Engine Electrical

Engine Electrical

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Engine Electrical

MEMO

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Engine Electrical

Preface
As the electric devices of the vehicles are the same with the nervous systems of the human body, any
malfunction of them will result to the defected vehicles. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the basic
knowledge about the electric devices.
Recently, the mechanical structure becomes to more complicate in order to protect the environments from
the harmful exhausted gases and especially, the most parts of vehicles are comprised of the new electric
devices for enhancing the performance of vehicles. Therefore, the scopes of the electrical knowledge to study
shall be more enlarged and more.
This book is composed of the engine electrical generals varying for these situations.

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Contents
1. Battery
1.1 The Principle of the battery 7
1.2 Purpose of battery 7
1.3 The Kinds of the battery 8
1.4 The structure of the lead-acid battery and the charging and discharging operation 9
1.5 Various characteristics of the lead-acid battery 16
1.6 Life time of the lead-acid battery 20
1.7 Charge of the lead-acid battery 20
1.8 MF battery 24

2. Starting System
2.1 The principles and kinds of the DC motor 25
2.2 Start motor 29
2.3 Structure and operation of the start motor 30
2.4 Starting-system trouble diagnosis 42

3. Charging System
3.1 Purpose of the charging system 45
3.2 Single phase alternating current and 3-phase alternating current 45
3.3 Direct current alternator 48
3.4 Alternating current alternator 52
3.5 Alternator regulator 56

4. Ignition System
4.1 Purpose of ignition system 61
4.2 Computer control type ignition system 63
4.3 DLI (Distributor less Ignition) 75
4.4 Performance of the ignition system 80

5. The Micro 570 analyzer

5.1 Key pad 83
5.2 Battery test procedures 83
5.3 Starter test procedures 85
5.4 Charging test procedures 86

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MEMO

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1. Battery
1.1 The Principle of the Battery
The Battery is an electrochemical device 1.1.2 The Secondary Cell
converting a chemical energy to the electrical This type is generally called as the storage
energy through the chemical operations of the battery. It can be recovered the battery function by
electricity. It is classified into the primary cell and recharging after it is discharged. In the vehicles, this
the secondary cell. secondary cell is mostly used. When electric loads
1.1.1 The Primary Cell are connected to the battery terminals, a voltage will
be generated by the chemical reaction between the
When a copper plate and a zinc plate are put
electrode plates and the electrolyte in the battery.
into a dilute sulfuric acid solution, the zinc will be
melted by the sulfur to be zinc ion (Zn++) having the The storage battery, generally, is the lead-acid
positive (+) electricity, therefore, the negative (-) battery in which the dilute sulfuric acid is used for
electric charge will be collected to the zinc plate the electrolyte, the lead peroxide is used for the
side. And the hydrogen ion (H+) will move to the positive plate (anode) and the pure lead is used for
copper plate from repulsing by the zinc ion. the negative plate (cathode).
Therefore, the hydrogen ion will give the positive (+)
charge to the copper plate, so the copper plate will
have the positive charge. Consequently, a voltage
difference will be occurred between the zinc plate
and the copper plate.
By connecting an external load (resistor)
between the copper plate and the zinc plate, an
electric current will flow from the copper plate to the
zinc plate through the external load. Using this
device, the chemical energy will be changed to the
electrical energy. For the primary cell, after it is
discharged at once, it is impossible to be recharged
again.
Fig. 1-2 The Principle of the Lead-acid Battery

1.2. Purpose of Battery

The battery can make the electrical energy from
the chemical energy in the materials used for the
electrode plates and the electrolyte (This is called
the discharging). It can also store the electrical
energy as the chemical energy (this called the
charging). The requirements for the battery are like
that.
It should be small in size and light in weight, and
it should have long lifetime.
Fig. 1-1. The Principle of the Primary cell
It should be endure against the hard vibrating
conditions, and it should be easy to control.

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It should have large capacity and it should have
cheap cost.
The functions of the battery for the vehicle shall
satisfy the following conditions.
It should cover full electrical load capacity of the
operating devices.
When the alternator malfunctions, the battery
should be used for the electric source during
running of the vehicles.
It should control the balance between the output
of the alternator and the load according to the
running status.
However, the battery is not the main source of
the electric devices of the vehicles. It just has an
auxiliary role when the engine is started and when
the electric output of the alternator is smaller than
the output of the battery. Therefore, the most
required important role of the battery is to start the
engine with optimized condition.
1.3 The Kinds of the Battery
The battery used in the most vehicles is the
secondary cell (storage battery or galvanic battery)
possible to be charged and discharged of which
kinds are like the followings.
1.3.1 Lead-Acid Battery
This kind battery is comprised of the lead
peroxide (PbO2) as the positive (+) electrode
(anode) plate, the discharge lead (Pb) as the
negative electrode (cathode) plate and the dilute
sulfuric acid (H2SO4) as the electrolyte. The
advantages and disadvantages of this are like the
followings.
(1) The advantages of the lead-acid battery
It is less dangerous than other types because
the chemical reaction of it occurs in the room
temperature.
It has high reliabilities and low cost respectively.
(2) The disadvantages of the lead-acid battery
The energy density is about 40Wh/kgf, lower
than others.
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It has shorter lifetime and longer charging time
than others do.
1.3.2 Alkali Battery (Ni-Cd Battery)
In the alkali battery, there are Ni-Fe battery and
Ni-Cd battery. The di-nickel-hydroxide [2NiO(OH)]
and iron (Fe) are used in Ni-Fe battery and the di-
nickel-hydroxide [2NiO(OH)] and cadmium (Cd) are
used in Ni-Cd battery as the anode (+) plate and the
cathode (-) plate, respectively. The potassium
hydroxide (KOH) is used for the electrolyte. The
electrolyte is only used for moving the electrons and
not used in the chemical reaction for charging and
discharging, so the specific gravity shall not be
changed almost. The case is made of the steel
sheet coated with nickel or the plastic.
The rated voltage is about 1.2V per cell, and the
voltage in the charging state is about 1.35V per cell.
The voltage will be decreased down to the 1.1V at
discharging operation, however, it will be increased
up to the 1.4~1.7V at charging operation. The
advantages and disadvantages of the alkali battery
are like the followings.
(1) The advantages of the alkali battery
It can endure under the hard working conditions
such as over charging, over discharging and
leaving for long times.
It has good high rate discharging performances.
It has large output density.
It has long lifetime (10~20 years).
It has short charging time.
(2) The disadvantages of the alkali battery
It has low energy density, about 25~35Wh/kgf.
The cost of the metal used for the electrode is so
expensive.
It is hard to supply for mass product.
Engine Electrical

1.4 The structure of the lead-acid battery

and the charging and discharging
operation
1.4.1 The structure of the lead-acid battery
The basic compositions of the lead-acid battery
are the two kinds of metal electrode having the
different ionization characteristics each other and
the electrolyte in the case. There is an electric
voltage difference between the anode (+) and
cathode (-). As shown in Fig 1-3, when an electrical
load is connected between these electrodes, the
sequential electrical currents will flow from the (+)
Fig 1-4. The structure of the storage battery
electrode having the higher electrical voltage value
to the (-) electrode having the lower electrical (1) Electrode Plate
voltage by occurring the chemical reaction between The electrode consists of an anode plate and a
the electrodes and the electrolyte. cathode plate. They are made of lead peroxide and
discharge lead at the anode and cathode plate,
respectively after a paste of lead powder or lead
oxide powder with dilute sulfuric acid solution is
spread on a metal-alloyed grid plate, dried and
metamorphosed.

Fig. 1-3. The basic schematic diagram of the

lead-acid battery
In the lead-acid battery used for the vehicles,
the lead peroxide (PbO2) is used for the anode, the
discharge lead (Pb) is used for the cathode and the
dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4) solution is used for the
electrolyte. Actually, in order to get larger electrical
energy from smaller volume as possible, the area of
the electrode plates contacting with the electrolyte
should be as large as possible. To do so, the
electrode plate should be a plate group consisted of
the multiple thin metal plates in parallel. These plate
groups of anode and cathode electrodes are
installed facing each other.
Fig. 1-5. Electrode Plate
The grid should be easy to treat, have a good
electrical conductivity and mechanical strength, be
compatible with the reacting materials and have
high resistance against the acid. Generally, the grid
is made of the alloy of lead (Pb) and antimony (Sb).
The lead peroxide, dark brown colored, is easily
percolated by the electrolyte because it is porous,
however, it can be easily torn off from the plate
because it has weak bonding energy of the
molecules. The discharge lead, gray colored porous,
is not torn off from the grid because it has strong
bonding energy and reactivity, however, the particle
of the powder shall be grew up as the battery is

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used so the porosity is reduced.
As the crystallized particles of the lead peroxide
are torn off from the plate or the porosity of the
negative plate is reduced, the capacity of the
battery is reduced; at last its lifetime will be
terminated. The anode plate is more activated so
that the cathode plate consists of one more plate in
order to enhance the capacity and protect the
negative plate.
(2) Separator
The separators are inserted among the multiple
of the anode plates and the cathode plates to
protect the short of them. If the electrode plates are
shorted each other by damaged separator, then the
electrical energy charged in the battery will be
leaked out.
The material of the separator is the reinforced
fiber made of resin, or the rubber or plastic having
tiny percolates. The grooved face of the separator is
facing to the anode electrode to protect the
corrosion by the lead peroxide and to accelerate the
diffusion of the electrolyte. The requirements of the
separator are like the followings.
It should be a nonconductor.
It should be porous to accelerate the diffusion of
the electrolyte.
It has good mechanical strength and should not
be corroded by the electrolyte easily.
It should not emit any harmful material against
the electrodes.
Fig. 1-6. Plate group
10
(3) Plate Group
The plate group is made by assembling the
multiple of electrodes and separators alternatively,
welding the electrode with connecting piece and
connecting to the terminal pole, the (+) terminal pole
for the anode plate and the (-) terminal pole for the
cathode plate.
The one plate group made by this method is
called the one cell. For the 12V storage battery,
there are six cells in one case connected by
connector in serial. Each cell can generate
electromotive force of 2.1~2.3V. As increasing the
number of cell, the surface area contacting with the
electrolyte is also increased, so the capacity of the
battery will be increased.
(4) Battery Case
The case is generally made of plastic resin. For
the 12V battery, the case is divided into 6 sectors
for containing the six cells. At the bottom of the
each cell, there is an element rest to protect from
being shortage resulted from the slugs or deposits
of the reacting materials torn off from the plates.
Using a sodium carbonate and water or ammonia
water performs the cleaning for the case and cover
of the battery.
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(5) Cover & Vent plug value.

The cover is also made of plastic resin and
adhered to the case to secure from penetrating of
air or moisture. At the center of the cover, there are
a hole for injecting the electrolyte or distilled water
and inserting the spoid for measuring the specific
gravity or the thermometer, and a vent plug for
closing this hole. There is also a small hole near the
vent plug to emit the oxygen or hydrogen gases
generated from the inside of the battery. In the case
of MF battery recently used, there is no vent plug.
At the standard specific gravity, the conductivity of
the sulfur is the highest value. When the battery is
fully discharged, the specific gravity is about 1.050.
Actually, the electrolyte of battery has a lot higher
specific gravity than the standard value to increase
the electromotive force and to reduce the internal
resistance when the battery is discharged. The
manufacturing process of the electrolyte is like that.
The vessel should be insulator (such as ebonite
or plastic) when the electrolyte is mixed.
The sulfuric acid is mixed into the distilled water
slowly. The mixing ratio of distilled water and
sulfuric acid (1.400) is 60% and 40%.
The mixing should be performed slowly by
stirring with glass stick and then cooling.
Control the specific gravity of the electrolyte as
the 1.280 at 20.

1.4.2 The charge and discharge operation of

the lead-acid battery
To connect an electric load between (+) and (-)
Fig. 1-7. The structure of the vent plug terminal poles of the battery to flow the current is
the discharge. Reversely, to supply a current to the
(6) Electrolyte battery by connecting the direct current source such
The electrolyte is a dilute sulfuric acid solution as recharges or alternator is the charge. When the
having the high degree of purity by mixing the battery is charged or discharged, the anode (+) and
distilled water with sulfuric acid. The electrolyte the cathode (-) plates and the electrolyte react
stores the electrical energy when the battery is chemically. That is, the charge and discharge
charged in which the electrolyte contacts with the operation of the battery is performed by the lead
electrode plates, and it emits the electrical energy peroxide of the anode plate, the discharge lead of
when the battery is discharged. It also conducts the the cathode plate and the sulfuric acid solution of
electrical current in the cell. The specific gravity of the electrolyte. The chemical reaction of the charge
the electrolyte is bout 1.280 when the battery is fully and discharge operation of the battery is like the
charged at 20, and it is treated as the standard followings.
* The chemical reaction at the charge operation
Anode Electrolyte Cathode Anode Electrolyte Cathode
PbO2 + 2H2SO4 + Pb PbSO4 + 2H2O + PbSO4
Lead Dilute Discharge Lead Water Lead
peroxide sulfuric acid lead sulfate sulfate
* The chemical reaction at the discharge operation
Anode Electrolyte Cathode Anode Electrolyte Cathode
PbSO4 + 2H2O + PbSO4 PbO2 + 2H2SO4 + Pb
Lead Water Lead Lead Dilute Discharge
peroxide sulfate peroxide sulfuric acid lead

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(1) Discharge of the Lead-Acid Battery

Fig. 1-8 The chemical reaction of the discharge operation

The lead peroxide of the anode plate is

converted into water by which the oxygen in the
lead peroxide is combining with the hydrogen of the
sulfuric acid of the electrolyte. The lead in the lead
peroxide is combined with the sulfuric acid to form
the lead sulfate.
The discharge lead of the cathode is converted into
the lead sulfate as the anode. As the discharge is
progressing, the anode and the cathode are
converted into the lead sulfate and the electrolyte is
diluted more and more by the increasing water.
Therefore, the specific gravity of the electrolyte will
be lowered and the internal resistance of the battery Fig. 1-9 The specific gravity of electrolyte
will be increased, so the current can not flow as and the discharged amount of the battery
time goes.
A. Specific Gravity of Electrolyte and Discharge
If the battery is left not using for a long time,
status
then the electrodes may be the lead sulfate
The specific gravity of the electrolyte is permanently or various defects can be occurred, so
decreased proportional to the amount of the the battery will not work any more.
discharge. The figure 1-9 shows the changes of the
If the specific gravity is 1.200 (20), the battery
specific gravity according to the discharged amount
should be recharged. If a battery is stored for a long
from the 1.280, the value at the full charged status,
time, the battery should be recharged at least one
to the 1.080, the value at the full discharged status.
time for 15 days. The formula for acquiring the
By measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte,
amount of discharge from the specific gravity is like
it is possible to detect how much the battery is
following.
discharged.

