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Machining of composite materials. Part II:

Non-traditional methods

Article in Composites Manufacturing December 1992

DOI: 10.1016/0956-7143(92)90120-J

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Machining of composite materials.
Part II : Non-traditional methods
S. Abrate and D. Walton
Machining of composite materials is difficult due to the heterogeneity
material and the high abrasiveness of the reinforcing
introduced into the workpiece and very high tool wear. The use of traditional
was reviewed in Part I of this paper. Here new methods
electro-discharge, electro-chemical spark, and ultrasonic
have been applied to organic matrix composites with aramid, glass, graphite fibre reinforcement
but also to metal matrix and ceramic matrix composites.
Keywords: composites; cutting; drilling; machining;
discharge; electro-chemical; spark
INTRODUCTION
Machining of composite materials is difficult because of
the heterogeneity and anisotropy of the material, its low
thermal conductivity, heat sensitivity and the abrasive
nature of the reinforcing fibres. Traditional machining
methods can be used as discussed in Part I of this review.
However, tool geometry, tool materials and operating
conditions must be adapted in order to lower heat
generation rates and avoid introducing damage by
thermal or mechanical means. Low cutting rates and high
tool wear and often poor surface quality are experienced.
In this article, nontraditional methods such as laser
and waterjet cutting, electro-discharge, electrochemical
spark and ultrasonic machining are considered. These
newer methods are used in composite materials with the
objective of either increasing cutting rates, improving
surface quality, or in cases where traditional methods are
ineffective.
LASERS
Lasers are a viable alternative to machining composite
materials. A high energy infrared beam is focused on a
very small spot, usually 0.1-1.0 mm in diameter, and
causes melting, vaporization, or chemical degradation
throughout the depth of the material. Fluids and
degradation products are removed by a gas jet coaxial
with the laser beam. For non-metallic materials, air is
used as an assist gas since oxidation does not occurl,
but other gasses have been used such as CO, for glass
and helium for boron composites. Laser cutting of
plastics is very efficient since these materials have a very
high absorption coefficient for infrared radiation and low
thermal conductivity which causes the thermal energy to
remain highly localized3. Most thermoplastics are cut by
shearing of a localized melt generated by the laser
beam. Polymethyl methacrylate (plexiglass) is cut by
vaporization. Thermosets such as epoxy resins are cut
by chemical degradation which requires higher energy
0956-7143/92/020085-10
Composites Manufacturing No. 2 1992
and heat sensitivity of the
fibres. This results in damage being
machining methods
are considered: laser, waterjet,
machining. These various techniques
waterjets; laser; ultrasonic; electro-
and higher temperatures than melt shearing for
thermoplastics.
One of the major advantages of lasers is that there is
no contact between the tool and the workpiece,
eliminating problems associated with chatter and
vibration and allowing for the machining of small or thin
components without requiring mechanical force4. Areas
normally inaccessible with conventional cutting tools can
be reached with lasers because there is no hard contact.
Minimum inner and outer corner radii are limited only
by the stability of the processing equipment and the depth
of the heat affected zone3. Material changes are also easily
dealt with through simple adjustments of feed rate and
power levels3. The laser machining process is easily
automated, which leads to improved productivity and
higher quality products.
Influence of material properties
Three parameters are important in laser cutting: energy
absorption, thermal diffusivity and reaction temperature5.
Two types of lasers are used: the Nd:YAG is a solid
state laser which is usually pulsed and emits electro-
magnetic radiation with a wavelength of 1.06 pm, the
CO2 laser is a flowing gas laser that emits energy at a
10.6 pm wavelength. Radiations emitted by CO, lasers
are absorbed well by non-metals while those of Nd:YAG
lasers are not effectively absorbed by organic matrices5.
A typical CO, laser set-up is shown in Figure 1. With
composite materials, laser cutting is complicated by the
fact that the constituents usually have greatly different
thermal conductivities, heat capacities and vaporization
temperatures (Table I)6. Experiments indicated that the
best quality of the cut surfaces is obtained when the
thermal properties of the reinforcing fibres are closest to
those of the matrix. The vaporization temperature of
aramid is much lower than that of glass or graphite, so
that lower temperatures will be required for cutting
aramid composites. Also, since the thermal conductivity
of aramid fibres is much lower than that of graphite or
@ 1992 Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd
85
 CO2 gas laser
jig o PlY

