Chapter 2: Review of
Literature
- Introduction
- Related theories
- Review of past studies
- Conceptual framework
- Summary
36
 Chapter 3: Methodology
- Introduction
- Research design
- Population of the study
- Sample of the study
- Sampling
- Instrument of the study
37
- Validity and Reliability
- Pilot study
- Data analysis
- Summary

38
 Guidelines for writing
research proposal (Qualitative)
Title Page
- Title page
- Content
- List of table

39
- List of figure
- Bibliography
- Appendix

Chapter 1: Introduction
- Background / Research context
- Review of literature
40
- The researchers interest
towards focus of the study
- Purpose of the study
- Research question
- Significance of the Study
- Limitation of the study

41
 Chapter 2: Methodology
- Introduction
- Research design
- Researchers role as instrument
- Population / Sampling

42
- Data collection procedure
- Method
- Pilot study
- Ethics of research
- Interpretation and data analysis
- Data verification method

43
 Chapter 3: Case / Issues
- Introduction
- Display the case or issues with
different writing approach

44
 Chapter 4: Conclusion
- Discuss the findings with the case or
issues in research
- Discuss implication of findings
- Recommendation for future study
Bibliography
Appendix
45
Get the assignment title
for each group

46
 Writing of research title

Example of research title

Cooperative learning
strategies for accounting
education
(No good)
47
 The effect of cooperative
learning strategy on Form
Four students accounting
education
(better)

48
 How to Write a Good
Research Title
1. State what will be studied
(variables)
2. How to study (method)
3. To what extend it has to be
studied (population)

49
Review the title given by
each group

50
Procedures in
Research

51
 What is next?
Title

Background

Rationale

Statement of problem 52
 How to Write Research
Background?
- Describe generally the study by
connecting it to the variables of
study

53
 Example:
The use of English to teach
Mathematics and Science
- The advancement of current society
- The current Malaysian educational
system
- The importance of English
- Why Math & Science need to be taught
54

in English?
 Rationale of the Study
- Explain why the study needs to be
conducted by relating it to the variables
- State the importance of studying the
variables that you have chosen
Example: Collaborative practice in decision
making among secondary teachers in Kuala
Lumpur

55
 Identifying a Problem

Question: What is the most current issue in education?

56
 Common Situation in
identifying a Problem
1. Difficult to get the problem
2. Rushing to decide for a problem
3. Choose a problem based on
imagination
57
 4. Decide a problem based on
existing methodology or instrument
5. Problem of statement too general

58
 Characteristics of a Problem

1. Accurate
2. Concrete
3. Exists in reality

59
 Resource for a Problem

1. through experience
2. deduction from theory
3. reading materials

60
 Evaluation of Problem
1. The research finding will
contribute to knowledge in
education
2. Leads to new problem and
further research
61
 3. feasible
4. In line with researchers interest
5. The problem is ethical

62
 How to Write Statement
of Problem
Explain the problems exists in
specific, i.e. what actually is
happening in the social
context
63
 Characteristics of
Research Objective
specific
main target for researcher
clarity

64
Choice of words when writing
objective:
To identify To construct
To classify To prepare
To measure To examine
To record To propose
To collect To analyse
To arrange To differentiate
To observe To compare
To explain To state

65
Words Which Are Not Advisable
to Use:
To evaluate
To realise
To know
To understand

66
 How to State Research
Question?
Based on research objective
State in the form of
question

67
 Words that Can be Used in
Writing Research Question?
What is the motivation level
Is there any significant difference
Is there any significant relationship
To what extend

68
 What is A Research
Hypothesis?
Temporary expectation of the researcher on
the relationship/differences between the
variables
Able to relate theory with observation
As a guide to research
Consistent with field of research 69
 Formation of Hypothesis
Through observation,
experience and findings from past
studies
Example: Students answering essay
questions have higher level of test
anxiety from those who answer
objective questions
70
 Characteristic of Research
Hypothesis
Have the power to explain
Example:
The car can not be started
H1: insufficient water in the car (X)
H2: battery out of order ()
71
 Type of Hypothesis
1.Null Hypothesis states that
there is no relationship/
differences between the variables
2.Research/Alternative Hypothesis
states that there is relationship/
differences between the variables
72
 Example of Null Hypothesis:

There is no significant difference in

reading comprehension among
children who were taught with
inference skills as compared to
those who were not taught with
inference skills

73
 Example of
Research/Alternative
Hypothesis:
There is significant difference in
reading comprehension among
children who were taught with
inference skills as compared to those
who were not taught with inference
skills
74
 How to State A Hypothesis
1. Non-directional or
2. Directional

75
 Non-Directional Hypothesis
Example
There is significant difference
in spatial understanding
between science and arts
students

76
 Directional Hypothesis
Example
Science students have higher
conceptual understanding on
spatial compared to art
students

77
 How to Form Directional
and non-Directional
Hypothesis?
Based on past studies

78
 Significance of the Study
State/Explain why your study is
important
Important to who?

79
 Limitation of the Study
State the constraints faced by
the researcher
- In terms of time, manpower, financial

80
 Operational Definition
Meaning given to a concept and
construct in order to measure them
Example:
Operational Definition for learning
culture the learning attitude,
reading style and type of reading
materials used by the Form 2 students

81
Literature Review

82
 Why do we need past
studies?
Knowledge from the past enables
the researcher to formulate the
background of the problem
To know the approach and
technique used
83
 A literature review is such a common feature in
research studies that it is often taken for granted.

A high quality literature review should explore the current

state of knowledge within a domain of knowledge, identify
gaps in theoretical understanding of phenomena,
illuminate methodological trends and problems, and help
justify the purposes and objectives of your research.

A good literature review can be published in its own right

without the collection of any empirical data.