Specific Gravity at full charged - Specific Gravity at measured

Discharge Rate (%)= X 100
Specific Gravity at full charged - Specific Gravity at full discharged

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B. Temperature conversion of the specific

gravity of electrolyte
The specific gravity of the electrolyte is changed
by the temperature. The reason is that the volume
of the sulfuric acid is shrunk or expanded by the
temperature, so the weight per unit volume is
changed. That is, if the temperature is increased,
the specific gravity of electrolyte will be decreased,
and if the temperature is decreased, the specific
gravity of electrolyte will be increased. The variation
is 0.0007 per 1. Therefore, when the charge and
discharge status is determined, the specific gravity
should be converted into the specific gravity at the Fig. 1-10 The variations of the specific gravity
standard temperature (20). The specific gravity of according to the temperature of electrolyte
the standard temperature is acquired from the
following formula.

S20 = St + 0.0007x(t-20)
Here, S20: Specific gravity converted at the standard temperature (20),
St: Specific gravity measured at the temperature of t
0.0007: Temperature coefficient
t: Temperature of electrolyte at measuring the specific gravity

C. Method for measuring the specific gravity of

electrolyte
Rubber
The charging status of the battery can be bulb
determined from the measuring the specific gravity
of electrolyte (because the specific gravity will be
lowered as the dilute sulfuric acid solution will be
changed into water). The kinds of devices for
measuring the specific gravity are suction type Scale
gravimeter shown in the Fig. 1-11 and optical
refraction gravimeter shown in the Fig. 1-12. The
suction type gravimeter comprises of the rubber
Float
bulb, the glass tube having a float and the suction
tube. To measure the specific gravity, open the vent
plug at the cover of battery, insert the suction tube
into the hole to suck the electrolyte, and read the Suction
scale at the stopping position of the float. The tube
electrolyte surface contacting with the float is
convex by the surface tension of the electrolyte, so
the scale pointed by the convex portion should be Fig. 1-11 The suction type gravimeter
read.

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Lens (for magnifying

the measuring scale)

Measuring window

Electrolyte Antifreeze

Fig. 1-12 The Optical refraction gravimeter

For the optical refraction gravimeter, open the
light refraction cover, take some of electrolyte using
the measuring rod, paste it on the measuring glass,
close the refraction cover, turn the cover toward the
light side, see through the lens with leveling the
gravimeter, and read the scale pointing the
boundary between the dark side and the bright side.
(2) Charging in lead-acid battery
By flowing charging current to the discharged
battery from the external direct current source
(charger or alternator), the reaction material of the
anode and cathode dissolved into the lead sulfate
during the discharge operation will be changed into
the lead and sulfuric radicals.
The distilled water is dissolved into the oxygen
and hydrogen. The sulfuric radical dissolved from
the lead sulfate is combined with the hydrogen to
make the sulfuric acid finally it will resolve into the
sulfuric acid. Therefore, the density of the sulfuric
acid is increased and the specific gravity will be
increased, too. Then the anode plate is converted
into the lead peroxide and the cathode plate is
converted into the discharge lead. The figure 1-14
represents the curve showing the relationship
between the voltage and specific gravity of
electrolyte according to the charging time.

Fig. 1-13 Chemical changes during the charge operation

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Fig. 1-14 Charging Characteristic Curve
A. Changes of terminal voltage
To charge the battery with constant current, the
voltage applied to the terminal shall be increased as
shown in Fig. 1-14. At the beginning of the charge
operation, the increasing curve of the voltage is
slack; however, at the end of the charge operation,
the curve will be increased sharply, so when the
voltage is reached at about 2.7V per cell and the
terminal voltage of the 12V battery is reached at
about 16V, the voltage has the constant values. At
the end of the charge operation, the anode will
generate plentiful of oxygen and the cathode will
generate plentiful of hydrogen. These gases cover
the plates and then the internal resistance will be
increased. Therefore, in order to flow constant
current, the terminal voltage should be increased.
After the charge operation is completed, only the
distilled water is dissolved by electrolysis, so that
the amount of gases will be saturated and the
voltage is stabilized. The terminal voltage during
charge operation is like the following equation.
Et = Eo + Ic x r
Here, Et : Voltage applied to the terminal,
Eo : Electromotive Force
Ic : Discharged current
r: Internal Resistance
15
As we know from the upper equation, when the
charge operation is performed at the lower
temperature in which the internal resistance is high,
the terminal voltage will be increased. This means
that the charge current will be reduced, as the
temperature is low, when the battery is charged with
constant current using a charger or alternator.
B. Charge the battery installed at the vehicle
The electric source for the battery installed at
the vehicle is an alternator controlled its output
voltage uniformly by the voltage regulator to charge
with uniform voltage. However, there are some
electro devices such as illuminators, wiper motor
and heater, so the alternator shall supply the
electric power to these devices and battery at the
same time when the vehicle is running. If the engine
is in the idling state, then the output of the alternator
will be reduced. Furthermore, if the electrical load is
higher than the output of the alternator, then the
battery will start to discharge for supplying an extra
electric power to the electric devices.
In this case, the amount of the charge and
discharge current will be decided by the discharging
state (remained electric capacity) and the other
conditions such as setting voltage, kinds of load,
running status and ambient temperature. When the
recharging device operates normally and the load is
not overloaded, if the vehicle is continued to drive,
then the battery will be charged and the average
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recharging current will be reduced.
1.5 Various characteristics of the lead-
acid battery
1.5.1 Electromotive of the lead-acid battery
The electromotive of the lead-acid battery is
about 2.1~2.3V per cell and this varies according to
the specific gravity and temperature of the
electrolyte and the discharging status. The
electromotive will be reduced when the temperature
of electrolyte is lowered. The reason is that, at that
time, the chemical reaction in the battery will go
slowly and the resistance of the electrolyte will be
increased.
Fig. 1-15 Relationship between the
electromotive and the specific gravity of the
electrolyte
Fig. 1-16 Relationship between the
electromotive and the temperature of the
lectrolyte
16
1.5.2 Final voltage
The terminal voltage of the lead-acid battery will
decrease according to the progression of the
discharge because the internal resistance is
increased. At the limitation value, the terminal
voltage will be drop abruptly. If the discharge
operation is continued over this limitation value,
then the voltage will be too low to be used and the
battery performances will be degraded. This
limitation value is called the final voltage or the test
end voltage.
The voltage drop-down of the battery, at the
starting of the discharge operation, is occurred by
the lead sulfate on the surface of the electrode plate,
which hinders the electrolyte from reacting with the
electrode plate. As the discharge is continued, the
lead sulfate will block the contacting of the
electrolyte to the electrode materials. At last, the
discharge is not performed. Therefore, the voltage
is dropped down abruptly.
The final voltage is different according to the
kind of the battery. Generally, it is 1.7 ~ 1.8(1.75) V
per cell and 10.5V (1.75 x 6) for the 12V battery.
Fig. 1-17 Discharging Curve of the lead-acid
battery
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1.5.3 Capacity of the lead-acid battery
The battery capacity is the electrical capacity,
which can be discharged until the terminal voltage
reaches to the nominal final voltage when the fully
charged battery is continuously discharged with the
uniform current. The elements for deciding the
capacity are the size (or area), thickness and
number of electrode and the amount of the
electrolyte. The unit for battery capacity is the AH
(Ampere Hour rate) represented by the following
equation.
Ampere Hour rate (AH) = Discharging current
(A) X Continuous Discharging time till Final
voltage (H)
(1) Relationship between the discharging rate
and the capacity
The discharging rate of battery is the amount of
discharging which influence to the battery capacity
directly. As the battery capacity is represented by
the discharging current X discharging time, the
discharging rate may be represented by the amount
of the discharged current (this is called as the
current rate), or the discharging time (this is called
as the time rate). Other methods for representing
the battery capacity are the 20-Hour rate capacity,
25-Ampere rate and Cold discharge rate.
A. 20-Hour rate (or 10-hour rate) capacity
The 20-hour rate capacity is the total amount of
current, which can be discharged during 20 hours
(for 10-Hour rate, during 10 hours) when the
uniform current is discharged continuously until the
final voltage of a cell reaches to 1.75V. This is used
Table The discharge rate and the discharged current rate
Discharge Rate 20 Hours
Capacity (AH) 100
Amount of Discharged Current (A) 5 9.2
Discharged current Rate 1.0
17
as the typical discharging rate.
For example, the 20-Hour rate 100AH capacity
means that it needs 20 hours to discharge
continuously with 5A until reaching to the final
voltage.
Fig. 1-18 Discharge rate and battery capacity
The battery capacity will be reduced as easily
as it discharges with large current. The reason is
that the chemical reaction progresses faster than
the diffusion of the electrolyte so the required
sulfuric acid is not supplied enough to the electrode
when the battery is discharging with large current
(for example, at starting the engine). That is, when
the discharge operation performed with large
current, the amount of electrode material on the
surface is used for chemical reaction only, so the
capacity will be reduced. In this status, if the
discharge operation is stopped temporary, the
electrolyte can diffuse into the electrode, the
discharge operation can be recovered. This
capacity is called the surplus capacity. That the
using time for battery at starting engine is limited
within 10~15 seconds is respected to these
characteristics of chemical reaction of battery.
10 Hours 5 Hours 3 Hours 1 Hour
92 80 75 68
16.0 25.0 68.0
1.84 3.2 5.0 13.6
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B. 25-Ampere Rate
The 25-Ampere rate is the time until a cell
reaches to the 1.75V when the battery is discharged
with uniform current (25A) at 26.6.This represents
the performance of battery for supplying current to
the electro device when the alternator is malfunction.
C. Cold discharge rate
The cold discharge rate is the time that is
required until the voltage of a cell is dropdown to 1V
when the battery is discharged with 300A at -17.7.
(2) Relationship between the temperature and
the capacity in the electrolyte
The battery capacity is mainly decided by the
temperature of electrolyte. That is, when the
discharge operation is performed with constant
discharging rate, if the temperature is high, then the
capacity is large however if the temperature is low,
then the capacity is small. Therefore, when the
capacity is represented the temperature should be
mentioned. At standard, the temperature is 25
(here, the standard temperature of electrolyte
specific gravity is 20).
This relationship influences to the engine
starting in the winter season. The battery
performance is also regulated by this relationship. If
the electrolyte temperature is high, then the
chemical reaction will be progressing actively so the
battery capacity will be increased.
[Example] if three batteries of 12V-100AH are connected in serial then they will be a battery of
36V-100AH; if they are connected in parallel then they will be a battery of 12V-300AH.
Fig. 1-19 The connecting type for batteries
18
(3) The specific gravity of electrolyte and the
capacity
It is theoretically clear that the amount of sulfur
in the electrolyte is directly related to the capacity.
Furthermore, the capacity is varied by the amount
of the electrode material, amount of using rate and
the area, thickness and number of the electrode
plate. However, if the conditions of the electrode
material are the same, the capacity is decided by
the specific gravity of the electrolyte.
(4) Variations of capacity and voltage according
to the connection type of battery
A. For the serial connection
The serial connection is to connect the (+)
terminal of one battery to the (-) terminal of another
battery when two or more batteries having the same
capacity are connected each other. The voltage will
be increased as the number of connected batteries;
however the capacity is the same with one battery.
B. For the parallel connection
The parallel connection is to connect the (+)
terminals of two batteries and the (-) terminals of
two batteries, respectively each other. The capacity
is increased as the number of connected batteries;
however the voltage is the same with one battery. At
the start of the engine, if the starting is impossible
from the battery discharging operation, the extra
battery shall be connected for starting. At this time,
the extra battery should be connected parallel to the
origin battery of vehicle.
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1.5.4 Self-discharge of the lead-acid battery by the percentage (%) about the battery capacity
Generally, it is 0.3~1.5% about the actual capacity
The self-discharge is a phenomenon of which
for 24 hours. The amount of self-discharge is
the battery capacity is gradually reduced in nature
related to the followings.
when the battery is left being not used. The reasons
for the self-discharge are like followings. The amount of the self-discharge will be
increased, as the temperature and specific
The material (discharge lead) of cathode plate
gravity of electrolyte and the battery capacity are
reacts with the sulfur and then it converted into
high. The figure 1-20 shows that the self-
the lead sulfate and the hydrogen gases are
discharge amount is varying to 1.6 at 1.280, and
generated. - It is necessitated by its structure.
to 0.6 at 1.200, in accordance that the amount is
The foreign materials (lead (Pb), nickel (Ni) or 1 at 1.240 (20) of specific gravity.
copper (Cu)) are flown into the electrolyte so a
localized cell is formed with the cathode plate
that the self-discharge will be progressed.
Additionally, another localized cell can be formed
between the grid and the anode material (lead
peroxide).
The torn off materials from the plate are stacked
at the bottom and side of the case, or the
separator would be damaged, so the electrode
plates may be shorted that the self-discharge will
be progressed.
The current leakage through the electrolyte or
dust adhered on the cover of the battery is also
one reason of self-discharge.
Fig. 1-20 Specific Gravity and Self-discharge

To take a care especially of the self-discharge is

the over discharge resulted from the self-discharge
by being left for a long time. If the battery is over
discharged, then the electrodes may be turn into the
lead sulfate permanently so the battery will not be
recovered.
The amount of self-discharge is increased as the
time is gone, but the rate is lowered, as the time
is gone after the charge operation is performed.
The relationship between the temperature and
the self-discharge is like following table.