m
m 900 ply

iii
iii Charred layer

- Heat affected matrix

Assisting gas

Focal

a d

\I/ Composite

Table
Figure 1 Typical CO, laser

glass fibres, heat willnot be conducted away as much as

and high temperatures will remain localized in the cutting b
zone. As a result, the heat affected zone is much smaller -;du-i b
for composites with aramid reinforcement. When the Figure 2 Typical surfaces cut with lasers* : (a) top view; (b) end view
same matrix material is reinforced by aramid, glass or
carbon fibres, the aramid composite is most easily cut,
followed by glass and carbon composite&. region, both matrix and fibres are removed, in the second
A detailed study of the morphology of the cut edge zone, only the matrix is removed and in the third zone,
of aramid-epoxy shows some characteristic features the aluminium matrix is unaffected. Zone 2 is
(Figure 2). On the cut surface, a charred layer is first approximately 50 pm wide and in a small region between
observed, followed by a zone where fibres are protruding zones 2 and 3, the matrix has been melted and then
from the matrix. On the top surface of the specimen, a re-solidified. A study of laser cutting of a glass-ceramic
wider darkened zone in which the matrix has undergone matrix reinforced by a 50% volume fraction of aligned
some degradation due to heating by hot gases and hot SIC fibres also showed fibres protruding from the matrix.
products removed from the kerf. The same features are This is attributed to the fact that Sic melts at 2500K
observed for all organic matrix composite&. The about 1000K greater than the matrix, and the greater
charred zone consists of a carbon deposit resulting from thermal conductivity of Sic fibres compared to the
the decomposition of fibres and matrix which can be ceramic matrix12.
removed with an alcohol rub or by mechanical sanding The Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) is defined as the
or grinding lo . The length of the protruding fibres depends region in which temperatures exceeded the vaporization
on the difference in vaporization temperature between temperature of the matrix. The width of the HAZ is one
fibres and matrix and heat conductivity. As a result, the measure of cut quality and depends mainly on the
heat penetration depth into the material is higher for properties of the constituents. Three cut quality classes
laminas with fibres oriented perpendicular to the kerf, were defined in Reference 13. With first class quality wt
and these laminas will exhibit higher matrix recession*. is less than the focal spot diameter and fibres protrude
A study of laser cutting of Sic fibre-reinforced aluminium less than 50 pm with no visible charring. Second class
alloy composite revealed similar features. In the central quality (acceptable) corresponds to cases where w, is

Table 1 Thermal properties of fibres and matrix materials6*3

Heat Vaporization Heat of

Conductivity capacity temperature vaporization Density
Material W/m/K) (J kg- K-l) (C) (J g-l) (g mm3 1
Polyester 0.20 1200 350-500 loo0 1.25
Aramid 0.05 1420 950 1.44
Graphite 50 710 3300 43ooa 1.85
Glass 1.0 850 2300 31000 2.55