84
 Sources for Past Studies
Dictionary
Encyclopedia
Journal
Abstract and Index
Reference book, database
85
 Bibliography
Article review
Leaflet
Audio visual aid
General references

86
 How to Review Past
Studies
Record all the resources found in the
articles

- Authors name, title, year,

publisher, place, volume, page
number
87
 Categorisation need to be done
in earlier stage
Read the articles
Look for similarities and
differences in idea
Form critical evaluation and
summary
ABC (2007). Title. Retrieved 26 January
2007, from http://www.abcd.htm.pl
88
 Conceptual Framework
Graphical representations
which attempt to link up the
variables under study
Also related to objective and
research question of the study,
definition operational and
methodology of the study
89
Methodology

90
 Methodology of the Study
consideration of ethical issues
adopting of research design
ready with the instrument or test
think of problems which may be
encountered
plan statistical analysis
91
 Quantitative Research
Design

(adapted from Campbell & Stanley, 1963)

92
 Descriptive Survey Design

Purpose:
To obtain information of current
situation for a phenomena
no treatment and control
hypothesis is not required
93
 Variables are used for the
purpose of obtaining
descriptive data, hence, not
necessary to state whether it is
dependent variable or
independent variable

94
 Correlational Design

Definition:
Correlational studies emphasise on
the relationship (stated in numbers)
between the variables.
Correlation value (r) is from -1.00
through 0 to +1.00

95
 No correlation
Scattergram for columns: X 1 Y1 r 2 = .013
260

240

220
Cholesterol

200

Cholesterol

180

160

140

120
100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Weight

96
Moderate Correlation

97
 Strong Correlation
(Positive)
Scattergram for columns: X 1 Y1 r 2 = .963
150

140

130

120
Verbal Ability

110

100 Verbal Ability

90

80

70

60

50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
IQ

98
 Correlational Strength
(Guildford)
< 0.20 very weak
0.21 0.40 weak
0.41 0.70 moderate
0.71 0.90 strong
0.91 very strong 99
 Pearson Correlation
Coefficient
- to measure the strength of
correlation between two sets of
continuous data (ratio and interval)

Example of ratio data: (weight)

interval data: IQ, attitude

Value: r = -1.00 to +1.00

100
 Spearman Rho
Correlation Coefficient
-to measure the strength of
correlation between two sets of
data according to its order
(ordinal)
Example of ordinal data:
(satisfaction level: 1=not satisfied,
2=satisfied, 3=very much satisfied)
101
 Point-Biserial Correlation
Coefficient
-to measure the strength of
correlation between one set of
dichotomous data (e.g.
male/female) and one set of ratio
data (e.g. height)

102
Causal Comparative
Design

103
 Characteristics:
independent variable is readily
available
dependent measure is being
measured
hypothesis is tested
does not show cause and effect
104
Pre-Experimental
Design

105
 One-Shot Case Study
Design
The group is being examined after the
treatment

X O
(where X is treatment and O is the
dependent variable)
Comment:
Almost no scientific value
Outcome is affected by other factors
106
 One-Group Pretest-Posttest
Design
One group of subject, is examined before and
after the treatment

O1 X O2

Comment:
Almost no scientific value
Result is affected by other factors
Issue of maturity
Testing effect subject learned from pre-test

107
 Static Group Comparison
Design

Group that receives treatment is

compared with group that does not
receive treatment

X O1
O2
Comment:
Selection Who are chosen?
Subject may not turn up for certain
period. 108
Quasi Experimental
Design

109
 Static Group Pretest-Posttest
Design

Subjects received treatment without randomisation

O1 X O2
O1 O2

Comment:
Commonly used design especially in working
field
Being employed in the school class room

110
 Time Series Design

Subjects are being observed from time to time,

before and after the treatment

O1 O2 O3 X 04 O5 O6

Example:
Achievement test is given every year with
treatment given for one year

111
Experimental Design

112
 Randomised Pretest-Posttest
Control Group Design

Subjects were chosen randomly to receive

treatment in order that the subject characteristics
of experimental and control group is the same

R O1 X O2
R O1 O2
Comment:
Pre test may affect Posttest if duration in
between is short
Statistic: One way ANOVA
113
 Randomised Posttest Only
Control Group Design

Subjects were chosen randomly to receive

treatment in order that the subject characteristics
of experimental and control group is the same

R X O2
R O2
Comment:
It is as effective as randomised pretest-
posttest control group design
Statistic used: t-test or ANOVA
114
 Controlling Threats to
Internal Validity

Subject characteristics
Mortality
Location
Instrumentation
Testing
115
 Controlling Threats to
Internal Validity cont
History
Maturation
Attitude of subjects Hawthorne Effect
Regression
Implementation

116
 Techniques for Controlling
Threats to Internal Validity

Standardise the condition control

for location, instrumentation, subject
attitude and implementation
Obtain more information on
subjects subject characteristics,
mortality, maturation, regression
117
 Techniques for Controlling
Threats to Internal Validity

Obtain more information on details

location, instrumentation, history,
subject attitude, implementation
Choose an appropriate design
control for all threats, except for
instrumentation
118
 Population of the Study
involves one group of individuals or
object
this individual or object has at least
one similar characteristics
2 types: target population
accessible population
119
 Sample and Sampling
Rationale:
get the sample which can truly represent
the population of study
sample must not be biased
reduce sampling error through
randomised sampling
120
 Type of Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
Process of selecting sample from a
population where every individual in
the population have the same
probability of being chosen.
Need to have master list of individuals
before choosing
121
 The most basic sampling method
Population in study has even
characteristics
Example: teacher attitude in
teaching ICT course
How to choose: refer Table of

Random Numbers
122
 Example: Choose 5 students randomly
from 10 students

Example of Table of Random Numbers

45 69 03 47 58
25 11 56 85 61
90 19 15 52 09
91 66 27 61 84
74 02 84 20 16
75 55 55 50 62
123
: : : : :
 2. Stratified Random Sampling
Determine the strata to be studied
Example: graduate teacher and non-
graduate teachers
Population not even
In each stratum, sample is chosen

by using simple random sampling

124
 The division of sample size
between strata can also be done
in ratio
Example: teacher population = 4000
60% is graduate teacher
40% is non-graduate teacher
sample size needed = 350
? Graduate teacher; ? Non-graduate teacher
125
 3. Cluster Sampling
It is used when the master list is not
available
Number of cluster can be determined
based on state, district, class
The selection of cluster from the
master list can be done with simple
random sampling
126
 List of Cluster
1. Perlis
2. Kedah There are
3. Pulau Pinang 15 clusters