The amount of the self-discharge is represented

Table Electrolyte temperature, Self-discharging rate for 24-Hour and
Reduced amount of the specific gravity
Self-discharging amount Reduced amount of the specific
Temperature()
(% per 24 hour) gravity (per 24hour)
30 1.0 0.002
20 0.5 0.001
5 0.25 0.0005

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Engine Electrical

1.6 Life time of lead-acid battery AC is a connector to the alternating current. There
are transformer and voltage selection switch for
As the time is passing away, the battery
output required DC voltage according to the amount
performance will be degraded, the battery capacity
of the electric load connected to the DC terminal.
will be reduced and the amount of discharge will be
The transformed AC current is transferred to the
increased so, at last, the battery will not be used
rectifier through the selection switch and then
any more. The main factor for deciding the life time
rectified by the rectifying circuit consisting of 4
of battery is the tearing off of materials from
diodes to form into a single phase current. At (+)
electrodes. As the volume of these materials will
and (-) terminal, a direct current for charging is
enlarged or reduced according to the progressing of
output.
charge and discharge, the lead peroxide having the
weak bonding force will be torn off form the
electrode easily. The porosity of lead of the cathode
is degraded so it will be a cause of reducing the life
time. Furthermore, the temperature increasing
during charging and the carelessness of treatment
are also the reasons of reducing life time. The
reasons can be listed to the bellow.
The permanent transformation into the lead
sulfate of the electrode by the over discharge or
Fig. 1-20 The basic diagram of a charger
insufficient charge.
The increased temperature of electrolyte by the The connecting method for battery is to connect
over discharge. the (+) terminal of the battery to the (+) terminal of
the charger and the (-) terminal of the battery to the
The deterioration of the separators and
(-) terminal of the charger, and to control the output
electrodes and the crack of the grid.
voltage using the selection switch according to the
The exposure of the electrode by the lack of regulated current for the battery. To charge the
electrolyte. multiple of batteries using one charger at the same
The specific gravity of electrolyte, which is being time, there are the serial charging and the parallel
too high or low. charging as shown in the Fig. 1-21.
The foreign materials flown into the electrolyte.
The short or the tear off of electrodes in the case.

1.7 Charge of lead-acid battery

1.7.1 Method for charging the lead-acid battery
The discharged battery should be charged with
the direct current (DC) so the charger rectifying the
alternating current should be used. Generally, the
charger is the silicon charger using the silicon (Si)
as a rectifier.
The figure 1-20 is the basic diagram of a
charger comprising of the transformer, the rectifier Fig. 1-21 Method for connecting
and the voltage selection switch. In this figure, the batteries at charge operation

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(1) Serial charging
The batteries having the same capacity are
connected as shown in the Fig. 1-21 (a) to charge
at the same time. In this case, the charging may
perform with the output current the same current for
one cell. However, as the same current is applied to
each battery, it is impossible to control the charge
current according to the discharged status of each
battery. For this method, the connectable battery
number is decided by the rated voltage of the
charger.
When the number of battery connectable to the
charger is decided, as the 2.7V is needed for one
cell of battery, for the 12V battery, the minimum
rated voltage of charger should be 16V. That is, for
the charger having the 75V of the maximum rated
voltage, in order to charge the 12V battery in serial
connection, the number of connectable battery is 4.
(2) Parallel charging
The plurality of batteries of which capacity or
discharged status is different is connected as shown
in Fig. 1-21 (b) to charge. At this time, the same
charging voltage is applied to the each individual
battery, so variable resistor should be attached to
supply different voltage according to the discharged
status. In this method, the charging may performed
with the output voltage having the same voltage of
one cell; however, the charging current is the
summation of the currents for each battery.
Therefore, the number of connectable battery is
decided by the rated current of the charger. In this
method, if there is no variable resistor, the charge in
parallel connection prefers not to be performed as
possible. Because the required current for charging
may be so large that the life time of battery will be
reduced quickly.
There are many methods for charging the
battery using the charger. The all currents for
charge operation are not used only for the charging.
There are some amounts of losing in current such
as the heat generated during charging process and
the gas generated by the electrolysis of distilled
water. Here, it is important problem how to reduce
the current loss. There are various methods for
21
charging operation such as the initial charge, the
maintenance charge, the recovery charge, and the
equalizing charge.
1.7.2 Initial charge
The initial charge is performed at first after the
battery is manufactured and the electrolyte is
supplied before it is used. The purpose of the initial
charge is to activate the cathode plate by resolving
the lead oxide or the lead carbide formed from the
reaction of the lead cathode with oxide or carbon in
the atmosphere, into the discharge lead again.
Recently, there is newly developed battery, which
can be used just after the electrolyte is supplied.
1.7.3 Maintenance charge
The maintenance charge is the charging
operation for supplement the consumed capacity by
the normal usage or the self-discharge. The battery
for vehicles can be supplemented the consumed
capacity at starting of the engine by the alternator
and regulator of alternator during running of the
vehicle. Furthermore, in the following conditions, the
discharged current is larger than the charged
amount, so the maintenance charge is also needed.
When the running time is too short to perform
the supplement enough.
When the charging amount by the running of
vehicle is not sufficient by the over discharge or
leakage current in the electric circuit.
When the charge operation is not performed by
the malfunction of the alternator or regulator of
the alternator, or by the defects on the control.
There are two methods in the maintenance
charge, the normal charge in which the charging
time is relatively long, and the quick charge in which
the charging time is relatively short by using large
current. Furthermore, the normal charge is
classified into the constant current charge, the
constant voltage charge and the variable current
charge according to the charging condition.
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Engine Electrical

(1) Constant current charge

This charging method is to charge with the
constant current from the starting to end of the
charge operation. The range of current is roughly
like that;
The standard charge current: 10% of the
battery capacity
The minimum charge current: 5% of the
battery capacity
The maximum charge current: 20% of the
battery capacity
And the charge characteristic in the constant
current charge is like that;
a. The terminal voltage during the charge operation
Fig. 1-22 Characteristics of charge current and
is increased sharply at the beginning and it is
voltage in the constant current charge
increased slowly after that. And then, at the near
of 2.4V, it is increased sharply again, and at the (2) Constant voltage charge
2.6~2.7V, it is maintained with the constant value.
This method is to charge with constant voltage
b. The specific gravity of electrolyte is slowly over all charging process. The charge characteristic
increased because it is not moved until the gas is shown in Fig. 1-23; at the beginning of charge,
is generated. When the gas is generated, it will large current is applied. As charging time is gone,
be increased sharply and then it maintained with the current will be decreased. At last, the current will
constant value at about 1.280. not be flown at the end of the charging. Therefore,
c. If the voltage of a cell reaches at 2.3~2.4V after there is no gas generation, so the charge
the charge operation is started, a plentiful of gas performance is superior, however, the large current
is generated. The reason is that the current may influence to reduce the life time.
supplied after the full charging is completed is
used for the electrolysis of the distilled water. At
the anode (+) plate, the oxygen is generated and
the hydrogen is generated at the cathode (-)
plate. The status of gas generation during
charge operation is also used as the means for
deciding the completion of the charge operation.
Here, the hydrogen gas is dangerous because it
is explosive gas, so it should be careful not to
contact with any flame.
d. When the charge operation is completed, if the
specific gravity of electrolyte conversed to 20
is over 1.280, then more distilled water should
be supplied to control the specific gravity to the
1.280.

Fig. 1-23 Characteristics of charge current and

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voltage in the constant voltage charge.
(3) Variable current charge
This charge method is to charge with variable
current as the charge is progressed. In this method,
the charge efficiency is very high and the electrolyte
temperature is slowly increased. At the end of the
charge process, the current will be decreased, so it
is possible to reduce the current loss and to protect
damages from the gas generation.
(4) Quick charge
This method is generally used with a quick
charger when the charging time is not enough. As
the quick charge does not make chemical reactions
with deep portion of electrode material, the
maintenance charge should be performed after the
quick charge is completed.
Fig. 1-24 Quick charger
23
When the quick charge is performed, the
followings should be considered.
a. If user wants to perform quick charge in which
the battery is not removed from vehicle, the all
cable should be separated from the terminal
poles of (+) and (-). And then the clip of charger
is installed thereat (this is for protecting the
diode of alternator).
b. The charge current should be 50% of the
capacity even it is decided by the discharging
status of battery and charge time.
c. The quick charge should be performed within a
short time as possible.
d. If the electrolyte temperature is over 45, the
charge current should be reduced or the charge
operation should be delayed and continued after
the temperature is lowered
1.7.4 Recovery charge
The recovery charge is for recovering the
electrode plate surface, which is sulfated by the
continued discharge operation. This is performed by
the constant current charge and with small current
for 40~50 hours. And then, this charged amount
should be re-discharged and re-charged it again
with the same manner. This process is performed
some times.
1.7.5 Equalizing charge
The equalizing charge is performed when the
specific gravity of each cells electrolyte is not same.
This is for equalizing the specific gravity of
electrolyte in each cell by increasing the current up
to 20~25% of normal current and performing the
overcharging. This uses the constant current charge.
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1.7.6 Cautions for charging battery
The place in which the charge operation is
performed should have ventilation system.
The discharged battery should not be left without
use but be performed by the maintenance
charge.
The electrolyte temperature should not be over
45.
The battery, which is processing the charge
operation, should not be closed to any flame.
The battery should not be over charged because
the anode (+) plate of the over-charged battery
will be oxide.
When two more batteries are charged at the
same time, they should be charged in serial
connection.
The charger and the battery should not be
connected reversibly.
A counteractive material such as ammonia water
or sodium carbonate should be prepared.
All vent plug of each cell should be opened.
be extracted from the electrode surface so that a
localized battery is formed. And then, the self-
discharge may be accelerated and the charge
voltage shall be reduced. When the constant
voltage charge is used in vehicles, the charge
current will be increased gradually so that the
electrolysis of the distilled water will be more
activated. To prevent these phenomena, if the MF
battery is made of alloy including less antimony or
lead-calcium alloy, then the reducing electrolyte and
self-discharge will be prevented. The manufacturing
method for the grid is to make iron grid plate by a
mechanical process such as punching a steel sheet,
so the quality and productivity are enhanced. By
adopting a catalyst plug for resolving the oxygen
and hydrogen gases to the distilled water again, it is
not necessary to supplement the distilled water.

1.8 MF battery
The MF (Maintenance Free) battery is also
lead-acid battery developed normal battery to
protect the electrolyte from being reduced by the
gas generated at self-discharge or chemical
reaction, and to reduce the check and maintenance
process. The main features are like that; Fig. 1-25 Structure of catalyst plug
It is not necessary to check or replace the
distilled water.
The self-discharge rate is very low.
It can be stored for a long time.
The typical differences between the MF battery
and normal battery are the material, manufacturing
method and shape of the grid. The material of the
grid is the alloy of lead-antimony having less
antimony (Sb) or the alloy of lead-calcium. The
antimony, used for the grid of normal battery, is for
enhancing the mechanical strength of grid and
making the manufacturing process to be easy. It can

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2. Starting System
The vehicle engine operates with the four
strokes including intake stroke, compression stroke,
explosion stroke and exhaust stroke. Among them,
the energy for moving is generated at the explosion
stroke only, and this energy is transformed to the
flywheel and output through the continuous
rotational movement by the inertia force of the
flywheel. At the starting of the engine, the force
needed for the initial intake and compression
strokes should be supplied externally to rotate the
crankshaft. At this time, the battery, the starting
motor, the ignition switch and the wiring are needed.
Fig. 2-1 Starting Circuit Diagram
Fig. 2-2 The principle of motor
25
2.1 The Principles and Kinds of the DC
Motor
2.1.1 The principles of the DC motor
As shown in Fig. 2-2, after a conductor
(armature) which can be freely rotate in the
magnetic field is installed, a commutator for
supplying the current source is installed, a brush
contacting to the commutator to supply the current
to the conductor is attached and then the current is
applied, a force is generated to a direction
according to the Fleming's left hand law. At that time,
the current is flowing from the conductor A to the
conductor B (Refer to Fig. 2-3). Therefore, the
conductor A near the N pole has the force to
downward direction, and the conductor B near the S
pole has the force to upward direction. So, it will
rotate in left turn. This generated rotational force is
proportional to the multiplication of the strength of
the magnetic field and current flowing through the
conductor. Considering the situation after the
conductor rotates 180 degree, the conductor A and
B are located in the reversed position. Therefore,
the rotation direction will be reversed, so it can not
rotate continuously. In order to prevent this conflict,
the supplying direction of the current should be
maintained in the one direction about the magnetic
field so that the rotation direction is not reversed.
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Engine Electrical

Fig. 2-3 The force activated to the armature

The electromagnetic force applied to the

armature located in the magnetic field, when a DC
(1) Series winding type motor
current is applied to the armature thorugh the brush
and commutator, will be described using the Figs. 2- This type is that the armature coil and the field
3 (a), (b) and (c). (yoke) coil are connected in serial. The constant
current flows through each coil. The feature of this
Case of figure (a): As the current is flown from
type is that it can make large rotational force but not
the coil B of armature to the coil A, the
make over current at high load because the rotation
electromagnetic force at the coil A is applied to
speed can be controlled automatically according to
upward and that of coil B is applied to downward.
the variation of the load. However, without load, the
Therefore, the armature will rotate in left (counter-
rotation speed will be very high so that the motor
clockwise) direction.
should be treated no to be damaged. Due to that,
Case of figure (b): When the armature turns 90 this type is used for the starting motor. The
degrees to the center of coil, the current is not flown characteristic of this type is like that;
through the armature. However, the armature
continues to rotate by the inertia of its moving.
Case of figure (c): As the armature is rotating,
the coil A and coil B are located in reversed position
about the figure (a). However, the direction of
current is not changed by the brush, so the direction
of electromagnetic force is the same with the figure
(a) even while the current is flown from the coil A to
the coil B. Therefore, the armature will be rotating in
left (counter-clockwise) direction continuously.