86 Composites Manufacturing No. 2 1992

greater than the focal spot diameter, protruding fibre
length is between 50 and 150 pm, and some visible
charring is observed r3 . Third class quality is unacceptable
and characterized by w, being larger than the focal spot
diameter, protruding fibres longer than 150 pm and high
charring 3.
Effect of operating conditions
In laser cutting operations two parameters can be varied :
output power and cut velocity. Cut quality is usually
measured by the size of the HAZ and the geometry of
the kerf. In order to minimize the HAZ, the minimum
amount of heat required to produce a full cut should be
used. For a given power level there exists a maximum
cutting speed V,,, for which the HAZ is minimum. At
speeds above V,,, the beam does not go through the
thickness of the material. In cutting unidirectional
carbon-epoxy laminates, V,,, is significantly larger when
the cutting direction is parallel rather than perpendicular
to the fibre direction. When cutting parallel to the fibre
direction (Figure 3(a)), the heat conducted away from
the laser beam by the fibres serves to preheat the material
ahead of the beam and is, therefore, not lost to the cutting
process. Little heat will be conducted in a direction
perpendicular to the cutting direction due to the low
conductivity of the composite in the transverse direction.
When cutting in a direction perpendicular to the fibres
(Figure 3(b)) the heat conducted away from the beam
by the fibre is lost, and thus the efficiency of the process
is lower. With laminates or less conductive fibres such
as aramid the effect of fibre orientation is negligible*.
Increasing the input energy will increase the heat
affected zone and rounding of the top and bottom
surfaces (Figure 4) might result3. Charring increases as
the thickness of the part increases, because of higher
energy levels required. The speed and pressure of the
flowing gases were shown to affect the thickness of the
charred region on the cut surface.
The width of the kerf is not constant through the
thickness of the material, and the width at the top w, is
V its applications to laser turning and milling (Figure 5).
a b
Figure 3 Laser cutting of unidirectional composites:
fibre direction ; (b) perpendicular to fibre direction
Figure 4 Rounding of corners during laser cutting
input energy
Composites Manufacturing No. 2 1992
generally larger than that at the bottom wt,. For aramid
and glass reinforced polyesters, both w, and wi decrease
as cutting speed increasesg. Eventually w, reaches a limit
approximately equal to the spot diameter, and wt, tends
to zero8,13.
Transverse matrix cracks were also observed in the
vicinity of the cut l4 . Crack spacing increased away from
the kerf, indicating that cracks induced as the laminate
is cooled down from the cure temperature were present
prior to laser cutting. Average crack spacing can also be
reduced by increasing the cutting speed.
Analyses of the laser cutting process
The relationship between the maximum traverse speed
I,,,, the power of the laser P, the thickness of the laminate,
t, and the spot diameter d is given by:
P = SV,,, dt (1)
where 6 is a material parameter, obtained experimentally,
which depends on the specific heat of vaporization, the
specific heat and the vaporization temperature of the
material 3. For composites with aramid, glass, and
graphite fibres in a polyester matrix, the parameter 6 was
found to be 3730,ll 100, and 40 000 J cmm3, respectively.
Excellent correlation was obtained between predictions
from Equation (1) and experimental results as P varied
between 250 and 2000 W, t between 1.5 and 4.5 mm, and
V between 5 and 250 mm s- . This relationship has been
verified experimentally 14. In Reference 1, cutting of
polycarbonate, ABS, polystyrene, and polypropylene was
shown to follow Equation (1 ), but with t raised to the
1.35 power. Typical traverse speeds for other materials
are given in Table 2.
A one-dimensional analysis of transient heat conduction
near the cutting edge was presented6 in order to
understand how thermal gradients develop and to
estimate the size of the heat affected zone. Good
agreement with experimental results was obtained for
composites with aramid and glass reinforcement. Only
qualitative agreement is obtained with carbon fibre
reinforcement and the discrepancy is attributed to the
higher thermal conductivity of the fibres6 which would
then invalidate a one-dimensional analysis.
In a series of articles. Chryssolouris and coworkers 5-1
investigated laser grooving for composite materials and
An analytical model, developed to determine the groove
depth from process parameters and material properties
and based on a balance of energy and an assumed
temperature distribution, gave good agreement with
experimental results 5-17. The use of two orthogonal
laser beams, each producing a blind cut, for laser turning
was investigated in several articles4,r7. A theoretical
(a) parallel to analysis of transient heat conduction in one dimension
was used to predict the depth of cut6,1g. Experimental
results on laser turning and several proposed designs for
laser lathes and a laser milling machine were also
presented4. The use of a waterjet in conjunction with the
laser beam was proposed in order to reduce the size of
the heat affected zone in laser grooving. An off-axis
waterjet removes heat from the workpiece surface
through phase change (boiling) and convection (Figure
6). However, the liquid jet also absorbs a portion of the
with excessive beam energy, reducing the amount of laser beam energy
available for material vaporization. Overall, up to 70%
87
Table 2 Typical traverse speeds for laser cutting of composites
Thickness Cutting speed Power
Material (mm) (mm s-r) (WI Reference

Glass-epoxy 3.2 5 250 1

1.6 250 1200 1
1.6 86.7 450 1
Glass-polyethylene 3.2 15 250 1
4.8 30 250 1
Boron-epoxy 8.0 26.7 15000 1
SC-aluminium 0.38 30 150 11
Aramid-epoxy 2 16-133 500 14
Graphite-epoxy 0.5 38.1 400 5
Kevlar-epoxy 1.0 38.1 400 5
Kevlar-epoxy 2.36 89.7 300 5
Glass ceramic-SC fibres 0.9 22 910-1400 12

Beam 1f reduction in the heat affected zone can be achieved with

the incorporation of a waterjet, yielding a corresponding
/I groove depth reduction of 45%.