15. Sabah
127
 4. Systematic Sampling
Subject is selected based on the position
in the list
Example: Choose 50 employees from 500
employees
Subjects that end with 8.
The 8th, 18th, 28th, 498th employee 128

will be chosen
 Sample Size
How many sample that needs to be
chosen?
If too big - time, cost, and manpower

will increase
If too small - sample cant represent
the population
129
 It is advisable to use sample
size more than 30 units
because normal distribution is
easily achieved when sample size
exceeds 30 units

130
 Characteristics of Good
Instrument
able to measure accurately the
variables under study
able to achieve objectives of the
study
have high validity and reliability
131
 Type of Instrument
Test determine achievement,
ability or attitude
Scale categorization of subject
characteristics

132
 Survey question obtain a lot of
information from a large group
of subject
Interview small size subject,
involve feeling
Observation

133
 Sociometric Technique
interaction of individuals in social
group
Projective technique individual gives
response to the stimuli, which
enables the researcher determine the
subject characteristics
134
 Scale Determination
type of item positive or negative
Example: to investigate students
learning
1) I like to ask question (??)
2) I like to fool around (??)

135
 Likert Scale formation
Example: 1 = very much disagree
2 = disagree
3 = somewhat agree
4 = agree
5 = very much agree

Note: avoid from using 3 = not sure

136
 Validity
To determine to what extent the
instrument measures the data which
is supposed to measure.

Example: weight measurement

weighing scale
137
 Type of Validity
Content Validity
- able to measure the content
that needs to be measured
Criterion Validity
- able to measure criteria that
needs to be measured 138
 Construct Validity
The degree to which an instrument
measures an intended construct

Example: interest, motivation,

achievement, creativity, intelligence

139
 Reliability
Reliability refers to the consistency of an
instrument in yielding the measurement.

Example: administer a test at two

different time and able to yield
similar result
140
 Reliability Coefficient:
Cronbach Alpha > 0.7
Reliability can be enhanced through:
items which are clear and accurate
instructions which are clear and
simple
add on the number of items 141
 Comparison between
Validity and Reliability

No validity, No validity, Has validity,

no reliability has reliability has reliability

142
 Variable
Two types of variables need to
be considered during statistical
analysis, i.e.:
1. Discreet Variable
2. Continuous Variable
143
 Discrete Variable
Determined by counting
Measured on groups like:
- male & female
- rural, sub-rural & urban

144
 Continuous Variable
Is measured with continuous
value
Measured by weighing
Example: weight, marks

145
 Scale of Measurement
1. Nominal Scale
This is the most basic scale of
measurement
The use of number or symbol to
differentiate the groups
Example: 1 = male; 2 = female
It is a form of discreet variable
146
 2. Ordinal Scale
The variables to be categorised have their
relationships formed in an orderly manner
Example: student attitude towards Malay language
instruction
Category: very much agree, agree, somewhat
disagree or disagree
It is a form of discreet variable
Possesses the characteristics of nominal scale
147
 3. Interval Scale
Variables are arranged such that the
distance between each category is known
Example: salary
RM501 - RM1000; RM1001 - RM1500; RM1501
RM2000
It is a form of continuous variable
Zero point is arbitrary
Possesses the characteristics of nominal & ordinal
scale 148
 4. Ratio Scale
Highest level of measurement scale
The use of zero with its true value
Example: student A: 50kg; student B: 100kg
(Student B is by nature 2x heavier)
It is a form of continuous variable

149
 Scale Statistic Statistical Test

Nominal - Mode Non-parametric

- frequency
- contingency coefficient

Ordinal -Median Non-parametric

-percentile

Interval -Mean Non-parametric

-Standard deviation Parametric
-Pearson correlation

Ratio -Mean Non-parametric

-Standard deviation Parametric
-Pearson correlation

150
 Exercise
State whether the following is
ratio scale, interval scale,
ordinal scale or nominal scale.
1. Salary
2. The number of used car
3. Blood type

151
 4. Temperature (Celsius)
5. Temperature (Fahrenheit)
6. Temperature (Kelvin)
7. Car speed
8. Pricing of a house
9. Physical fitness level
10. Bank interest
152
Data Analysis

153
 How to Analyse Quantitative Data

Step 1: Identify variables under study

Step 2: Arrange the data
Step 3: Use appropriate statistical technique
- Inappropriate statistic will cause loss of
important data

154
 Descriptive Statistic:
Meaning of statistic:
A collection of data or number. Also
refers to data analysis method to
explore the relationship between data
The purpose of descriptive statistics is to
explain the phenomenon through the
obtained data

155
 Example:

To explain the student distribution

for a particular year
Descriptive statistics is used to help
in the organisation of data
Organisation: The process of
representing data in the form of
diagrams and graph

156
 Graphical Representations
It is good to represent data
graphically.
The common graph is either histogram
or frequency polygon
Histogram is useful in representing
discrete data, example: when nominal
scale is used
157
 Frequency Polygon is suitable in
denoting the continuous data
Bar Chart compare two or more sets
of data
Pie Chart to show the overall
representations for different categories
Frequency Table

158
 Measure of Central Tendency
The tendency in which the data accumulate
at the centre between the maximum and
minimum limits
there are three types of measure for
central tendency:
- mean
- median
- mode
159
 Among the three measurements,
mean is the most stable and valid
measurement for a normal population
If the population is not normal, mean is
not suitable to be the measure of central
tendency
How do you determine mean from non-
cumulative data?
160
 Median refers to middle
scoring in a distribution that divides the
population to halves (50%)
For population which is not normal,
median is suitable to be the measure of
central tendency
, because: median depends on the
position and not the extreme values in a
distribution
161
 Mode is the most frequently
occurred scoring in a distribution
there are distribution which has no
mode, one mode, two mode
Mode is not affected by the skewness
of a distribution

162
 Measure of Dispersion
- To see the extent to which the data is
distributed away from the mean
Two sets of data may have the same
mean, median and mode, but differs in
terms of the dispersion
Example: 20, 45, 50, 55, 80 1st Distribution
45, 48, 50, 52, 55 2nd distribution
163
 Example of Measure of
Dispersion:
range, variance and standard deviation
heterogeneous group
homogeneous group