2.1.2 The Kinds of Direct Current motor

According to the connecting method between
the armature coil and the field (yoke) coil, the series
winding type, the shunt winding type, and the
compound winding type are used for the direct
current motor comprising of armature coil, field
(yoke) coil, commutator and brush. Recently, the
permanent magnetic type is also used.
Fig. 2-4 Electric diagram of
the series winding dc motor
A. Characteristic of relationship between the
armature current and rotation force
The rotation force of the motor is proportional to
the multiplying of the armature current and the
strength of the magnetic field. The strength of the

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Engine Electrical
magnetic field is decided by the yoke current and
the armature current. The character graph is shown
B. Characteristic of relationship between the
armature current and speed
The armature current is reversely proportional
to the reverse electromotive force made by the
motor. The reverse electromotive force is
proportional to the speed of the motor. Therefore,
the armature current is reversely proportional to the
speed. The character graph is shown in figure 2-5.
As shown in the graph, when the speed is low, that
is, the load is high, the rotation force is high
because of the increased armature current, and so
the series winding dc motor is generally used for
starting motor.
Fig. 2-5 Characteristic graph of
each type of dc motor
(2) Shunt winding type motor
This type is that the armature coil and the field
coil are connected in parallel. The source voltage is
applied at each coil. According to the current flown
through the field coil, the rotation speed can be
controlled with the wide range easily. It can be used
for the motor of constant speed operation in which
27
in figure 2-5. As the armature current is high, the
rotation force will be increased.
the rotation speed is not changed when the load is
varied, or for the motor of acceleration or
deceleration in which the rotation speed is varied by
the yoke current. This motor is used for the window
washer, cooling fan, power window, and so on.
Fig 2-6 Electric diagram of
the shunt winding dc motor
A. Characteristic of relationship between the
armature current and rotation force
Like the series winding type, the rotation force
is proportional to the multiplying of the armature
current and the yoke field strength. However, the
strength of the magnetic field can not be changed in
this type, so the characteristic graph will be as
shown in Fig 2-5. That is, as the armature current is
large (the load is high), the rotation force is
increased, but the increased ratio is less than that
of series winding type.
B. Characteristic of relationship between the
armature current and speed
The rotation speed of the motor is proportional
to the voltage and reversely proportional to the field
yoke strength. Therefore, when the power source is
the battery, the voltage is constant and the yoke
field is not changed. Consequently, when the
armature current is increased, the voltage is
lowered little but the rotation speed is almost
constant, as shown in figure 2-5.
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(3) Compound winding type motor motor for controlling the idling speed of the ECU
engine, step motor, fuel pump and so on.
This type is that the armature coil and one field
coil are connected in serial and these are
connected another field coil in parallel. The pole
directions of these two field coils are the same. This
type shows the neutral characteristic of the series
winding type and the shunt winding type.
That is, when the motor is starting, it has large
rotating force like the series winding type. After it is
started, it has constant rotation speed like the shunt
winding type. So, it has more complicated structure
than series winding type. This type is used for
windshield wiper motor. Fig. 2-8 Electric diagram of the permanent
magnetic motor

Fig. 2-7 Electric diagram of

the compound winding dc motor

(4) Permanent magnetic motor

The ferrite magnet is the permanent magnet
made by pressing an oxide powder including barium
and iron and sintering at high temperature. The
main feature of it is light and to have a strong
magnetic force. This magnet is served as the field
york coil and pole core. In this case, the current is
only supplied to the armature coil, so if the direction
of current is changed then the rotation direction is
also changed. The reason is that the pole direction
of the ferrite magnet is not changed; however, pole
direction of the armature, the electromagnet, can be
changed according to the direction of the current.
This type is used for wind shield wiper motor, servo

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2.2 Start motor
Nowadays, the most vehicle engine uses the
series winding type motor of which source is battery,
for the start motor. The series winding type motor
generates the low speed and large force with a load.
When the load is reduced, the rotating force is
decreased but the rotation speed is increased. That
is, the rotation speed will be remarkably varied. The
start motor should generate the rotation force, which
can be against the compressing force of the engine
cylinder and the frictional force of all parts, so the
rotation force should be large. The most suitable
type for these requirements is the series winding
type motor, therefore the required condition is like
that;
The rotational force for starting should be large.
It should be small and light as possible and have
large output.
It should be operated with small current capacity.
It should endure against vibrations.
It should endure against mechanical shocks.
2.2.1 Rotation force for starting
The required rotation force and speed of the start
motor for starting of the engine depends on the kind
of engine (cylinder volume, compression ratio, and
ignition type) or temperature (ambient temperature
or lubricant oil temperature). The starting
performance is mainly affected by the status of
battery, the electrical source. Therefore, when the
starting performance is concerned, the requirement
for engine, characteristic of the start motor and
performance of battery should be included. The
rotational resistance of the engine is decided by the
forces needed for compressing the air and fuel
mixture in the cylinder and the frictional forces of
the cylinder, the piston ring, each bearing and gear.
(Rotation Resistance of engine) x (Tooth number of pinion gear)
Rotating force =
(Tooth number of flywheel ring gear)
29
When the engine is starting, the rotation force
needed that the start motor rotates the crank shaft
against the rotational resistance is called as the
starting rotation force. The starting rotation force of
start motor can be increased by enlarging the ratio
between the flywheel ring gear and the pinion gear
(to about 10~15:1). This ratio can be acquired by
following equation. This starting rotation force will
be large as the cylinder volume or the compression
ratio is large as well as it shall be affected by the
ambient temperature.
2.2.2 Initial rpm for engine starting
To start engine, the rotation speed and force
should be larger than those for rotating the
crankshaft. If the rotation speed is too low, then the
compressed gas between the cylinder and piston
will be leaked, so the compression pressure for
starting can not be acquired. For gasoline engine, if
the voltage supplied to the ignition coil is too low,
then the ignition shall be failed. For diesel engine, if
the adiabatic compression is not sufficiently
performed, then the temperature for igniting the fuel
shall not be acquired. The lowest limitation value of
speed of rotation for engine starting is called the
minimum starting rotation speed.
This rotation speed of diesel engine is little
larger than that of gasoline engine. Generally, the
minimum rotation speed will be large as the
temperature is high. It is also varied according to
the cylinder number, cycle number, shape of
combustion chamber, ignition type and so on.
For the 2-cylce engine, the minimum starting
rotation speed is about 150~200 rpm at -15. For
the 4-cycle engine, it is more than 100rpm for the
gasoline engine, or 180 rpm for the diesel engine.
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2.2.3 Starting performance of the engine

The output of the start motor is varied by the
capacity of the battery and the difference of the
temperature. The figure 2-9 shows one example of
the characteristic variations according to the various
batteries having different capacity for operating the
start motor.

Fig. 2-10 Variations of Characteristics of

start motor according to the variations
of the temperature

Fig. 2-9 Variations of Characteristics of

start motor according to the variations
of the battery capacity
When the battery capacity is small, the terminal
voltage will be greatly drop down and the rotation
speed will be slow at the engine starting, so the
output will be decreased. Furthermore, as shown in Fig. 2-11 Characteristics for the engine starting
Fig. 2-10, the actual capacity is also lowered as the
temperature is lowed, so the output of the start
motor is also reduced. Therefore, at any case, the
starting performance will be degraded.
The figure 2-11 shows the relationship between
the rotation speeds of the engine started by the start
motor and the rotation force operating the engine
through the pinion gear and flywheel ring gear.
When the temperature is lowered, the viscosity of
the lubricant oil is increased, so the rotational
resistance of the engine is increased. However, the
driving rotation force will be reduced by the
dropdown of the battery capacity.

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2.3 Structure and operation of start

motor
The start motor comprises of three main parts in According to the source voltage or the output, these
accordance with the operation. three main parts are different in size and the
number of poles and brushes. However, the
The part for generating rotational force
structure and operation are similar.
The part for transmitting the rotational force to
the engine fly-wheel ring gear
The part for contacting the pinion to the flywheel
ring gear using sliding motion.

Fig. 2-12 Structure of the start motor

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2.3.1 Electromotor part

The electromotor part is comprised of the
rotating part (armature, commutator, etc) and the
fixed part (field coil, pole core, brush, etc.).

(1) Rotating Part

A. Armature
The armature is consisting of a shaft and an
iron core, a plurality of armature coil wound in
isolated state around them, and commutator. The
both ends of shaft are supported by bearing and
rotating within the yoke iron core. The shaft of the
armature is made of special steel to prevent from
being broken, deformed or bent because it is
affected under large forces. The shaft has a spline
on which the pinion is sliding. The shaft should be
annealed to prevent from being worn.
The iron core of armature comprises of multiple
of thin steel sheet isolated and stacked in order to
flow the magnetic flux well and to reduce the eddy
current. The material is iron, nickel, or cobalt having
large magnetic permeability. At the outer
circumference, slot for armature coil is formed for
preventing the iron core from overheating. The iron
core of armature will be a magnetic circuit for the
magnetic field generated form the pole core and
converts the electromagnetic force generated
between the magnetic force of the pole core and the
armature coil to the rotational force. Therefore, the
larger is the armature coil, the larger is the rotation
force.
Fig. 2-14 Structure of armature coil
The armature coil should have large current so
that it should be made of the rectangular conductor
with wave winding method. The coil is inserted into
the slot with being isolated in which the one end of
the coil is connected to the N pole and the other
end is connected to the S pole. The both ends of
the coil are soldered to the commutator. Therefore,
the rotational forces generated from each coil, when
the current is flown at the same time, are rotating
the armature. The shapes of iron core are shown in
figure 2-15. Generally, two coils are inserted into
one slot, so the cross sectional shapes are like as
shown in figure 2-15 (a), (b) and (c). For isolating
the armature coil, the mica paper, the fiber or the
plastic is used.

Overrunning Armature
Clutch

Pinion Fig. 2-15 Slot shape of the armature iron core

Reduction Gear

Fig. 2-13 Structure of armature

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B. Commutator
As shown in figure 2-16, multiple of copper
commutator plates are arranged in cylindrical shape
with insulator (mica) between them. The armature
coil is soldered with each commutator plate. It
makes the current from brush flow in one direction
to the armature coil.
Fig. 2-16 Commutator and Undercut
The inner part of the commutator is thinner than
the outer part of it. To prevent from seceding, it is
joined with V-shaped mica or V-shaped clamp ring.
The each piece of commutator plate is isolated by
the mica of which thickness is about 1mm and of
which diameter is 0.5~0.8mm (max 0.2mm) smaller
than the outer diameter of commutator. This small
amount is called the under cut having a vital role of
protect the commutator from discontenting, inferior
in rectifying, or being damaged by vibration. The
pieces of commutator are always connected with
the brush during rotation, so there are large current
or sparks between the brush and commutator.
Therefore it can have high temperature so it can be
easily damaged. It is important part for determining
the life time of the start motor.
33
(2) Fixed part
The fixed part of the start motor is comprised of
a yoke generating the magnetic field for rotating the
armature, a pole core, a field coil, a brush sending
the current from the field coil to the armature coil
through the commutator, a brush holder, and front
and rear end frames supporting the armature shaft.
A. Yoke & Pole core
The yoke is the path of the magnetic field as
well as the frame of the start motor. Inside surface
of it, the pole core, which has a role of magnetic
pole supporting the field coil, is fixed with screws.
As the field coil is wound around the pole core,
the pole core will be an electromagnet when the
current is flow in the field coil. The number of
electromagnet is decided by the number of pole
core. If the number of pole core is 4 then the
electromagnet has 4 poles.
B. Field coil
This is the coil being wound around the pole
core to generate magnetic field. As a large current
should be flown through it, it should be made of
rectangular copper wire.
Fig. 2-17 Pole core and
Field coil
C. Brush & brush holder
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Engine Electrical
The four brushes transmitting the current to the
armature coil through the commutator are installed.
Two of them are supported by the insulated holder
and connected to the commutator (these are called
(+) brushes), and the other two are supported by
the grounded holder and connected to the
commutator (these are called (-) brushes). The
brush is made of carbon, graphitic carbon, electrical
graphitic carbon, or metallic graphitic carbon having
good lubricating and applying electric current
abilities. The start motor has large current and is
operated within a short time period, so the metallic
graphitic carbon for low voltage and large current is
generally used for start motor.
The metallic graphitic carbon brush is made of
powder of copper and graphite in which the ratio of
copper is about 50~90%. The resistivity and contact
resistance are very low. In order that the brush
supplies the current to the armature coil through the
commutator, the brush should contact to the
commutator using spring tension to slide within the
holder in up and down. The spring tension of the
brush is about 0.5~1.0 kgf/. If the brush is worn
over 1/3 of the standard length, then it should be
replaced.
D. Bearing
As the start motor is heavy and used within a short
time, the bushing type bearing is used for the start
motor. There are slots at the bearing for lubrication.
Preferably, the oil-less bearing is used.
Fig 2-18 Installation of brush and commutator
34
(3) Solenoid switch
This is also called as a magnetic switch. It does
a role of the switch doing ON-OFF operation for the
large current flown from the battery to the start
motor and of the joint connecting the pinion of the
start motor and engine flywheel ring gear.
The solenoid switch, as shown in 2-20,
comprises of a hollow core, a plunger, a contact
disk, two contacting terminals [one is for connecting
to the (+) terminal of battery when the contact disk
is closed, the other is for supplying current to the
start motor] and two excite coils wound on the
hollow core. The two excite coils are comprised of a
pull-in coil and a hold-in coil. The start part of the
winding of each coil is connected to the switch
terminal of the start motor (S terminal or St terminal).
The pull-in coil is grounded to the start motor
terminal (M terminal) and the hold-in coil is
grounded to the housing.
In order that it is easy for the pinion of starting
motor and engine fly wheel ring gear to joint each
other and it is smooth for the operation for rotating
the start motor and operation of plunger to work, the
pull-in coil has thick coil wound around itself, and it
is connected to the battery in serial. The hold-in coil
has thinner coil than that the pull-in coil, so less
current is flown through it. However, it is connected
to the battery in parallel so that it makes magnetic
field regardless of open/close state of the two
contact points.
Fig 2-19 Brush and brush holder
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Fig. 2-20 Structure of the solenoid switch