Study of disintegration products

During laser cutting of composite materials, both
particles and chemical fumes are released into the air,
and several studies were directed towards analysing these
by-products and their effects on operator health. With
carbon-epoxy, up to 90% of the matrix material
a removed from the kerf is recovered as small particles with
diameters less than 0.1 pm, and the vaporization of the
fibre material at temperatures near 4000C produces CO
and CO, gases. Sampling and analysis of the

0@
disintegration products from glass-epoxy revealed
melted fragments of fibre and extremely fine particles and
high amounts of CO. With aramid-epoxy, fibre
fragments ranging from 50 to 100 pm were observed and
approximately 35% of the disintegrated weight was
recovered as gases with high amounts of hydrogen
cyanide (HCN) and small amounts of organic
compounds. A detailed analysis of the chemical
cl Beam 1 by-products produced during laser cutting of aramid-
epoxy is available . Precautions must be taken to ensure
b adequate ventilation of the workstation to protect the
Figure 5 (a) Laser milling; (b) laser turning operator from particles and toxic fumes7,r.

WATERJET CUTTING
Waterjet cutting is a relatively new technology, the first
system having been installed in 197122. Waterjet cutting
Laser is used on advanced composites with organic, metal and
beam ceramic matrices for operations such as cutting, milling,
turning and drilling. The principle is to produce a thin
waterjet with very high pressures and high velocities, and,
upon impact, material is removed by localized shearing.
Pressures up to 400 MPa are used, and waterjet diameters
are in the 0.08-0.5 mm range23. With pure water,
aramid-epoxy or glass-epoxy laminates up to 6.35 mm
thick can be cut, while for graphite-epoxy the upper
limit is about 0.15 mm. The performance is significamly
improved when abrasive particles are added. In that case,
graphite-epoxy laminates.up to 10 mm thick can be cut2
and for a thickness of 3.17 mm, a cutting speed of 1 m
min- can be used which is nearly four times that of
Figure 6 Laser grooving with trailing waterjet traditional methods24.

88 Composites Manufacturing No. 2 1992

 Some of the advantages of waterjet cutting include high
cutting speeds, the absence of a heat affected zone
wasive
compared to traditional or laser machining techniques,
and the elimination of dust by jet entrainmentl. Cut
width varies between 0.5-2.5 mm and tolerances of
f0.4 mm can be held, which is adequate for both
mechanical and adhesive joints*. Corner radii as tight
as 1.3-3 mm can be obtained24 and surface quality is
acceptable without further machining. The system is very
flexible and can be easily automated23*26. Several
drawbacks of waterjet machining have been identified.
At high cutting speeds, delaminations are introduced into
the workpiece ; whch cutting composites containing Water-jet
aramid fibres fraying of the fibres can occuri, and in
some cases, moisture absorption during waterjet cutting
can lead to delamination under load2.

Waterjet cutting system

A typical set-up of the Abrasive Waterjet (AWJ)
system consists of a high pressure pump, abrasive delivery
system, nozzle, traverse system and a catcher26*27.
Waterjets are formed by discharging the pressurized
water through a small diameter orifice (Figure 7). The
abrasive particles are entrained into the waterjet stream
through a mixing nozzle. In this process, momentum
from the water stream is transferred to the abrasive
particles. Particle impacts on the workpiece remove nozzle
material through erosion and shearing22~28. The abrasive
jet nozzle must produce a coherent focused stream and
possess a reasonable service life. They are usually made
out of tungsten carbide or boron carbide, and two designs
are generally used : the single waterjet with side abrasive
feed (Figure 7) and the multiple waterjet with central
abrasive feed23. The latter design is said to increase the
life of the mixing chamber.
For elementary waterjet machining systems such as
pinrouters or handheld waterjet cutting tools22, the part
is fed through manually by the operator. More advanced
systems use an x-y positioning table to move the part
as the jet remains in a fixed position. For complex parts
a robot can be used to move the waterjet. In that case, Figure 7 Abrasive watejet nozzle
the manipulator must carry a mass of 15 kg with minimal
vibration levels, since any oscillations will be auto-
matically reflected on the cut surface. High repeatability
is also required since the manipulator must return the or abrasive flow rate is more pronounced at higher
jet to its initial position within one diameter of the jet in pressures29.
order to avoid a discontinuity in the cut22. Abrasive parameters are the abrasive flow rate,
The catcher is designed with a small vacuum unit to material and particle size. The most common commercial
pull away water and abrasive particle. It is usually abrasives used are garnet, aluminium oxide and silicon
designed to be in contact with the bottom surface of the carbide2E*30. Size, shape and sharpness of these grains
specimen in order to minimize the exposure of the jet to all affect the ability of the AWJ to perform. Harder
air and to reduce noiselo. Synchronizing the motion of abrasive are more effective in cutting tough materials,
the catcher and that of the jet can be challenging in cases but they also increase wear of the nozzle material.
where the part to be machined is stationary and the Therefore, the choice of abrasives material is the result
waterjet moves. of a compromise2s. When silicon carbide or aluminium
oxide abrasives are used for ceramics, the cutting rate
will increase 20%500% over the rates obtained with
Governing parameters in AWJ cutting
garnet behaviours29. Sharp grains are far more effective
AWJ cutting is controlled by five types of parameters23 : than round grains at eroding the material quickly30.
hydraulic, abrasive, mixing chamber, traverse, and Incorporation of uniform particle size instead of a
workpiece material parameters. Hydraulic parameters variance of sizes produces a smoother surface finish, but
consist of waterjet orifice diameter and supply pressure. for each material, an optimum range of particle sizes will
Higher jet pressures generally produce smoother surfaces maximize the penetration depth3. The length, shape and
and higher material removal rates. However, sensitivity diameter of the mixing chamber are important
of the surface waviness to unsteadiness in traverse rate parameters that affect the performance of the system and