164
Statistical
Technique

165
 REPRESENTING DATA

Raw Data

Frequency Distribution Table

Class Interval Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Relative
Frequency
Frequency Relative
Frequency

Bar Charts Ogive graph -

Percentile Percentage
Histograms - Percentile Rank
Stem-and-Leaf Display
Box-Plot
166
 STATISTICS

Theoretical Statistics Applied Statistics

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

Frequency Central Dispersion Sample data

tendency in relation to
Bar Charts population
Histograms Distribution data
Stem-and-Leaf Display (Normal, Binomial, t-dis., F Dist.
Box-Plot
Ogive graph
-Percentile
- Percentile Rank
167
Outline of SPSS Part 1

Types of Data
How to enter data and examine data
How to explore data for normality
What analyses / statistics to use
How to run these analyses
How to COMPUTE and RECODE

168
Outline

How to select cases

How to interpret results and report
How to draw graphs
How to create and edit tables and place
in other applications

169
 Parametric Statistical Analyses
(Degree of Association/ Relationship)

SPSS Data Editor - Statistics - Correlate - Bivariate -

170
 Parametric Statistical Analyses
(Degree of Association/ Relationship)
Pearson Product-moment Correlation
Correlations

WHAT
KINDOF
SOMETHING PERSON
ABOUT ARE
CRA MYSELF YOU?
Pearson CRA 1.000 .204 .285
Correlation SOMETHING
ABOUT .204 1.000 .375 *
MYSELF
WHATKIND
OF
.285 .375 * 1.000
PERSON
AREYOU?
Sig. CRA . .239 .097
(2-tailed) SOMETHING
ABOUT .239 . .016
MYSELF
WHATKIND
OF
.097 .016 .
PERSON
AREYOU?
*. Correlationis significant at the0.05level (2-tailed). 171
 Presenting Correlation Table

Table 1
Pearson Product Moment Correlations between SAM,
WKOPAY and CRA Scores

CRA SAM WKOPAY

SAM .20 1.00 .38*

WKOPAY .29 .38* 1.00

N of Cases: 165 1- tailed Signif: * - .01 ** - .001

172
 Reporting Product Moment Correlations

Table 1 presents the inter-correlations among Creative Child Rearing

Practices (CRA), Something About Myself (SAM) and What Kind of
Person Are You? (WKOPAY) scores. The correlation coefficient
between CRA and SAM scores is .20 which is not significant at p < .
05. This indicates that parents who perceive themselves as creative
based on their past creative performances do not engage in creative
child rearing practices.

The correlation coefficent between CRA and WKOPAY scores is also

not significant (r = .29, p > .05). This indicates that parents who
perceive themselves as creative based on their personality
characteristics, also do not engage in creative child rearing
practices.

173
 Report

There is a significant correlation between SAM and WKOPAY (r = .375, p <

.05). The correlation is positive, indicating that an increase in SAM scores
will result in an increase in WKOPAY scores. Results also show that 14%
(r squared) of the variance of SAM scores is explained by WKOPAY
scores. About 86% of the variance in SAM is unaccounted for.

174
Parametric Statistical Analyses
( comparisons - t-tests )
SPSS Data Editor - Compare means - Independent Sample t test

175
 2nd CASE (Comparison between two means)

A researcher intended to find out if there was any significant differences

mathematic scores of students who attended tuition with those who did not
attend tuition.

176
1.Checking assumptions for parametric test
The data are interval or ratio data.
The data are normally distributed.
There is homogeneity of variance (Levene, Box M-test).
Subjects are selected independently for the study

177
 Group Statistics

Std. Error
TUITION N Mean Std. Deviation Mean
MAT Hadir 28 74.0714 11.89438 2.24783
Tidak hadir 22 67.0909 14.76130 3.14712

In d e p e n de nt S a m p le s T e st

Levene's Tes t for

E quality of V arianc es t-tes t for E quality of M eans
95% Confidenc e
Interval of the
M ean S td. E rror Differenc e
F S ig. t df S ig. (2-tailed) Differenc e Differenc e Lower Upper
MAT E qual varianc es
2.172 .147 1.853 48 .070 6.9805 3.76792 -.59539 14.55643
as s um ed
E qual varianc es
1.805 39.829 .079 6.9805 3.86744 -.83691 14.79795
not as s um ed

178
 Parametric Statistical Analyses
( comparisons - t-tests )
G roup S ta tistics

S td. S td. E rror

SEX N M ean Deviation M ean
CRA M A LE 13 15.08 4.05 1.12
FE M A LE 22 14.36 3.63 .77

I n d e p e n d e n t S a m p l e s T e st

L e ve n e 's Te s t fo r
E q u a lity o f V a ria n c e s t -t e s t fo r E q u a lit y o f M e a n s
9 5 % C o n fid e n c e
S ig . M e a n S t d . E rro r In t e rva l o f t h e M e a n
F S ig . t df (2 -t a ile d ) D iffe re n c e D iffe re n c e L o w e r U p p e r
CRA E qual
va ria n c e s .006 .93 6 .53 8 33 .59 4 .71 1.3 3 -1 . 9 8 3 .4 1
as s um ed
E qual
va ria n c e s
.52 3 23.128 .60 6 .71 1.3 6 -2 . 1 1 3 .5 4
not 179
as s um ed
 Example
Example

Mathematics achievement of students who attended tuition

differs significantly from those who did not attend tuition.