The operation of excite coil is to generate the spring and the pinion from being separated from
magnetic force by flowing the battery current ring gear by the vibration generated during cranking
according to the closing of the start switch (or of the engine.
ignition switch; key) at the driving seat, and to pull After the engine is started, if the ignition switch
up the plunger. By the movement of the plunger, the is released, then the contact disk is closed at that
contact disk is operated to contact the two contact moment, therefore, the current of pull-in coil is
points, at the same time; the shift lever is pulled to reversely flowing from the start motor terminal (M
slide the pinion so that the pinion joints to the terminal). So, the direction of the pull-in coil's
engine fly wheel ring gear. The working of the magnetic field is also reversed and then the
solenoid is like that; magnetic forces of the hold-in coil and pull-in coil
When the starting switch is closed, the current are cancelled each other. Therefore, the plunger is
flows from the starting switch to pull-in coil so that return by the tension of the return spring, the pinion
the plunger is suddenly pulled and then the contact is separated from the ring gear and the contact disk
disk is closed to the two contact points. At the same is opened. As the pull-in coil is connected in serial
time, by pulling the plunger, the pinion is pushed to with the battery and the start motor, it is called serial
the flywheel ring gear. At that time, a big current soil or current coil. As the hold-in coil is connected
flows from the (+) terminal of the battery to the start in parallel, it is called shunt coil or voltage coil.
motor terminal (M terminal) via the battery terminal
(B terminal) of the solenoid switch. The current from
the start motor terminal flows through the ways of
field coil (+) brush commutator armature
coil commutator (-) brush ground to
rotate the armature and then the engine is cranked.
As the plunger is pulled and the two contact
points are connected to the contact disk, the pull in
coil is opened by the contact disk so that the current
does not flow through the pull in coil and the pulling
force of the pull-in coil becomes to zero. Therefore,
the plunger will be back to the original position by
the tension of the return spring so that the joint of Fig. 2-21 Structure of solenoid switch
the pinion and ring gear will be released. At this
time, the hold-in coil will hinder the plunger from
being return to the original position by the return

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Engine Electrical
(4) Overrunning clutch
When the engine is started, the pinion of the
start motor and the flywheel ring gear are jointed
each other so that the start motor is driven in high
speed by the flywheel. Therefore, the armature,
bearing, commutator and brush can be damaged.
To protect these parts, this clutch makes pinion
rotate in idle state after engine starting to prevent
the start motor form being driven by the engine.
There are the roller type, the multi-plate type and
the Sprag type.
A. Roller type overrunning clutch
This type comprises of sleeve (spline tube)
installed on the spline of the armature shaft and
outer race having wedge shaped groove, which are
combined each other. In side of the outer race,
there is an inner race composing the one body with
the pinion. The wedge shaped groove at the outer
race includes rollers and springs, in which the
rollers are pushed to narrow side by the springs.
Outer race Inner race
Roller
Spring
Fig 2-22 Overrunning clutch
36
The operation of the roller type is like that;
according to the rotation of the armature shaft, the
outer race is rotate along the direction of arrow
shown in Fig 2-22, however, the inner race is not
moving so that the roller is moving along the outer
circumference of the outer race. At this time,
according to the difference of the rotational speed
between of the outer race and of the inner race, the
rollers are pushed to the narrow side in the groove
so that the inner race and outer race is fixed.
Therefore, the rotation force of the armature shaft
will be transmitted to the pinion to crank the engine.
After the engine is started, as the pinion ring is
jointed with the ring gear during the operation of the
solenoid, the pinion is rotated by the fly wheel. At
this time, the speed of the inner race is faster than
that of the outer race, so the rotation direction of the
rollers is reversed. Therefore, the rollers will be
move to the wide side of the groove, and the gap
between the inner race and outer race will be
enlarged so that they are sliding each other and the
rotation force of the fly wheel transmitted to the
pinion will not be transmitted any more,
The roller type uses about 4~5 roller. As this
type has lightweight and small size, the inertia
generated when the both gears are joined is small
so that the pinion or ring gear is less damaged.
However, as the contact surface of the roller for
transmitting the driving force is small, partial wear
will be often generated so that this type can make a
fault when big driving force shall be transmitted.
B. Multi-plate type overrunning clutch
This type is used for the armature movable type
start motor, and the structure is shown in Fig 2-23.
The spline is formed at the armature shaft to
combine with the spline formed inside of the
advance sleeve and then they can make a sliding
movement. The driving clutch plate is combined to
the groove of the advance sleeve. Pinion is formed
as one boy with the outer case including a driven
clutch plate at the groove formed inside of the case.
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Engine Electrical
Fig 2-23 Structure of the multi-plate type
The operation of the multi-plate type clutch is
like that; the pinion of the start motor is jointed to
the fly wheel ring gear by pushing of the shift lever.
In this state, if the pinion is stopped, the rotation of
the armature shaft is transmitted to the advance
sleeve so that the advance sleeve is pushed to the
pinion through the spline. This pushing force is
transmitted from the advance sleeve to the driving
spring via the clutch plate so the driving spring is
bent. The bending of the driving spring generates a
pressure on the surfaces of both clutches and
transmits the rotation force by the friction force
there-between. After the engine is started, the
rotation force of the pinion is faster than that of the
armature shaft, so the advance sleeve will be
rotating. Therefore, due to the operation of spline,
Fig 2-24 Structure of Sprag type
37
the advance sleeve will rotate in reverse direction
with the pinion and the both clutch plates are sliding
so that the rotation force of the engine can not be
transmitted to the armature shaft.
C. Sprag type overrunning clutch
This type is generally used for heavy weight
engines, and its operation is like that; the outer race
is driven by the start motor. When the engine is
started, the outer race and the inner race are joined
to be one body. As the fly wheel drives the pinion by
the starting of the engine, the inner race is rotating
faster than outer race, so that the jointing between
the inner and outer races will be released to prevent
the engine from driving the start motor.
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Engine Electrical
2.3.2 Power Train
The power train is a method for joining the
pinion of the start motor to the fly wheel ring gear
and divided in to following types.
1. Bendix type
2. Pinion perturbation type
a. Manual type b. Electric type
3. Armature perturbation type
(1) Bendix type
This type is a method using the character that
the inertia of pinion and the series start motor are
rotating in high speed with no load.
Fig 2-25 Structure and circuit diagram of Bandix type
The operation is like that; as current is flowing,
the start motor will rotate in high speed. However,
due to the inertia force, the pinion is not rotating
with the armature shaft but rotating on the spline
and moving toward the fly wheel ring gear to joint
with it.
Fig 2-26 Jointing between the pinion and ring gear
38
As the pinion reaches at the end part of the
spline and joints with the ring gear, the rotation force
of the armature is transmitted to the pinion via the
driving spring and spline so that the pinion will drive
the fly wheel with a large driving force.
Because the rotation force of the armature is
transmitted to the pinion via the driving spring, the
shock form the joining of both gears will be reduced
sot that the damages of armature and gear are also
prevented. The teeth of pinion and ring gear have
some chamber to ensure the fixing of them. After
the engine is started, the pinion is rotated by the
ring gear.
Therefore, it slides on the spline in opposite
direction so that the fixed gear joint is released and
returned back to original position. As the start motor
is not rotated by the fly wheel ring gear after the
engine is started, the overrunning clutch is not
needed.
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Engine Electrical
(2) Pinion perturbation type
Figure 2-26 Structure of pinion perturbation type
In this type, there are the manual type and the
electrical type. Nowadays, only the electrical type is
used, so we will explain about this type only. The
electrical type is the method using a solenoid switch,
and the operation likes followings.
A. When the start motor is rotating;
a. Turn on the ignition switch.
b. The current flows from the start motor switch
terminal (S terminal) of the solenoid switch to the
pull-in coil and the hold-in coil.
c. The current into the pull-in coil flows to the field
coil, brush, commutator and armature coil of the
start motor via the start motor terminal (M
terminal) of the solenoid switch and the armature
starts to rotate.
d. The plunger of solenoid switch is pulled in so
that it pulls the shift lever, and then the pinion of
the start motor is pushed by the shift lever to
joint with the fly wheel ring gear.
e. By the pulling of the plunger, the contact plate of
the solenoid switch closes to the two contact
points.
f. As a current flows from the battery to the field
coil and armature coil via the cable, the start
motor start to rotate with a big power to crank
the engine.
39
B. When the engine is cranked;
a. As the contact plate closes to the two contact
points, the current flowing in the pull-in coil is
shored so that the magnetic force applied to the
plunger will be reduced.
b. At this time, the magnetic force generated by the
hold-in coil hinders the pinion from returning to
the original position by the return spring to
prevent the joint between the pinion and ring
gear from being released.
C. After the engine is cranked;
a. When the pinion of the start motor is rotated by
the fly wheel ring gear, the armature is protected
by the overrunning clutch.
b. At the moment of ignition switch off, the contact
plate is still closed so that the current from
battery is flowing from the start motor terminal of
the solenoid switch to the pull-in coli in opposite
direction and then flows into the hold-in coil.
c. The magnetic force generated by the pull-in coil
is reversed to set off the magnetic force of hold-
in coil, so that the pulling force is reduced.
Therefore, by the tension of the return spring,
the plunger and the pinion return and separate
from the ring gear, and the contact plate is
opened. The current flowing to the start motor
will be broken and then the start motor is
stopped.
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Engine Electrical
(3) Armature perturbation type
Fig 2-27 Structure and circuit diagram of the armature perturbation type
This type has been used in diesel engine. As
shown in Fig 2-27, the pinion is installed at the front
end of the armature and the center of the armature
core and the center of the pole (yoke) core are off
set each other. The solenoid switch is installed over
the body of the start motor and driven by the start
switch and the movement of the armature. The field
coil comprises of the primary field coil for generating
the rotation force and the auxiliary field coil for
moving the armature.
a. When the start switch is closed (ON), the
solenoid switch is driven and the upper contact
point of movable contact plate is closed.
b. At the upper contact point, as current flows to
the auxiliary field coil so the pole core is
magnetized, the armature core is pulled to the
center of the pole core by this magnetic force.
c. At this time, as current also flows in the armature
coil, the armature starts to rotate and move to
joint the pinion and the ring gear.
d. By completing the movement of the armature,
the lower contact point of the solenoid switch
and the movable contact plate are closed.
e. In the circuit formed by the closing the movable
contact plate, current from battery flows to the
primary field coil and armature coil to crank the
engine.
40
f. After the engine is cranked, the pinion is rotated
by the fly wheel ring gear. At this time, the
transmission of the engine rotation force to the
armature is broken by the multi-plate type
overrunning clutch.
g. As the load on the start motor is lightened by the
breaking down of the rotation force of the engine,
the field current is also reduced and the force is
also weakened so that the armature returns
back to the original position by the return spring
and the pinion and the ring gear are separated
each other.
In this type start motor, as the pinion and
armature are moved as the one body, so the shock
applied to the fly wheel ring gear is very large.
Therefore, the both gear are easy to be broken. To
prevent these damages, the pinion should be made
of soft material to protect the ring gear and it could
be replaced.
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Engine Electrical
(4) Reduction gear type
Fig. 2-28 Electric indentation reduction gear type start motor
There are the electrical indentation type and the
oil gear reduction type. The oil gear reduction type
is generally used for the 2-wheel vehicle. We will
explain about the electrical indentation type
generally used for the small size and lightweight
requirements.
The Fig 2-28(a) shows the structure of the
electric indentation type, in which the start motor
part is the same as the pinion perturbation type,
however, the power transmission comprises of
solenoid switch pulling the reduction gear and the
pinion and intermitting the main current. At the front
end of the armature shaft, a driving pinion is
installed on the spline so the driving pinion and
idling gear, the idle gear and the clutch gear are
always jointed.
Due to these gears, the rpm of the armature is
reduced to 1/3 and transmitted to the pinion. In
other words, the rotational force is enhanced up to 3
times and transmitted to the pinion by these gears.
a. As the ignition switch is on, current flows in the
pull-in coil and hold-in coil of the solenoid switch
so that the armature starts to rotate and the
plunger is pulled.
b. By the moving of the plunger, the plunger shaft
is pushed and the pinion is jointed to the ring
gear.
41
c. At this time, the overrunning clutch is joined with
the clutch gear. Therefore, only the pinion moves
through the spline on the pinion shaft.
d. As the pinion and the ring gear is jointed, the
contact plate of the solenoid switch is closed and
the main current flows into the start motor. Then
the engine is cranked by the strong rotation
force of the start motor.
e. As the contact plate of the solenoid switch is
closed, current dose not flow into the pull-in coil
so that the plunger will be maintained by the
magnetic force generated by the hold-in coil.
f. After the engine is cranked, the pinion is rotated
by the ring gear; however, the rotation force into
the armature is blocked by the overrunning
clutch.
g. When the start switch is opened, the operation
of the solenoid switch is the same in the case of
pinion perturbation type. However, as this type is
for high speed motor, it can be stopped by small
rotational resistance. So, it can be stopped by
the friction force between the brush and the
commutator without any additional brake system.
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2.4 Starting-system trouble diagnosis
2.4.1 Starting-system Troubles
Three basic starting-system complaints are:
a. The engine does not crank.
b. The engine cranks slowly but does not start.
c. The engine cranks normally but does not start.
This condition is not caused by the starting
system. It indicates a problem in the fuel or
ignition system, or in the engine.
The chart in Fig. 2-29 shows various possible
causes of these and other starting-system troubles,
and the checks or corrections to make.
2.4.2 No cranking, Lights stay bright
Current is not getting to the starting motor. Use
a voltmeter to check for voltage at the ignition
switch and starting motor terminals with the ignition
key turned to START. Battery voltage up to the
starting motor terminal indicates trouble in the
starting motor. Trouble is indicated in the relay or
solenoid if it has battery voltage but the starting
motor terminal does not.
2.4.3 No cranking, Lights dim heavily
Recharge or replace a discharged battery. The
battery is less efficient at low temperatures and
engine oil gets thicker. The starting motor cannot
always crank the engine with a low battery. These
symptoms may also indicate advancing spark timing,
excessive starter draw, and loose or dirty
connections.
2.4.4 No cranking, Lights dim slightly
The drive pinion may not be engaging with the
ring gear. If the starting-motor armature spins, then
the overrunning clutch is slipping. Also, there may
be high resistance or an open circuit in the starting
motor.
2.4.5 No cranking, Lights go out
There is a poor connection, probably at the
battery. Wiggle the cable connections at the battery.
If they are tight, make a voltage-drop test. If the
meter shows voltage, the connection has excessive
42
resistance. Clean the cable clamp and battery
terminal. Install and tighten the clamp.
2.4.6 No cranking, No lights
Either the battery is dead or there is an open in
the battery insulated circuit or ground circuit.
Possibilities include a loose connection at the
battery, relay, or solenoid. An open fusible link
indicates a short circuit.
2.4.7 Engine cranks slowly but does not start
The battery may be run down or the
temperature is very low. A defective starting motor
crank the engine too slowly to start it. Trouble in the
engine may prevent normal cranking. Also, the
driver may have run the battery down trying to start.
2.4.8 Engine cranks at normal speed but does
not start
When the engine cranks at normal speed, the
starting system is okay. The trouble is elsewhere.
Item 7 in Fig. 2-29 lists possible causes.
2.4.9 Relay or solenoid chatters
If this happens when the key is turned to start,
the battery is probably low. Charge the battery. The
contacts in the relay or solenoid switch may be
burned. Replace the relay or the contact plate.
Another cause is a defective solenoid hold in
winding. Replace the solenoid.
2.4.10 Pinion disengages slowly after starting
Item 9 in Fig. 2-29 lists four possible causes.
Also listed are the checks and corrections to make.
2.4.11 Unusual Noise
A high-pitched whine can result if there is too
much or too little clearance between the
overrunning-clutch pinion and the ring gear. The
procedure for adjusting the clearance is in the
manufacturer's service manual.
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Condition Possible Cause Check or Correction