Composites Manufacturing No. 2 1992 89

 the life of a critical component. However, these
parameters are not under the control of the system user.
Traverse parameters include the cutting rate and
standoff distance. The maximum cutting traverse speed
is controlled primarily by the matrix material. For
example, cutting rates for Al/Sic composites are only
slightly lower than those for aluminiumz9, and
cutting rates for composites are independent of fibre
orientationz4. With laminated composite materials, high
traverse speeds cause severe delaminations31,32. This is
due to the fact that, as speed increases, the jet is bent
back and the cutting front becomes curved (Figure 8).
In these conditions, a significant normal force is applied
on the lower layers leading to delaminations. Aramid
fibres cut well but in some cases are frayed at the surface
as with conventional machining methods. Boron fibres,
being hard and strong, have a tendency to break rather
than cut, leaving a short stubble of fibres protruding from
the surface31*32.
Typical cutting speeds for a AWJ system are given in
Table 3 for several composite materials, and typical
standoff distances range from 6.35 to 25.4 mm or
more25y33. Cuts obtained with AWJ cutting are usually
tapered27,34 . The kerf taper ratio, defined as the top width
divided by the bottom width, can vary from 0.8 to 1.6
as the traverse rate increases and depends on the size of
the abrasive particles. Precision machining requires a cut
with little or no taper and, thus, a careful selection of
particle size and traverse speed. Typical kerf widths are
usually 0.5-2.5 mm35. For blind cuts, the depth of the
cuts decreased as the traverse rate increased27.
Figure 8 Cutting front with AWJ at high
Waterjet drilling and piercing
Holes can be drilled with waterjets using three basic
approaches: piercing, which is suitable for small
diameter holes, kerf cutting in a circular path for large
diameter holes, and milling using a mask for blind
holes29. Piercing is produced using quick acting on-off
valves and pressures in the 200-400 MPa range. Piercing
times decrease as water pressure increases2*. Penetration
rate tends to decrease as the depth increases due to the
return flow which reduces the particle velocity and
interferes with the impact process. Brittle materials such
as glass, require lower pressures, while ceramics require
much higher pressures.
Damage to the workpiece can be introduced during
piercing by fracture upon impact due to the shock
loading, cracking and delamination is due to the hole
hydrodynamic pressurization22S36. The pressure required
to introduce delaminations can be determined using the
same analytical model developed to predict delaminations
during conventional drilling36. These problems can be
eliminated by reducing pressure or jet size, increasing the
standoff distance, or supporting the material at the
bottom29. Pierced holes are tapered, the diameter at the
top being larger than that at the bottom. The taper ratio
increases with stand-off distance, but damage to the top
surface due to impact of abrasive particles is reduced for
small stand-off distances27.
Waterjet milling
A cavity of uniform depth can be milled if a uniform
traverse rate is used with a uniform exposure time of the
jet over the material surface29. For milling a finite size
cavity, many strokes are needed, and the exposure time
at the end of each stroke is necessarily longer as the
nozzle slows down, stops, and accelerates in the opposite
direction. The dwell time at the end of each stroke can
be eliminated by masking the corresponding portion of
the workpiece with a hard material (Figure 9)29. Tests
on carbon/carbon composites29 indicated that varying
the average traverse rate between 0.2 and 0.5 m s-l does
traverse speeds not affect the volume removal rate and that the depth of