Attended Tuition Did not Attend Tuition

N Mean SD N Mean SD t p

28 74.07 11.89 22 67.09 14.76 1.85 <.001

180
 t-Test
t-Testfor
forUnpaired
UnpairedSamples
Samples

Table 2. Results Obtained from t-Test for Unpaired Samples

______________________________________________________________________________
Female Students Male Students
_____________________ _______________________
N Mean SD N Mean SD t p
______________________________________________________________________________

55 71.91 8.29 100 69.89 8.29 1.21 .228 +0.24

______________________________________________________________________________

181
 t-Test
t-Testfor
forPaired
PairedSamples
Samples

Table 1. Results Obta

_________________ 182
 Summary
Summary

Summary of the statistical tests most commonly used to compare

two means:

Samples Parametric Test Non-Parametric Test

Paired t-test for Wilcoxon signed ranks

Samples paired samples test

Unpaired t-test for Mann-Whitney U

Samples unpaired samples test

183
Parametric Statistical Analyses
( comparisons - Oneway ANOVA )
SPSS Data Editor - Compare Means - One-way ANOVA
-

184
 Bonferonni Correction for Multiple
Comparisons
For multiple comparisons, Bonferonni corrections must be made
If the overall level of significance is set at p < .05 and the number of
comparisons involved is 10, then the level of significance for each
comparison must be .05/10 which is .005.

185
 Parametric Statistical Analyses
( comparisons - Oneway ANOVA )
Test of Homogeneity of Variances

Levene
Statistic df1 df2 Sig.
WHAT KIND
OF
.469 2 38 .629
PERSON
ARE YOU?
SOMETHING
ABOUT 3.473 2 38 .041
MYSELF

ANOVA

Sum of Mean
Squares df Square F Sig.
WHAT KIND Between
31.145 2 15.573 .632 .537
OF Groups
PERSON Within
ARE YOU? 936.660 38 24.649
Groups
Total 967.805 40
SOMETHING Between
149.208 2 74.604 2.193 .126
ABOUT Groups
MYSELF Within
1292.743 38 34.020
Groups 186
Total 1441.951 40
 Understanding the ANOVA table

Variations among the sample means

F = -------------------------------------------
Variance within the samples

Between groups sum of squares / df 1 Between mean square

F = --------------------------------------------- = --------------------------
Within groups sum of squares / df 2 Within mean square

Between mean square is computed by subtracting the mean of the observations (the overall
mean) from the mean of each group, squaring each difference, multiplying each square by the
number of cases in its group, and adding the results for each group together. The total is called
between-group sum of squares

Within-group sum of squares is computed by multiplying each group variance by the number
of cases in the group minus 1 and add the results for all groups.

Mean square column reports sum of squares divided by its respective degree of freedom.
F ratio is the ratio of the two mean squares.
187
 Presentation of One-way ANOVA results
Table 3
One-way ANOVA for CRA scores by WKOPAY groups

Source DF Sum of Mean of F F

Squares Squares Ratio
Probability
Between Gps 2 31.145 15.573 .632 .537
Within Grps 38 936.660 24.649

Total 40 967.805

Multiple Range Test

Scheffe Procedure
188
No groups are significantly different at the .05 level
Interpreting F

If the F value is significant, then the

groups are significantly different
To ascertain which groups are
significantly different, perform the
Scheffe test.
F (Groups -1, No. of Participants Groups 1) = F Value

189
 Report
Results show that the three groups do
not differ significantly on CRA scores
(F (2, 37) = .632, p >.05). This represents an
effect size of 3.22% [{31 / (31 + 937)} x
100] which indicates that only 3.22% of
the variance of CRA scores was
accounted for by the 3 groups.
(do the same for SAM)

Effect size: an index used to indicate the magnitude of an

obtained result or relationship
190
 MANOVA Multivariate
Analysis of Variance
When analysis more than one
dependent variable at a time, then use
MANOVA
MANCOVA - When analysis more than
one dependent variable at a time, and
pretest is used as co-variate, then use
MANCOVA
191
Non-parametric tests

Kruskall-Wallis Test (To compare > 2

different groups)
Fiedman Test (To compare same group > 2
times)

192
 Non - Parametric Statistical Analyses
(Degree of Association)

SPSS Data Editor - Statistics - Summarize - Crosstabs

193
 Non - Parametric Statistical Analyses
(Degree of Association)
Chi-square: used to find the degree of
association between 2 nominal variables
Count CR - CREATIVE
cr groups CHILDREARING
low cr av cr hi cr Total
item29 .00 16 8 8 32
1.00 1 8 9
Total 16 9 16 41

C
hi-Sq
uareT
ests

Asym p
.
S ig.
Va
lue d
f (2
-tailed
)
P ea rso n a
1
2.4
65 2 .0
02
C hi-S q ua re
Like lihoo dR atio 1
4.6
96 2 .0
01
Line a r-by-Linear
1
1.3
89 1 .0
01
A sso ciation
No fV alidC ases 4
1
a
. 3cells(50
.0% )h
aveexp
e cte
dco un
t le
ssth
an 194
5.T
h em inimu
m expe
ctedco un
t is1.98.
 Reporting Cross Tabulations
Descriptive:
Sixteen low, 8 average and 9 high creative
parents answered no while 1 average and 8 high creative
parents answered yes on item 29. The chi-square analyses
reveals a chi-square value of 12.47 which is significant at
p < .05. 2
= 12.47, p < .05
(2, 41)
Interpretation:
The results show that creative parents do answer differently
on item 29 with the creative parents significantly answering Yes
on the item compared to the non-creative parents.
195
 Non - Parametric Statistical Analyses (Relationship)
Crosstab

Count
cr groups
low cr av cr hi cr Total
item30 .00 8 2 3 13
1.00 8 7 13 28
Total 16 9 16 41

C
hi-SquareTes
ts

A sym p. NS
S ig.
Valu
e df (2-tailed)
P ea rso n a
4.0
8 7 2 .1
30
C hi-S q ua re
Like lih o
o dR atio 4.0
6 3 2 .1
31
Line a r-by-L inear
3.5
2 0 1 .0
61
A sso ciation
No fV alidC ases 4
1
a
. 1cells(16.7%)h
aveexp
e cte
dco un
t lessthan
5.T
h em inimumexpe
ctedco un
t is2.85 .

FINDING: 196
There is no relationship between item 30 and the childrearing practices
 Non-Parametric Statistical Analyses (Relationship)
sa m g rp s * cr g ro u p s C ro ssta b u la tio n

C ou nt
c r group s
lo w c r av c r hi c r To tal
s am g rp s 1 12 5 8 25
2 4 4 8 16
Total 16 9 16 41

Chi-SquareTests

Asym p.