1. No cranking, lights stay
bright
2. No cranking, lights dim
heavily
3. No cranking, lights dim
slightly
4. No cranking, lights go
out
5. No cranking, no lights
6. Engine cranks slowly
but does not start
7. engine cranks at
normal speed but does
not start
8. Relay or solenoid
chatters
9. Pinion disengages
slowly after starting
10. Unusual noises
a. Open circuit in ignition switch
b. Open circuit in starting motor
c. Open in control circuit
d. Open fusible link
a. Trouble in engine
b. Battery low
c. Very low temperature
d. Frozen armature bearings, short in
starting motor
a. Faulty or slipping drive
b. Excessive resistance or open
circuit in starting motor.
Poor connection, probably at battery
a. Battery dead
b. Open circuit
a. Battery run down
b. Very low temperature
c. Starting motor defective
d. Undersized battery cables or
battery
e. Mechanical trouble in engine
f. Driver has run battery down trying
to start.
a. Ignition system defective
b. Fuel system defective
c. Air leaks in intake manifold or
carburetor
d. Engine defective
a. Hold-in winding open
b. Low battery
c. Burned contacts
a. Sticky solenoid plunger
b. Overrunning clutch sticks on
armature shaft
c. Overrunning clutch defective
d. Shift-lever return spring weak
a. High-pitched whine during cranking
(before engine fires)
b. High-pitched whine after engine firs
as key is released
c. Loud whoop, buzzing, or siren
sound after engine fires but while
starter is engaged-sounds like a
siren if engine is revved.
d. Rumble, growl, or knock as starter
is coasting to a stop after engine
starts
Check switch contacts and connections
Check commutator, brushes, and connections
Check solenoid, or relay, switch, and connections
Correct condition causing link to blow; replace link
Check engine to find trouble
Check, recharge, or replace battery
Battery must be fully charge, with engine, wiring
circuit, and starting motor in good condition
Repair staring motor
Replace parts
Clean commutator, replace brushes; repair poor
connections
Clean cable clamp and terminal; tighten clamp
Recharge or replace battery
Clean and tighten connections; replace wiring
Check, recharge, or replace battery
Battery must be fully charged, with engine, wiring
circuit, and starting motor in good condition
Test starting motor
Install cables or battery of adequate size
Check engine
See item 7
Make spark test; check timing and ignition system
Check fuel pump, line, carburetor or fuel injection
system
Tighten mounting; replace gaskets as needed
Check compression, valve timing, etc.
Replace solenoid
Charge battery
Replace
Clean and free plunger
Clean armature shaft and clutch sleeve
Replace clutch
Install new spring
Too much clearance between pinion and ring gear
Too little clearance between pinion and ring gear
Defective overrunning clutch
Bent or unbalanced armature

Fig. 2-29 Starting-system trouble-diagnosis chart.

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MEMO

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Engine Electrical
3. Charging System
3.1 Purpose of the charging system
There are two kinds of alternator used for
vehicle, the direct current (DC) alternator and the
alternating current (AC) alternator. In any case, the
charging system for vehicle should output the
electric signal in serial for charging the battery. That
is, the DC alternator makes the output by rectifying
the alternating current made in armature coil using
the commutator and brush, whereas the AC
alternator gets the alternating current output from
the stator coil and this alternating current is
converted into the direct current by rectifying
through silicon diodes.
3.2 Single phase AC AND 3- phase AC
3.2.1 Single phase Alternating Current
(1) Generating single phase alternating current
As shown in Fig 3-1, the DC alternator makes
the current by rotating a conducting wire in a
magnetic field, whereas, the AC alternator makes
the current by rotating the magnetic field with fixing
the conducting wire.
Fig 3-1 Generation of the single phase AC.
(2) Relationship between the rotation number
and the frequency
As shown in Fig 3-2, the one cycle is the
change of electromotive force from a to a' and the
frequency is the repetition number of this change for
one second. In the Fig 3-1, when the magnet
rotates one turn during one second, the frequency
is one cycle. In the Fig 3-2, if 4-pole magnet is used,
then the same change is repeated in every 1/2 turn,
so 2-cycle is occurred at every one turn of magnet.
45
As the number of magnetic pole is increased or the
rotation speed is increased, the frequency is also
increased. This relationship is represented by the
following equation.
p
N
N P
f = 2 =
60 120
Fig 3-2 The electromotive force of the single
phase AC
3.2.2 3-phase Alternating Current
(1) Purpose of the 3-phase AC
The alternator for vehicle, at first, was the
single-phase AC alternator and made the DC by
rectifying the AC using commnutaor and brush.
Nowadays, due to the development of the high
performance silicon diode, 3-phase AC alternator is
used.
(2) Generation of the 3-phase AC
As shown in Fig 3-3, after the 3 groups of coil
having the same windings, A-A', B-B' and C-C', are
wound in 120 arraying, when a magnet is rotating
within the coil array, then the 3-phase AC voltage is
generated as shown in 3-4. The coil B generates
the voltage in 120 lag behind the voltage
generation at coil A, and the coil C generates the
voltage in 120 lag behind the voltage generation at
coil C. These AC waveforms generated at the A, B
and C groups are called 3-phase AC.
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Fig 3-3 Arraying diagram of 3-phase coil

Fig 3-4 The 3-phase AC voltage

Fig. 3-5 Connecting method of 3-phase coil

(3) Connecting method of 3-phase coil point is three outer terminals.

In the commercial 3-phase AC alternator, the 3
pairs of coil are connected as shown in Fig 3-5. The
figure (a) shows the Y-connection (or star
connection) in which each one end of A, B and C
coil is each outer terminal and the each other end is
connected at one point, while, the figure (b) shows
the tri angle connection (or delta connection) in
which one start point of each coil is connected to
other end point of each coil and each connected
Here, the voltage and current generated at each
coil are called the phase voltage and the phase
current, respectively. The voltage between the outer
terminals and the current flowing at the outer
terminal are called the line voltage and the line
current, respectively. There are some relationships
between Y-connection and the tri angle connection
as followings.

In the case of Y-connection El = 3 Ep, Il Ip

In the case of tri angle connection El = Ep, Il = 3 Ip

here, El: Line voltage Ep: Phase voltage
Il: Line current Ip: Phase current

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Fig 3-6 Line voltage
In the case of the Y-connection, the line voltage
is 3 times of the phase voltage, and in the case of
tri angle connection, the line current is 3 times of
phase current. Therefore, if the coil winding is the
same with the alternator having same capacity, then
the Y-connection can make higher electromotive
force than the tri angle connection. So, AC
alternator for vehicle can get high voltage in low
speed and generally uses the Y-connection, which
can utilize middle voltage point. However, for large
output, the tri angle connection is used.
3.2.3 Rectifier
The current made form the rotary type
alternator rotated by mechanical force is alternating
current so it should be converted into direct current
to use as the vehicle power source. To convert the
alternating current into the direct current is the
"rectify" and the device for rectifying is the "rectifier."
The rectifier is made of various material such as
mineral, metal, semiconductor, and vacuum tube for
the purpose.
In the rectifier for vehicle, there are the silicon
diode for the AC alternator, the germanium diode for
the voltage regulator, and the tungar bulb rectifier,
Fig 3-7 Tungar bulb rectifier
47
selenium rectifier and the silicon rectifier for the
battery charger.
(1) Tungar bulb rectifier
This rectifier has the structure as shown in Fig
3-7. When AC current is supplied between the two
electrodes, the filament is heated and current flows
from the anode (+) to the cathode (-), however, it
can not flow in opposite direction. As a result, the
half rectifier is performed. When 2 bulbs are used,
the full rectifier is possible. The tungar bulb rectifier
is usually used for battery charger. It is easy to be
utilized and not expensive, however, it has small
capacity and low efficiency, so nowadays, it is rarely
used.
(2) Selenium rectifier
Forming the metallic film by melting selenium
on the iron or nickel plate, as shown in Fig 3-8, the
current can flow from the iron plate to selenium film
but it can not flow in opposite direction. Using this
character, the selenium rectifier is made by deciding
the number and size of the selenium film according
to the voltage and current.
Fig 3-8 Selenium rectifier
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(3) Silicon diode
In the current direction, the silicon diode can
flow current with a small voltage of under 1V,
however, it cannot flow current in reverse direction.
As shown in 3-9, there are two kinds of silicon diode
according to the current direction; therefore, it is
careful when wiring or test is performed.
Fig 3-9 Current direction of silicon diode
3.3 Direct Current Alternator
3.3.1 Principle of the direct current alternator
As shown in Fig 3-10, installing and rotating a
conducting wire (armature coil) in the magnetic field
(Pole core) of the fixed N and S poles, an
electromotive force is induced at the conducting
wire by the electromagnetic induction law. At this
time, the direction of electromotive force is the
same with the arrow in figure according to the
Fleming right hand law. The direction of the voltage
generated at the rotating armature coil is changed
at every 1/2 (180) turn. When the armature turns in
one turn, then the 1 cycle of AC voltage is
generated. Therefore, the DC alternator is formed
by connecting a commutator comprising of half
cylindrical pieces of commutator to the terminal of
the armature coil in order to be rotated with the
armature coil and connecting brushes on the
commutator pieces.
Fig. 3-10 Principle of the direct current alternator
48
At the load connected to the brush, the direct
current, as shown in Fig 3-11, will flow. In the actual
DC alternator, the armature coil is wound by
overlapped somewhat with neighbored coil, so the
electromotive force of each coil is overlapped,
therefore, the output has less microseism.
Fig 3-11 Waveform of rectified output
3.3.2 Types of Direct Current Alternators
There are a number of different types of
alternators. Several of these alternator types will be
discussed briefly. Study their similarities as well as
their differences. Alternators can be distinguished
by their method of excitation. Self-excited
alternators can be separated further into the
categories of shunt, series, and compound.
One feature that separates alternators is the
excitation method, the method that is used to start
the alternator running. Some alternators require a
separate power source during the starting of the
alternator. These are called separately excited field
alternators. Other alternators use the alternators
own leftover magnetism in place of that power
source. These are self-excited alternators.
(1) Separately Excited Field Alternator
Alternator output is determined by the strength
of the magnetic field and the speed of rotation. Field
strength is measured in ampere-turns. So, an
increase in current in the field windings will increase
the times the speed of rotation. Therefore, most
output regulating devices depend on varying the
current in the field.
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The field windings can be connected to a
separate, or independent, source of dc voltage,
Figure 3-12. This is the separately excited field
alternator. With the speed constant, the output may
be varied by controlling the exciting voltage of the
dc source. This is done by inserting resistance in
series with the source and field windings.
Figure 3-12. A separately excited field alternator
(2) Self Excited Alternator
A self-excited alternator uses no separate
source of voltage to excite the alternator field
winding. The self-excited alternator produces a
small voltage when the armature windings cut
across a weak magnetic field.
This weak magnetic field is caused by
magnetism left over in the pole shoes or field coil
cores after the voltage and current have ceased to
flow. The magnetism left in a magnet after the
magnetizing force has been removed is called
residual magnetism.
Look ahead to the diagram of the shunt
alternator shown in figure 3-13. A residual magnetic
field will cause a small voltage to be produced as
the armature conductors rotate past the field poles.
The small voltage produced will, in turn, cause the
current to increase through the field poles. An
increase in field pole magnetism will cause a further
increase in output voltage. The relationship of the
current produced by the armature directly
increasing the amount of magnetism in the field
poles is how the self-excited alternator works. The
magnetism produced by the armature voltage will
increase until the field poles reach saturation, the
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point where the poles cannot contain any more
magnetic lines of force.
Figure 3-13. A shunt alternator
A. Shunt alternator
The shunt alternator derives its name from the
way the field pole coils are connected in parallel to
the armature, Figure 3-13. Another way of saying
parallel is the term shunt. The field windings consist
of many turns of small wire. They use only a small
part of the generated current produce the magnetic
field in the pole's windings. The total current
delivered to the load. Thus, the output current can
be thought of as varying according to the applied
load. The field flux does not vary to a great extent.
Therefore, the terminal voltage remains constant
under varying load conditions. This type of
alternator is considered a constant voltage machine.
All machines are designed to do a certain
amount of work. If overloaded their lives are
shortened. As with any machine, the life of a
alternator can be shortened by an overload
condition. When overloaded, the shunt alternator
terminal voltage drops rapidly. Excessive current
causes the armature windings to heat up. The heat
can cause the alternator to fail by destroying the
thin coat of insulation covering the armature wires.
B. Series alternator
The series alternator is so named because its
field windings are wired in series with the armature
and the load. Such a alternator is sketched in
Figure 3-14. A series winding by itself will provide a
fluctuating voltage to the alternator load.
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As the current increases or decreases through or full-load conditions, is said to be a flat-

the load, the voltage at the alternator output
terminals will greatly increase or decrease. Because
of the wide difference in output voltage, it is not a
very practical alternator to use if the load varies.
compounded alternator. An over compounded
alternator will have a decreased voltage at full-load
current.
A variable load may be placed in parallel with
the series winding to adjust the degree of
compounding. Figure 3-15 shows schematic
diagrams of the shunt, the series, and the
compound alternator.