Table 3 Typical AWJ through-cutting traverse rates (in mm s- 1 ) for different composites (cutting conditions : p = 345 MPa, d, = 0.299 mm,
d, = 0.762 mm, garnet mesh 8O)O

Thickness (mm)

Material 0.79 1.60 3.18 6.36 12.7 19.1 50.8

Ceramic matrix composites

Sic fibre in Sic 1.1 0.6 0.45
ZrO,-MgO 0.8 0.7
AI,O,/COCrAly (80%/20%) 0.95 0.65
Al,O,/CoCrAly (60%/40%) 0.95 0.65
AI,O,/SiC (7.5%) 2.7 1.4
(Sic abrasives)
SiC/TiB, (15%) 0.29 0.15
Metal matrix composites
Mg/B,C (15%) 70 30 15 10 4
Al/SIC (15%) 70 17 10 5
Al/SIC (25%) 9.5 5
Al/mullite (5%) 75 35 20 12 7.5 5 2.5
AI/Al,O, (15%) 65 28 15 8 4
Organic matrix composites
Carbon/carbon composites 42 32 22 13 7.5 4 0.85
Epoxy/glass composites 105 95 76 42 17 12 5
Graphite/epoxy composites 74 63 52 40 15 10 4.2

90 Composites Manufacturing No. 2 1992

 dl d2
l--i-l-
--
1 Mark
Figure 9 Cavity milling with AWJ using a mask
traverse rate over the distance d,
cut can be directly controlled by varying the traverse
rate. Garnet 80 mesh yielded a 13% higher volume
removal rates than coarser and finer sizes of mesh, 100
and 60 respectively29.
Waterjet turning
Turning with waterjets is done through rotation of the
workpiece while the jet is continually fed in an X-Y-Z
pattern29. Tests have shown the effect of traverse rate on
surface waviness 29. Machining r a tes for Mg/B4 (15%
B4) are 38% lower than those for aluminium to obtain
the same waviness29. With traditional turning methods,
machining rates of Mg/B4C and Al/Sic composites are
about 15-20 times slower than those of aluminium29.
The influence of the various parameters on surface
waviness in turning of Mg/B,C was studied in detail in
Reference 30. Turning of a 2.5 cm diameter Mg/B,C rod
to a 0.64 cm diameter was accomplished in one pass, at
a traverse speed of 10 mm min- with 0.27 kg min- of
abrasives and a power of 12 kW whichn indicates that
high material removal rates can be achieved. Surfaces
machined with waterjets do not show signs of
microstructural changes. Surface roughness is most
dependent on abrasive particle size.
Environmental considerations
The high pressures involved in waterjet cutting pose a
safety risk and all components involved in such a system
must be designed according to appropriate standards23.
Mechanical noise due to electrical motors and pumps
can easily be controlled. Aerodynamic noise caused by
the jet travelling in air at supersonic speeds must be
reduced by adopting small stand-off distances and by
using a catcher that limits the travel distance in air23.
Noise levels in the 80 to 90 db range, and sometimes
lower, are reported0~22,23~31*32.
ELECTRO-DISCHARGE MACHINING
Electra-discharge machining (EDM ) is a versatile
process for machining intricate and complex shapes in
conducting materials (Figure IO). Two basic approaches
are employed. With the die sinking method (Figure
IO(b)), the form of the tool is mirrored into the
workpiece, while, with the travelling wire electrode
Composites Manufacturing No. 2 1992
dl
Tool
Spark
rLJ-l
I-L
Workpiece
Applied voltage
a
t
t
&
Workpiece
to obtain uniform Die
b c
Figure 10 Electra-Discharge Machining (EDM) : (a) operating
principle ; (b) trailing-wire EDM ; (c) Die-Sinking EDM
process (Figure IO(c)), ruled surfaces corresponding to
the trajectory of the wire electrode are produced.
With the die sinking method the workpiece is immersed
in a dielectric fluid. The tool is one electrode in the shape
of the cavity to be produced and made out of brass or
copper. The other electrode is the part to be machined.
The tool is then fed downward in a controlled fashion
to produce a mirror image of the electrode shape.
Material is removed by erosion caused by electrical
discharge between the electrode and the workpiece.
Vibration of the tool can be added to help circulate the
electrolyte. For typical operations, a 120 V, DC current
is applied and current values of 6, 1, and 0.333 A are
used for coarse, medium and fine cutting conditions
respectiv.ely37.
EDM was applied to metal matrix composites
consisting of silicon carbide whiskers in an aluminium
matrix (Sic/Al) with 15% and 25% volume fraction
reinforcement respectively 37. The Material Removal Rate
(MRR) and the electrode wear rate (EWR) both increase
with the average current 37. The EWR is greater with
brass than with copper since the melting temperature of
copper is higher. The machining time for material with
25% fibre reinforcement is almost double that for
material with 15% fibres.
EDM can also be used for ceramic materials3839. For
travelling wire EDM, the cutting speed V is of interest