Value df
Sig.
(2-tailed)
NS
Pearson a
2.244 2 .326
C hi-Square
LikelihoodR atio 2.306 2 .316
Linear-by-Linear
2.050 1 .152
Association
Nof ValidC ases 41
a. 1cells(16.7% ) haveexpectedcount lessthan
5. Them inimumexpectedcount is3.51.

FINDING: 197
There is no relationship between SAM and CR
 Non - Parametric Statistical Analyses
(Comparison of Groups on ordinal data)

SPSS Data Editor - Nonparametric Tests - 2 Independent sample

198
 Non - Parametric Statistical Analyses
(Comparison of Groups on ordinal data)
Mann-Whitney U-Test
Ra nks Test Statisticsa

Mean Sum of ARTISTRY

SEX N Rank Ranks Mann-Whitney
194.500
ARTISTRY MALE 15 20.97 314.50 U
Wilcoxon W 314.500
FEMALE 26 21.02 546.50
Z -.014
NS
Total 41 Asymp. Sig.
.989
(2-tailed)
Exact Sig.
b
[2*(1-tailed .989
FINDING: Sig.)]
Fathers and mothers do not differ a. Grouping Variable:
SEX
in the variable Artistry b. Not corrected for
199
ties.
Chapter 5 Discussion and
Conclusion
Introduction
Summary of Findings
Discussion (based on research
questions and past studies)
Implications from the Findings
Suggestions from the Study
Suggestions for Future Research
Conclusion
200
Conclusion

Research Process
Types of data
Data Entry and Data Examination
Data Exploration - both graphical +
statistical
Data Analyses - Parametric & Non-
parametric, Interpreting and Reporting

201
 What is Qualitative Research?
Studies that explore the quality of
relationship, activity, situation, or
resources are always remembered as
qualitative research.

The major focus is on holistic

explanation.

202
How do quantitative and qualitative
researcher see the world?

203
Action Research

204
205
 What is Action Research?
Action Research is conducted by one or more individuals or
groups for the purpose of solving a problem or obtaining
information in order to inform local practice.
Generally want to solve some kind of day-to-day immediate
problem.
Such studies are seriously limited in generalizability.
Action research does not require complete mastery of the
major types of research earlier discussed.
The steps in action research tend to be straightforward.
Action research studies are rooted in the interest and needs of
practitioners.

206
Assumptions Underlying
Action Research
A. The participants have the authority to
make decisions.
B. The participants want to improve their
practice.
C. The participants are committed to
continual professional development.
D. Participants engage in systematic
inquiry.

207
 Examples of Action Research

A team of teachers, after discussions with the

school administration, decide to meet weekly to
revise the mathematics curriculum to make it
more relevant to low- achieving students.

A group of teachers decide to observe each other

on a weekly basis and then discuss ways to
improve their teaching.

208
 The entire staffadministration, teachers,
counselors, and clerical staffof an elementary
school go on a retreat to plan ways to improve
the attendance and discipline policies for the
school.

Following up on the example just listed above, the staff

decides to collect data by reviewing the attendance
records of chronic absentees over the past year, to
interview a random sample of attendees and absentees
to determine why they differ, to hold a series of after-
school roundtable sessions between discipline-prone
students and faculty to identify problems and discuss
ways to resolve issues of contention, and to establish a
mentoring system in which selected students can serve
as counselors to students needing help with their
assigned work. 209
 Types of Action Research
There are two main types of action research:
Practical Action Research
Addresses a specific problem
Primary purpose is to improve practice and
inform larger issues
Participatory Action Research
Empower individuals and groups to improve
their lives and bring about a social change
Stakeholders are involved and are active in
all processes (collaborative participation)

210
 Steps in Action Research

Identifying the Research Question

Gathering the Necessary Information
Analyzing and Interpreting the Information
Developing an Action Plan

211
 Advantages of Action Research

It can be performed by anyone, in any

type of school or institution
It can help to improve educational practice
It can help them learn to identify problems
systematically
It can build up a small community of
research-oriented individuals at the local
level
212
 Similarities and Differences Between Action
Research & Formal Quantitative and Qualitative
Research Formal Research
Action Research
Systematic inquiry.
Systematic inquiry.
Goal is to develop and test
Goal is to solve problems of local theories and to produce
concern. knowledge generalizable to
wide population.
Little formal training required to
conduct such studies. Considerable training required
to conduct such studies.
Intent is to identify and correct
problems. Intent is to investigate larger
issues, of local concern.
Carried out by teacher or other
local education professional. Carried out by researcher who
is not usually involved in local
Uses primarily teacher-developed situation.
instruments.
Uses primarily professionally-
developed instruments.
213
 Similarities and Differences Between Action
Research & Formal Quantitative and Qualitative
Research
Formal Research
Action Research
More rigorous.
Less rigorous.
Frequently value-
Usually value-based. neutral.
Purposive samples Random samples (if
selected. possible) preferred.
Selective opinions of Selective opinions of
researcher often researcher never
considered as data. considered as data.
Generalizability is very Generalizability often
limited. appropriate. 214
Ethnography Study

215
 What is Ethnographic Research?
The most complex of all research methods.

A variety of approaches is used in an attempt to

obtain as holistic a picture as possible of a
particular society, group, setting, etc.

The emphasis is on documenting the everyday

experiences of individuals by observing and
interviewing them and relevant others.