Figure 3-14. A series wound alternator

C. Compound alternator
The compound alternator uses both series and
shunt windings in the field. The series windings are
often a few turns of large wire. The wire size of the
series windings is usually the same size as the
armature conductors.
These windings must carry the same amount of
current as the armature since they are in series with
each other. The series windings are mounted on the
same poles with the shunt windings. Both windings
add to the field strength of the alternator field poles.
If both act in the same direction or polarity, an
increase in load causes an increase of current in
the series coils. This increase in current would
increase the magnetic field and the terminal voltage
of the output. The field are said to be additive. The
resulting field would be the sum of both coils.
However, the current through the series winding can
produce magnetic saturation of the core. This
saturation results in a decrease of voltage as the
load increases. Figure 3-15 Compare these wiring diagrams of
the shunt, series, and compound alternator
The way terminal voltage behaves depends on
the degree of compounding. A compound alternator,
which maintains the same voltage either at no-load

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3.3.3 Structure of Direct Current alternator

(1) Armature
The armature is the device for generating a
current by rotating in the field. As shown in 3-16, it
comprises of armature core, armature coil, and
commutator shaft. The armature core is made of
multiple of thin silicon steel and wound by coil
having insulating cover at the slit of the outer
circumference. The winding methods of the
armature coil are the wave winding type and the lap
winding type. The lap winding type is most used. Fig 3-16 Structure of Armature

Fig 3-17 Unfold diagram of armature coil

Fig 3-18 Connection between brush and armature coil

By comparing with the armature of the start
motor, that of alternator has less current, so the coil
is made of thinner wire. However, to get large
electromotive force, the coil includes a lot of winding
number and multiple of wire is inserted in one slit.
The both ends of the armature are soldered on the
commutator. The alternating current generated at
the armature coil is rectified to convert into a direct
current by the commutator and the brush sliding on
the commutator. As the armature of the DC
alternator is continuously rotating during the
operation of the engine, the both ends should be
supported at the end frame by the ball bearing, and
at one end, there is a screw for fixing a pulley.
(2) Pole core & Field coil
The pole core supporting the field coil in the
yoke is installed by screws. The pole core becomes
an electromagnet to form N and S pole when a
current flows into the field coil. The field coil is the
coil wound around the pole core and magnetizes
the pole core when a current flow therein.
The DC alternator has little residual magnetism at
pole core even the current does not flow in the field
coil so that the electric generation is started basis
on this residual magnetism. The field coil and the
armature coil are connected in serial (shunt winding
type).

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According to the grounding method of the end
of these coils, there are internal grounding type and
external grounding type.
For the internal grounding type, the start of the
coil winding is connected to the voltage regulator of
the alternator regulator and the end of the coil is
connected to the internal space of the pole core.
For the external grounding type, the start of the coil
is connected to the armature terminal and the end
of coil is grounded via alternator voltage regulator.
Fig 3-19 Wiring of the direct current alternator
(3) Brush
The brush of DC alternator rectifies the
alternating current generated at the armature by
connecting with the commutator and sends to out.
As the brush is always working with the engine
operation and has wide range of rotation speed, it
should be made of carbon material having good
rectifying performance and less wearing character.
Despite that the brush of start motor is contacted to
the commutator in perpendicular, the brush of
alternator is contact is contacted to the commutator
with some angle.
Fig 3-20 Structure of the AC alternator
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3.4 Alternating current alternator
3.4.1 Purpose for AC alternator
The alternating current alternator is 3-phase AC
alternator and it can get the direct current output
using rectifying silicon diode. It has good endurance
at high speed and charging performance in low
speed so that it is widely used for charging system
for vehicle's battery. This alternator is driven by the
driving belt connected with the engine crankshaft
pulley and comprises of voltage regulator, charging
relay, and yoke relay. The characteristics are like
that;
It has small size and lightweight, it makes output
voltage chargeable in low speed.
Having not commutator in the rotation part, the
limit of the permeable rotating speed is very high.
As it rectifies with silicon diode, it has large
electric capacity.
The lifetime of brush is long.
3.4.2 Structure and operation of the AC
alternator
The AC alternator comprises of stator the fixed
part, rotor the rotating part, and end frame
supporting the both ends of rotor. The stator coil
fixed by the stator generates output current of the
alternator. The rotor and the rotor coil rotate in the
stator to induce the electromotive force at the stator
coil.
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The alternating current generated in stator coil
is rectified by the rectifier (silicon diode) installed at
the end frame into direct current and supplied out.
The brush is not to get output current but to excite
the rotor coil by supplying current to rotor coil from
battery. The silicon diode not only rectifies the
alternating current generated from the stator coil but
also prevents the reverse current from battery to
alternator. Therefore, it does not need any cut out
relay unlike the DC alternator. If the generated
voltage from the alternator is higher than the
terminal voltage of battery, then the battery charging
will be automatically started.
(1) Stator
The stator acts as the armature of the DC
alternator. As shown in Fig 3-21, separated three
coils are individually wound around the steel core
consisting of multiple layers. The 3-phase AC will be
induced in these coils.
Fig 3-21 Structure stator
To reduce the core loss (phenomena in which
the hysteresis loss and the loss of eddy current are
occurred because of a lot of changes of magnitude
of flux around the steel core), the stator steel core
comprises of the lagged thin silicon steel plates,
and inside of it there are some slits for installing the
stator coil. During operation, it becomes the
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pathway for the magnetic flux generated from the
pole of the rotor.
The one group of stator coil is made by winding
the copper wire covered with insulating material into
the slit as shown in Fig 3-22. The coil pitch matches
to the gap of the pole (pole pitch). The three groups
of this coil are arrayed in 120 (2/3 of pole pitch)
and formed into 3-phase connection. For the coil
connection method, there are the Y-connection and
the tri angle connection, as mentioned in former
chapter.
Fig 3-22 Appearance of the stator coil
(2) Rotor
The rotor, like the field coil and the pole core of
the DC alternator, makes the magnetic flux. It
comprises of rotor core, rotor coil, shaft, and slip
ring. For the type of rotor, there are the Randle type
and the pole type. The pole type has small outer
diameter, however, winding method is complicated.
This type is used for large capacity alternator. For
the vehicle AC alternator, the Randle type having
simple structure and good strength is widely used.
As shown in Fig 3-24, the Randle type comprises of
combined 4~6 steel cores inserted on shaft from the
both ends of cylindrical rotor coil. The winding start
and the end of rotor coil are connected to the two
slip rings installed on the shaft with being insulated.
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Fig 3-23 Structure of rotor

Fig 3-24 Types of rotor

The operation of the rotor is like that; when the
current flows in the rotor coil through the brush
contacting to the slip ring, a magnetic flux is formed
in the direction of shaft so that one side of core is
magnetized into N pole and the other side is
magnetized into S pole. Therefore, each pole
pieces facing each other is also magnetized and the
8~12 of N poles and S poles are arrayed. The
material of rotor core is made by forging or
imprinting the low carbon steel. The slip is made of
good conducting material such as copper or
stainless steel.
(3) Brush
The two brushes are inserted into a brush
holder fixed on a bracket and contacts to the slip
ring by a spring. One brush is connected to the
insulated outer terminal, and the other brush is
grounded through the brush holder. As the rotor is
rotating, the brush sequentially slides and contacts
to the slip ring, therefore, it should be made of metal
carbon material for good wear resistance and low
contact resistance.
(4) Rectifier
The rectifier comprises of diode. As shown in
Fig 3-25, 6 diodes are installed at the rear part of
the end frame to rectify the 3-phase AC generated
at the stator coil to convert into the direct current.
When current flows to the diodes, the
temperature of diodes is increased, so that they are
installed with heat sink (cooling plate). Generally,
three diodes of negative side are indented to the
back end frame and three diodes of positive side
are indented to the heat sink with being insulated.
Otherwise, each three diodes of (+) and (-) side are
soldered to heat sink, respectively. In other hand,
six diodes are installed on the printed board having
a heat sink.

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Fig 3-25 Connection of diodes
3.4.3 Operation of AC alternator
Using the Fig 3-27, this type will be explained.
At first, when the ignition switch is on, current of
about 2~3A flows through the path of terminal F
(+) brush slip ring rotor coil slip ring
(-) brush terminal E (ground). Due to this current,
the rotor coil is magnetized to make a magnetic flux.
The AC alternator works as a separate excited
alternator at the beginning of operation. After the
engine is cranked, the rotor is rotated by the driving
belt, and the stator shut down the magnetic flux of
rotor, so that the 3-phase alternating current is
generated at the stator coil. This AC voltage is
rectified into direct current by the 6 silicon diodes
and output via the B terminal.
When the rotation speed of the rotor is
Fig 3-26 Operation of AC alternator
55
1,000rpm, the voltage of this AC current is higher
than the battery terminal voltage. Therefore, the
output current is supplied form the B terminal to the
each electro device and to the battery as a charging
current. Additionally, some amounts of the output
current from the B terminal are supplied to the rotor
coil. The DC alternator works as the self excited
alternator at the beginning of the operation.
However, in AC alternator, as the current does not
flow when the voltage supplied to the silicon diodes
is less than 0.5V, if the AC alternator works as the
self excited alternator at the beginning of the
operation, than the time for making output voltage is
delayed, so that it should work as the separate
excited alternator at first. The N terminal output half
voltage of the B terminal output. This voltage is
used for working the voltage regulator.
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3.5 Alternator regulator
The output of the alternator is decided by the
winding number of armature (or stator) coil, the
strength of field and the number of intermitting the
magnetic flux per time (rotation speed). Therefore,
as the rpm of engine is increased, the voltage and
current made at alternator are also increased.
Therefore, the generated voltage and current
should be controlled to protect the all elector
devices and alternator. The alternator regulator
works this role. It can control the generated current
by regulating the magnitude of the current flown the
field coil using any method.
3.5.1 Direct current alternator regulator
The DC alternator regulator comprises of the
cut out relay, the voltage regulator and the current
limiter.
Fig 3-27 Direct current alternator regulator
(1) Cut out relay
This is one of switch using electromagnetic
force. It protects the reverse current from battery to
alternator when the alternator is stopped or the
generated voltage is lower than battery voltage.
When the current flows to the battery, the contact
point should be closed. This action is cut-in and the
voltage for this action is cut-in voltage. Generally,
the cut-in voltage for 12V battery is 13.8~14.8V.
56
A. Structure of the cut-out relay
As shown in Fig 3-28, the cut-out relay
comprises of the electromagnet having two coils,
one is wound with thin wire and the other is wound
with thick wire, and the contact point. The thin wire
coil is called the voltage coil, and the thick wire coil
is called current coil. They are wound in the same
direction. The contact point is opened by the
armature adjusting spring. When the magnetic force
of the electromagnet is stronger than tension of this
spring, the contact point is closed.
Fig 3-28 Structure of the cut-out relay
B. Operation of the cut-out relay
If the current generated by rotation of the
alternator meets to the cut-in voltage (charging
voltage), then the core will be magnetized by the
magnetic force formed by the voltage coil, and then
the contact point will be closed. At this time, the
current coil has current, so that the contact point
can be completely closed by the magnetic force
generated by the two coils. Therefore, the charging
current will flow into the battery. So, the contact
point will not be separated by any vibration but
maintain the contacting condition during driving.
In comparison, when the rotation speed of
alternator is to be slowed and the voltage of
alternator is to be lowed, the current will flow
through the current coil in opposite direction.
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As a result, the magnetic force of the core will
be weakened suddenly. At that time, by the tension
of the spring, the contact point will be opened and
then the charging circuit is also opened. So, the
reverse current from the battery to the alternator
can be protected.
(2) Voltage regulator
The voltage regulator is to ensure that the
generated voltage maintains a constant value. If the
generated voltage is higher than regulated value,
the exciting current will be reduced by connecting
an additional resistor to the field coil in serial in
order to cut down the generated voltage. If the
voltage is lower than the regulated value, then
some resistor will be disconnected from the field coil
to recover the generated voltage.
In the voltage regulator, there are the vibration
contacting type, the carbon pile type, the transistor
type and the IC type. Nowadays, the IC type is only
used. It will be explained in the section of AC
alternator regulator with the transistor type.
Fig 3-29 Structure of the voltage regulator
57
(3) Current limiter (Current regulator)
The current limiter plays role of protecting the
alternator from the over current by controlling the
current made by the DC alternator. That is, the
current limiter prevents an electric load higher than
the regulated value from being applied to the
alternator.
A. Structure of the current limiter
Like the voltage regulator, the current limiter
comprises of armature, the armature adjusting
spring, and the contact point. Only that the
electromagnet coil (or current coil) is excited by the
charging current is the different thing.
Fig 3-30 The current limiter
B. Operation of the current limiter
As shown in Fig 3-30, before the output current
of the alternator meets to the regulated current, the
contact point is closed. As the output current of the
alternator is increasing, if it reaches to the limitation
value at last, then the contact point will be opened
by the magnetic force of the electromagnet. When
the contact point is opened, the serial resistor is
connected to the field circuit so that the generated
voltage will be decreased. Therefore, the load
current is reduced. As the load current is reduced,
the pulling force of the electromagnet is reduced so
that the contact point will be closed again by the
spring.
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3.5.2 Alternating current alternator regulator
As the AC alternator uses silicon diodes as the
rectifier, it is not possible for any reverse current to
occur. Additionally, it has the current limiting function
so there are no worries about over current.
Therefore, the AC alternator regulator does not
need any cut-out relay and current limiter unlike the
DC alternator. That is, the voltage regulator is the
only thing to be required. The charging alert lamp
relay shall be connected to the voltage regulator in
order to operate the charging alter lamp.
(1) Transistor type voltage regulator
Using a transistor as a switch instead of the
contact point in the contacting type regulator, the
transistor type voltage regulator changes the
average value of the field current to control the
generating voltage. In this type, there are the semi-
transistor type in which transistors and relays are
combined and the full transistor type in which all
mechanical parts are removed. Furthermore, the IC
regulator includes the full transistor type into the
alternator body using IC circuit. In the Fig 3-31, the
Tr2 is the transistor for intermitting the field current,
and the base current of the Tr2 is controlled by the
transistor Tr1 and the Zener diode Dz. The
alternator terminal voltage Et is divided by resistor
R1 and R2. To the Zener diode Dz, the voltage E1
represented by following equation is applied in
reverse direction.
R1
E1 = Et
R1 + R 2
Here, Et = E1 + E2.
As the Dz has no current when the Et is low, the
Tr1 is OFF and the Tr2 is ON so that the current
flow to the yoke. When the E1 is higher than the
Zener voltage as the generated voltage is
increasing, the current flows through the Zener
diode so that Tr1 is ON and the Tr2 is OFF.
Therefore, the yoke current will be blocked. That is,
the yoke current can be controlled using the
operation in which the Tr2 is OFF when the Et is
high, and the Tr2 is ON when the Et is low, rapidly.
58
Fig 3-31 The basic circuit of the full transistor
type regulator
As the transistor regulator has not contact point,
there is no spark, which can be a reason of EMI or
EMC. As it has not mechanical parts, it has long
lifetime and good resistance against vibrations.
However, it is weak in high voltage and heat so it
should be carefully treated.
(2) IC voltage regulator
A. Purpose of IC voltage regulator
The charging circuit of the IC voltage regulator
comprises of the semiconductor circuits to intermit
the rotor coil current and then it can regulate the
voltage generated at the AC alternator. Basically, its
operating principle is same with that of transistor
type. However, it can be made in tiny size so that it
can be embodied into the alternator. Therefore, the
charging circuit of this type can be made simply and
this type many merits like those;
The wiring will be simple.
The voltage is not varied by vibration and this
type has good endurance.
The accuracy for controlling the voltage is very
high.
It has high heat resistance and high output.
It can be minimized in size easily so that it can
be installed into the alternator.
The charging performance can be enhanced,
and the electric power can be distributed to each
electric load properly.
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B. Operation of the IC voltage regulator
Fig 3-32 Circuit diagram of IC voltage regulator
a. When the ignition switch is ON during stop
state of the engine
When the ignition switch is ON, the current
flows from the L terminal of the AC alternator to the
base of transistor Tr1 through the IG terminal of the
AC alternator, the charging alert lamp relay IG
terminal and terminal A, and then the Tr1 is ON.
When the Tr1 is ON, as the battery current (field
current) flows from the rotor coil to the Tr1 through
the L terminal and the IG terminal of the AC
alternator, the rotor will be excited. At this time, the
current flows to the coil of the charging alert lamp
relay to close the contact point by the magnetic
force generated at the coil, so that the alter lamp
turns ON. As the initial exciting resistor (R4) has
high resistance (about 100), the discharge of
battery can be protected by controlling the current
which flows to the rotor coil when the ignition switch
is not OFF.
b. When the AC alternator starts to work after
the engine is starting
If the generated voltage of the AC alternator is
higher than battery terminal voltage (13.8~14.8V),
then battery charge will be started from B terminal.
At this time, the voltage at the L terminal of the AC
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alternator is increased, and at last it is not different
from that of the IG terminal of the charging alter
lamp relay. Then current at the charging alter lamp
relay coil is cut off so that the contact point is
opened. And then the alert lamp is OFF. Due to the
diode (D2) for hindering the reverse current, the
current flowed through the exciting diode by the
voltage of the stator coil flows not to the battery or
electric load but to the rotor coil and the L terminal
of the regulator.
c. When the generated voltage at the AC
alternator is over the regulated value by
high rotation of the engine.
At that time, as the current flow from the S
terminal of the voltage regulator via the resistor R2
and the Zener diode (ZD) to the base of the
transistor Tr2, the Tr2 is ON. Here, the voltage at
point P is to maintain the voltage for supplying the
base current of the transistor Tr1. However, when
the Tr2 is ON, the voltage is drop down suddenly
and then the base current of the Tr1 is cut off and
the Tr1 is OFF. Therefore, as the exciting current of
the rotor coil is cut off, the voltage from the AC
alternator is lowered.
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When the voltage from the AC alternator is lower