for evaluating the performance of the process. But the
specific speed I/w, defined as the product of the cutting
speed V by the length of the wire involved in the cutting
process, is a better performance indicator since it
accounts for the effect of the thickness of the workpiece.
Values of I/w in the 13-35 mm2 min- range are reported
for a sintered tungsten carbide with 15% cobalt with
thicknesses ranging from 5 to 100 mm. Average peak to
valley surface roughness was 7-9 pm3*. The die sinking
91
method can also be used for ceramics, but for both
processes, electrical conductivity is required. For
Sic/graphite conductive ceramics, tests3* showed that,
with the die-sinking method, the material removal rate,
tool wear, and surface roughness depend on voltage pulse
duration. Increasing pulse duration leads to higher MRR
and lower tool wear, but higher surface roughness. MRR
in the range of 0.5-7 mm3 min- were obtained for
ceramic composites. Moreover, uniformity in electrical
conductivity is important to the stability of the EDM
process38. With high currents, the workpiece can actually
fracture during EDM39.
EDM can also be used for graphite-epoxy laminates
since the graphite fibres are electrically conductive40. A
voltage of 100 V and peak discharge currents of 0.5-5 A
were used with a die sinking method. At high currents,
high temperatures are produced which cause severe
melting of the composite surface, thermal expansion of
the graphite fibres in the lateral direction and debonding
between fibres and the matrix. Melted matrix material
smeared over the conductive graphite fibres lowers the
conductivity, leading to a reduction of the MMR and
degradation of surface quality. Severe distortion of the
fibres into an hexagonal shape was observed. Therefore,
low currents must be used. The material removal rate
increased very rapidly as the pulse duration increased.
Copper and graphite tools produced comparable MMRs
and accuracies, but lower EWRs were observed with the
copper tool. The effect of polarity was investigated, and
positive tool electrodes were shown to yield higher MMR
and lower wear rates4.
The quality of the cut surface in EDM machining of
holes in ceramic composites 20% TiB, particulate/Sic
using the die-sinking method was studied in detail by
Ramulu and Garbim 41. For a total thickness of 6.34 mm
and a voltage of 120 V, three operating conditions were
used : coarse (6 Amps, 50 Hz), medium ( 1 Amp, 300 Hz),
and fine (0.33 Amp, 600 Hz). The time required to
complete the hole depended on the material used for the
tool. With brass, drilling times for the coarse, medium,
and fine settings were 96, 307, and 1089 minutes,
respectively. With coarse settings, damage was introduced
in the workpiece on the entrance side. Surface roughness
was measured, and the maximum peak to valley
roughness parameter R, using a brass tool was 26.2,18.5,
and 16.2 pm for coarse, medium, and fine operating
conditions, respectively.
ELECTRO-CHEMICAL SPARK MACHINING
Electra-Chemical Spark Machining (ECSM ) is a process,
very similar to EDM machining in many respects, that
can handle electrically non-conducting materials. There-
fore, glass-epoxy and aramid-epoxy laminates can be
cut by ECSM 42*43. In this process, two electrodes are
placed in a tank filled with an electrolyte such as an
aqueous solution of NaCl or NaOH43 (Figure IZ). The
tool is the cathode and could be a die42 or a trailing
wire43 as in EDM. When a DC current is applied,
hydrogen gas bubbles form at the surface of the cathode
and sparking occurs across these bubbles but not between
electrodes. The electrical discharge generates large
amounts of heat. The workpiece was held at a fixed
distance from the anode (50 mm) and brought close to
the cathode so that material removal could take place in
the region where sparking occurs. The mechanisms for
92
Tool
? m
Counterweight
Figure 11 Electra-Chemical Spark Machining (ECSM)
material removal are melting and vaporization of the
work material which is evidence by micrographs of the
cut surfaces and mechanical erosion due to cavitation of
the gas bubbles rupturing on the workpiece43. For
electrically non-conducting work materials, electro-
chemical reactions do not take place, electrochemical
action is involved only in the generation of the bubbles.
Cutting glass-epoxy composites by trailing wire
ECSM method43 with voltages between 60 and 80 V,
higher voltages induced higher discharge energy, higher
rates of bubble formation and higher MRRs. MRRs for