The key tools are in-depth interviewing and

continual, ongoing participant observation of a
situation.
216
 Procedure in Ethnography

Wolcott (1966) stated that ethnographic

procedures require three things:
1) A detailed description of the culture-
sharing group being studied.
2) An analysis of this group in terms of
perceived themes or perspectives.
3) Some interpretation of the group by the
researcher as to meanings and
generalization about the social life of
human beings, in general.
217
 Unique Value of Ethnographic
Research
Ethnographic research has a particular
strength that makes it especially
appealing to many researchers.
It can reveal nuances and subtleties
that other methodologies miss.
By going out into the world and
observing things as they occur, we are
better able to obtain a more accurate
picture.
218
 Concept of Ethnography
Culture Thick Description
Holistic Member Checking
Perspective A Nonjudgmental
Contextualization Orientation
An Emic
Perspective

These concepts guide the work of ethnographers as

they perform field research
219
 Sampling in Ethnographic
Research
Ethnographers attempt to observe
everything.
However, no researcher can observe
everything at once.
Samples are small and do not permit
generalization to a larger population.
Their goal is the complete understanding of
a particular situation.
220
 Data Collection
in Ethnographic Research
There are two main methods of collecting data
through Ethnographic Research:
1) Interviewing is the most important tool
2) Participant Observation is crucial to
effective fieldwork, which requires an
immersion in the culture
Field notes are used to check the
accuracy of an ethnographers
observations
Other forms of writing used are field
jottings, field diary, and field logs
221
 Data Analysis
in Ethnographic Research
Triangulation Visual Representations
(checking the validity (maps, charts,
by comparing sources sociograms)
of information) Statistics (use of non-
Patterns (checking parametric techniques)
reliability by revealing Crystallization (when
consistencies and everything falls into
describing matches) place)
Key Events (a lens
through which to view
a culture)
222
 Topics that Lend Themselves
Well to Ethnographic Research
Topics that defy Topics that involve the
simple quantification study of the roles that
Topics that can be educators play, and
best understood in a behaviors associated
natural setting with those roles
Topics that involve the Topics that involve the
study of individual or study of the activities
group activities over and behavior of groups
time as a unit
Topics involving the
study of formal
organizations in their
totality 223
 Advantages of Ethnographic
Research

provides comprehensive perspective

deeper understanding on behaviour through
observation in real setting, many thoughts, ideas
can be detected
appropriate to study behaviours that that are best
understood by observing them within the natural
settings.
to study group behaviour over time
E.g. interaction between student-teacher 224
 Disadvantages of Ethnographic
Research
highly dependent on particular researchers
observations and interpretations
no numerical data, hard to check validity of the
researchers conclusion
observer bias
no generalisation
specific variables investigated ramain unclear
because no defined clear terms
close supervision is needed 225
Case Study

226
 What is Meant by Case Study?
selection of topic for case study is based on
specific interest (Stake, 1994).
Due to its empirical inquiry which looks into the
phenomenon in real context, it is considered as
comprehensive research strategy, not a data
collection technique.
a limited research
It is an in-depth study towards a real situation.
227
 How do determine a case?
Case is defined as a phenomena
found in specific context
A case is one unit of analysis in a
case study

228
 When is Case Study Used?
Case study is used to answer
research questions (e.g. how or why)
It is used when focus of the study is
difficult to control by the researcher

229
 Why a Case is Studied?
to gain in-depth understanding on an
interesting case. It is known as intrinsic
case study. Normally used in
exploratory case study.
to give insight on certain phenomena
and issue, or to refine the theory. It is
known as Instrumental Case Study
230
 to gain wide understanding by
widen the study to few cases. It is
known as collective case study.

231
 Case Study Methodology
There were suggestions for a general
approach to designing case studies, and
also recommendations for exploratory,
explanatory, and descriptive case studies.
Each of those three approaches can be
either single or multiple-case studies, where
multiple-case studies are replicatory, not
sampled cases.
232
In exploratory case studies, fieldwork,
and data collection may be
undertaken prior to definition of the
research questions and hypotheses.
This type of study has been
considered as a prelude to some
social research.

233
Explanatory cases are suitable for
doing causal studies. In very
complex and multivariate cases, the
analysis can make use of pattern-
matching techniques.
Yin, R., & Moore, G. (1987). The use of advanced
technologies in special education. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 20(1), 60.
234
Descriptive cases require that the
investigator begin with a descriptive
theory, or face the possibility that
problems will occur during the project.
Pyecha, J. (1988). A case study of the application of non-
categorical special education in two states. Chapel Hill,
NC: Research Triangle Institute.

235
 How to carry out Case Study?
to gain demographic information
to analyse and interpret the data
based on the categories, conclusion of
the study is formed
report writing

236
 Case Study Protocol As
Proposed by Yin (1994)

Overview of the project (project objectives

and case study issues)
Field procedures (credentials and access
to sites)
Questions (specific questions that the
investigator must keep in mind during data
collection)
Guide for the report (outline, format for the
narrative) (Yin, 1994, p. 64)
237
Phenomenological
Study

238
 Phenomenological study
investigates various reactions to, or
perception of, a particular
phenomenon
hopes to gain insight into the
perceptions and reactions (e.g.
opinion of teachers
data are usually collected through
interviewing
239
 Different people are interviewed
on their perceptions and experience
towards a phenomenon
Search for commonalities of
perceptions among different
perceptions
e.g. the experiences of nurses who
work in the operation theatre

240
 After interviewing process, the
researcher searches through
meaningful statements that describe
the experiences in relation to the
phenomenon of interest
Then, cluster statements into themes
Integrate the themes into a narrative
description of the phenomenon

241
Grounded Theory

242
 Intention is to generate a theory
that is grounded in data systematically
gathered and analysed.
One begins with an area of study
and what is relevant to that area is
allowed to emerge.
data are collected primarily through
one-to-one interviews, focus group
interviews and participant observation
243
 e.g. A researcher is interested in
how to enhance student discipline in
the school
- Conduct series of in-depth interviews
with a number of principals
- discover different strategies
- observe what the principals do
- interview some of the teachers
244
 by continually examining the data
through interviews and observation,
the researcher develops a theory
about Effective ways to enhance
student discipline
The theory will be modified over time
as researcher observe and interview
more principals and teachers.
The theory is developed out of the
245
data grounded in the data
Document Analysis

246
 Identification of Sample
Sampling is important in qualitative
research
Sample size is small, requires 1 to 5
case
emphasised on quality and the types
of information yield
247
 What type of sample can be
chosen community, human being,
institution, organisation, informal group,
pilot programme

Type of sampling simple sampling,

purposive sampling, snowball sampling

248
 Simple sampling selecting the
nearest case / easily access case
Purposive sampling specially chosen
subject based on certain characteristics
which can meet the needs of the study
Snowball sampling start with a small
group of case, proceed on with more
case until the researcher thinks that it is
sufficient
249
 Data Collection
Four most common methods used in
qualitative data collection are:
Observation
Interviewing
analysing documents (content
analysis)
250
Observation

251
 Observing how people act and
how things look
e.g. how students behave during
discussions better to observe than to
interview
degree of observer participation can
vary from complete participant to
complete observer
252
 There are four different roles
with regard to observation:
1) Participant Observation
2) Non-Participant Observation
3) Naturalistic Observation
4) Simulations

253
 Participant Observation
researcher participates actively in the
setting he is observing
when the role is complete participant,
the identity not known to the group
when participantas-observer,
researcher participates fully, and
identity is known to the group
254
interacts naturally
 Non-Participant Observation
Researchers do not participate in
the activities being observed, just sit
by the side
play the role of observer-as-
participant, identify herself, not belong
to the group
complete observer observes the
activities of the group without in
anyway participating in those activities255
 The most common forms of non-
participant observation studies
included naturalistic observations and
simulations.

A simulation is an artificially created

situation in which subjects are asked to act
out certain roles.

256
 Variations in Approaches to
Observation
Role of the Observer
Full-participant Partial Onlooker;
observation participation observer is an outsider
How the Observer Is Portrayed to Others
Participants know Some but not Participants do not know
that observations are being all of the that observations are being
made and they know who is participants made or that there is
making them. know the observer. someone observing them.
How the Purpose of the Observation Is Portrayed to Others
The purpose of the The purpose of the No explanation is False explanations are
observation is fully explained observation is given to any of the given; participants are
to all involved. explained to some of participants. deceived about the
the participants. purpose of the
observation.
Duration of the Observations
A single observation of limited Multiple observations; long-term
duration (e.g., 30 minutes). duration (e.g., months, even years).
Focus of the Observations
Narrow focus: Only a single Broad focus: Holistic view of the activity or
element or characteristic is observed. characteristic being observed and all of
its elements is sought. 257
 Instrument Validity and Reliability

Observer effect reactivity, behaviour

being influenced, The presence of an
observer can have a considerable effect
on the behavior of those being observed,
and affect the outcome of the study.
To overcome it, stay long enough in
group

258
 Observer bias - possibility that
certain characteristics or ideas of
observers may bias what they see.

To overcome it, study subjective

factor objectively, do in a number of
ways

259
 Observer expectation - is another
related concern: when they know to
observe certain characteristics of
subjects.

To overcome it, audiotape and

videotape it, comparing notes or
impressions among other researchers
assists in reducing this threat.
260
 Coding Observational Data
A coding scheme is a set of categories an
observer uses to record a persons or groups
behavior.
Coding schemes have been used to measure
interactions between parents and
adolescents in a lab setting.
An observer still must choose what to
observe, even with a fixed coding scheme.
These data are coded into categories that
emerge as the analysis proceeds (i.e.,
ethnographic research).

261
 Interviewing
Interviewing is an important way for a

researcher to check the accuracy of

the impressions he or she gained
through observation.
Fetterman (1989) describes
interviewing as the most important
data-collection technique for
qualitative research.
262
 Types of Interviews
There are four types of interviews:
1) Structured
Verbal questionnaires, formal series of questions designed
to elicit specific answers on the part of respondents
Most useful for obtaining information to test a hypothesis
1) Semistructured
Verbal questionnaires, formal series of questions designed
to elicit specific answers on the part of respondents
Best conducted near the end of a study
1) Informal
Less formal than the previous methods
Casual conversations, pursuing the interests of both
parties
Considered the most common form of interviewing
1) Retrospective
Can be all of the above
Tries to get the respondent to recall and reconstruct from
memory something from the past
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 Types of Interview Questions

Patton (1990) has identified six types of

interview questions:
1) Background/demographic questions
2) Knowledge questions
3) Experience/behavior questions
4) Opinion/values questions
5) Feelings questions
6) Sensory questions

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 Interviewing Behavior
A set of expectations exists for all interviews:

Respect the culture of Ask the same question

the group being in different ways
studied during the interview
Respect the individual Ask the interviewee to
being interviewed repeat an answer
Be natural when in doubt
Develop an Vary who controls the
appropriate rapport flow of communication
with the participant Avoid leading
Ask one question at a questions
time Dont interrupt
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 Validity and Reliability
in Qualitative Research
An important check on the validity and reliability in
qualitative research is to compare one informants
description of something with another informants
description of the same thing.
Triangulation is a check on reliability/validity by
comparing different information on the same topic.
Efforts should be made to ensure reliability and
validity by including:
Proper vocabulary
Recording questions and personal reaction
Describing content and documenting sources

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 Issue in Qualitative Data
Collection Ethics in Qualitative
Research
Is it ethical to observe people without
their knowledge, example observe from
far using telephoto lens?
protection of the participants are of
concern the right to privacy
(researcher needs to respect ownership of materials by participants)

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 Qualitative Data Analysis

Step 1: read the data in detail

one by one

Step 2: filter the data by highlighting

important facts based on the
frequency of occurrence. The data
will then be categorised for themes to
be emerged
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 Step 3: present the categorised
data in the form such that the
categories will be linked up in order
to reflect the phenomenon.

Step 4: interpret the data to make

conclusion. Through this process,
relations between data is formed.
Models/theory can be formed to
explain the situation.
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 Content Analysis technique
used to collect and analyse text
content
Step 1: Read the data/text and look
into its content
Step 2: Choose and code the data
into few categories based on word,
meaning of word, phrase, sentence, or
theme 270
 Step 3: present the data in matrix
form, graph or chart for further
deduction
Step 4: draw conclusion by
determining the pattern, theme, to
categorise and to confirm the
conclusion through triangulation, and
feedback from respondent
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 Writing and Reporting of
Qualitative Research Findings
As of today, no standard format
Determining the audience
Selecting a focus
Outlining the report
Beginning to write
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 Alternative Ways in Writing and
Reporting Qualitative Research Findings
narrative style in the form of story
portrayal style illustration in the form of profile
vignette style to explain event in series
analysis style to report in different section by
providing proof

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