glass-epoxy are less than 7 mg min- (Reference 43 ). A
0.6 mm diameter brass wire was used as the cathode. The
width of the cut was larger than the diameter of the wire,
the overcut being of the same order as the wire diameter.
The MRR also increases with the specific conductance
of the electrolyte but decreases as the fibre volume
fraction in the material increases. The capacity to
machine blind holes in Kelvar-epoxy composites was
also demonstrated42. A more detailed study43 of the
various parameters involved in ECSM using a trailing
wire as a cathode to perform linear cutting identified
several factors contributing to low MRRs. Two
important factors to be controlled are the distance
between anode and cathode and the distance between
the tool and the workpiece.
ULTRASONIC MACHINING
Ultrasonic machining here describes processes in which
an otherwise stationary tool is vibrated at high
frequencies. Interactions between abrasive particles
contained in a liquid slurry and the workpiece, remove
material by erosion as the tool vibrates. Tool
displacements are small, typically a few thousandths of
an inch at frequencies of the order of 20 kHz. The type
and size of abrasive grains used are the same as those
found in grinding wheels. This process is different from
traditional machining techniques, enhanced by added
ultrasonic vibrations of the tool, which are sometimes
referred to as ultrasonic maching techniques also.
Cavities and configurations that would be impossible to
fabricate by conventional methods can be fabricated in
graphite-epoxy or glass-epoxy laminates by ultrasonic
machining 44. The influence of tool material, abrasive
particle concentration in slurry, on performance and
surface finish in drilling holes in ceramic materials has
been investigated45. Stainless steel tools were found to
Composites Manufacturing No. 2 1992
perform better than tools made of mild steel or high speed CONCLUSION
steel. Of the five types of non-traditional machining methods
reviewed in this article, laser and waterjet machining are
COMPARISON OF NON-TRADITIONAL currently used extensively in industry. This is reflected
METHODS AND APPLICATIONS in the number of publications concerned with these two
processes. The other methods, while having some
Conventional drilling, sawing, and routing methods are demonstrated capabilities are, at this time, more into the
used for machining composites. Several problems are research and development phase. Both laser and
generally encountered : excessive tool wear which waterjet machining are very flexible in terms of the type
requires the use of carbide or diamond coated tools, poor of materials that can be machined. They lend themselves
tolerance and surface finish of the cut edge which must
to automation ; and they produce high quality cut with
be deburred in a secondary operation, and delaminations. high speeds. Problems with heat affected zone and the
In addition, dust particles generated pose a health hazard,
release of particles and fumes during laser machining
and can also cause problems for equipment. have been identified. The major concern with waterjet
Waterjet machining does not release particles into the machining is the possibility of introducing delaminations.
air, since abrasive particles and workpiece materials
However, this problem can be eliminated by proper
removed are entrained by the waterjet and caught by a
choice of operating parameters. Several investigators
catcher on the exit side. Surface quality is very good, and mentioned the possibility of introducing delaminations
no finishing operations are required. The kerf width is
during laser cutting although no further information was
typically 0.5-2.5 mm, and tolerances of the order of presented.
f 0.4 mm can be held. Two drawbacks for this technique
are that delaminations can be introduced in laminated
composites and that it is usually difficult to cut near the
edge of a part. Delaminations can be eliminated by REFERENCES
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Composites Manufacturing No. 2 1992 93

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conventional glassy carbon 17th Biennial Conf on Carbon,
American Carbon Society Lexington, KY, June 16-21, 1985, The authors are with the Department of Mechanical and
pp MO-441 Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechanics,
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matrix composites Am Mach Auto Manuf 132 (1988) pp 17 6 April 1992)

94 Composites Manufacturing No. 2 1992

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