than the regulated voltage, the current does not flow
to the Zener diode, so that the Tr2 is OFF and the
Tr1 is ON again. The voltage generating is restarted.
Like this, by repeating the ON and OFF operation of
the transistors Tr1 and Tr2 due to the operation of
the Zener diode, the exciting current which flow the
rotor coil can be intermitted and the voltage from
alternator can be maintained constantly.

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To prevent these arcs, the interrupter contact

4. Ignition System
4.1 Purpose of ignition system
This system is a set of devices for combusting
the mixture of fuel compressed in the combustion
chamber of gasoline engine using an electrical
spark generated from a high voltage. In the ignition
system, there are the battery ignition type (uses
direct current electric power) using the battery as
the electric power and the high voltage magnet
ignition type (uses alternating current electric
power) using the high voltage alternator as the
electric power. In automobile, the battery ignition
type is generally used. In recent, due to the
development of semiconductor, there are the full
transistor ignition type, the high-energy ignition
(HEI), and the distributor less ignition (DLI).
4.1.1 The interrupter contacting type and the
transistor ignition type
The transistor ignition type uses the method in
which the current flown in the first coil of the ignition
coil is interrupted (intermitted) by switching
operation of the transistor to induce high voltage at
the second coil. In the interrupt contacting type, as
the first current of the ignition coil is directly
intermitted by opening/closing the contact point, the
arc can be made when the contact point is opened.
point and battery are connected in serial. However,
at the low speed, as the speed for opening the
contact point is slow, it is easy to make an arc.
Therefore the second voltage generating will be not
stable and the misfiring will be occurred easily.
In comparison, for the transistor ignition type,
the first current is electrically intermitted by a
transistor so that the interruption of current is stable
at low speed and the second coil can make the high
voltage in stable.
Recently, as a countermeasure to the emission
gases, it is required to increase the flame energy of
ignition plug in order to make an accurate ignition
without any misfire at low speed even at high speed.
To do so, the first current should be increased. In
the interruption contact type, it is hard to increase
the first current, but in the transistor type, it is
possible.
Additionally, in order to enhance the ignition
performance at high speed, the winding number of
the first ignition coil should be reduced so that the
inductance and resistance of the first coil can be
lowered.
As the result, the first current needs to be
increased as quickly as possible. That is, in order
that the energy supplied to the first ignition circuit
reduces the inductance but the flame energy is not
reduced, the first current should be enlarged.

Interrupter contacting type Full transistor type Computer control type

Due to the chattering of the

interrupter contact point at high The performances at low and high The performances at low and high
speed, the engine has incongruity speed are safe. speed are very safe.
in ignition.

As the interrupter contact point

Not having interrupt contact point, Not having interrupt contact point,
has sparks, the contact point
the checking and controlling are not the checking and controlling are
should be checked and replaced
needed. not needed.
periodically.

Due to the abnormal operation of

the vacuum and centrifugal timing
control device, the engine has
incongruity in ignition.
As the ignition timing is controlled
There are similar phenomena with
by computer, it is the most
the interrupter contacting type.
efficiency.

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In the interrupter contact type, due to the limitation
by the arc at the contact point, the magnitude of the
first current has a limit; however, in the transistor
type, it is possible to enlarge the first current
enormously.
Therefore, the ignition coil can comprise of the
first coil having low inductance and large winding
number ratio so that it can get better performance at
high speed than in the case of external resistor
ignition coil.
Fig 4-1 The intermitted waveform of the first current and the waveform of the second voltage
Fig 4-2 Speed characteristic of the second voltage
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The characteristics of the transistor type are like
followings.
The performance at low speed is stable.
The performance at high speed is enhanced.
The ignition performance is enhanced by
increasing the flame energy.
The reliability of ignition system is enhanced.
The various electric control units for improving
the engine performance (ignition timing and cam
angle control) can be attached.
It is possible to reduce the winding number ratio
of ignition coil.
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4.2 Computer control type ignition The mold type ignition coil is used. There are
the high-energy ignition (HEI) type and the
system
distributor-less ignition (DLI) type. The merits of
4.2.1 Purpose of the computer control type these types are like that;
ignition system The ignition flame is very stable at low and high
This type uses the method in which by detecting speed.
the status of engine using sensors and input to When knocking is occurred, the ignition timing is
computer (ECU), the computer calculates the automatically delayed to suppress the knocking.
ignition timing and sends the intermittent signal for
Sensing the operating status of the engine, the
the first current to the power transistor to induce the
engine is controlled by optimized ignition timing.
high voltage at the second ignition coil.
As it uses the high output ignition coil, the
complete combustion is possible.
Table Comparing the structure of each ignition system
Interrupter contacting type Full transistor type Computer control type
The first current is intermitted by The first current is intermitted by The first current of the power
the interrupter contact point. the switching of the transistor. transistor is intermitted by computer.
Battery is needed. Battery is not needed. Battery is not needed.

The open magnetic circuit type
ignition coil is used.
The opening/closing the
interrupter contact point is
performed by the cam fixed on
the distributor shaft.
The open magnetic circuit type
ignition coil is used.
The intermittence of the first
current is performed by the
rotation of the signal rotor fixed on
the distributor shaft.
Mold type ignition coil is used.
The signal is generated by
intermitting the light by rotating of a
disk installed on the distributor shaft
between the LED and photo diode.

4.2.2 HEI (High Energy Ignition) type

Fig 4-3 Structural diagram of HEI

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Ignition coil (2) Structure of the ignition coil

The ignition coil is the boosting transformer The ignition coil makes the magnetic flux flow
generating the current of the high voltage (about through the mold type core to prevent the magnetic
20,000 ~ 25,000V) used for making an arc at flux generated by the magnetic induction effect from
ignition plug. being radiated out.

E: Battery voltage E1: First voltage

N2
E2: Second voltage E2 = E1
N1
N1: winding number of the first coil
N2: winding number of the second coil
Fig 4-4 Principle of ignition coil

(1) Principal of the ignition coil
The ignition coil uses the magnetic induction
effect and the mutual induction effect. The Fig 4-4
shows this principle. Of the two coils wound around
the core, the input side is called the first coil, and
the output side is called the second coil. The first
coil is magnetized by flowing of low current from
battery; however, this current is direct current so
that the induced voltage is not generated. When this
low current is interrupted by the power transistor, at
the first coil, the voltage E1 higher than battery
voltage is generated by the magnetic induction
effect. The induced voltage E1 at the first coil is
determined by the winding number of the first coil,
the magnitude of the current, the speed of current
changing and the core material. At the second coil,
the voltage E2 proportional to the winding number
ratio is generated by the mutual induction effect.
By thickening the diameter of the first coil wire,
the resistance can be reduced and the larger
magnetic flux can be generated so that the high
voltage can be made. The structure is simple and
the heat resistance is very high.
(3) Performance of the ignition coil
The important things for the performance of the
ignition coil are the speed characteristic, the
temperature characteristic and the insulation
characteristic.
a. Speed characteristic: The discharging
gap should be larger than 6mm, when the
distributor shaft is rotating with 1,800rpm at the test
of ignition coil flame.
b. Temperature characteristic: During
working of the engine, the temperature will be
increased by the heat by the current.

Fig.4-5 The structure of mold type ignition coil

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As the temperature is increased, the resistance shorting-grounding signals repeatedly to the

of the first coil becomes larger so the first
intermitted current will be reduced. Consequently,
the discharging gap of the second side will be
reduced so the performance at 80 should be
regulated.
c. Insulation characteristic: The insulation
resistance and the withstanding voltage are
reduced according to the increasing of
temperature, however, it should be more than
10 at 80, and it should be more than 50
at room temperature (20).
Power Transistor
The power transistor plays role of intermitting
the first current, which flow in the ignition coil
according to the signal from the computer. The
structure of the power TR is the NPN type
comprising of the base controlled by computer, the
collector connected to the (-) terminal of the ignition
first coil and the emitter connected to the ground.
The operation of the power transistor is like that;
a. When the ignition switch is ON, the battery
voltage is applied to the ignition primary coil.
b. According to the rotation of the disk in the
distributor, the ignition signal of the crank shift
angle sensor from the computer makes the
power transistor.
c. The ignition signal repeats the shoring-
grounding operation of the current which flow the
ignition primary coil through the power transistor
by interrupting the power transistor.
d. The ignition timing is calculated by the computer.
When the current on the base of the power
transistor is interrupted, the ignition first current
is also interrupted. Therefore, the high voltage is
induced at the ignition second coil and this high
voltage is applied to the ignition plug by the rotor
of the distributor.
Waveform of the ignition voltage
As the time flows, the voltage applied to the first
and the second circuit of the ignition system will be
often varied. To indicate this varying voltage on the
engine scope screen continuously with the time in
plane is the voltage waveform of the ignition system.
By observing this voltage waveform, it is
possible to check the engine performance as well
as the function and the malfunction status of each
part of the ignition system. So, the engine scope is
widely used for investigating the malfunction when
the engine performance is checked and serviced.

2(Ground)

1(ECU) 3(Ignition coil)

Fig 4-6 Appearance and circuit diagram of the power transistor

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The waveform of the ignition voltage of the
ignition system includes the first voltage waveform
and the second voltage waveform.
The Fig 4-7 shows the basic waveform of the
second voltage at the normal state. The voltage
waveform is divided into the firing section, the
intermediate section, and the Dwell section. The
firing section is the section for observing the output
of the ignition coil, the capacitor discharging voltage,
the induced discharging voltage and the duration
time.
Fig 4-7 The second waveform
The intermediate section shows the waveform from
after the discharging flame is extinguished to until
the voltage is ON at the ignition first coil. Just after
the discharging flame is extinguished, the 4~5 turn
of oscillating waveform is occurred. Then until the
voltage of the ignition first coil is ON, the stabilized
waveform is shown. The Dwell section shows the
waveform from when the voltage is ON at the
ignition first coil to when the voltage is OFF. In this
section, the Dwell angle %, the variations of the
Dwell angle according to the speed variation and so
on can be observed. The detail explanation for the
second waveform is like the followings.
(1) Firing section: A D section
This section shows the firing status at the ignition
plug. It comprises of the firing line and the spark line.
Firing line: The fire is the flame generated at
the ignition plug when the first current is
interrupted. The fire line is the vertical line
indicating the voltage needed for discharging
66
over the rotor gap of the distributor and the plug
gap by inducing the high voltage at the ignition
coil.
Spark line: The spark line is the horizontal line
indicating the voltage needed for inducing the
flame.
Point A: This is the point for forming the high
voltage at the ignition coil when the voltage of
the ignition first coil is interrupted.
Point B: The point at which the ignition plug
makes fire by inducing the high voltage at the
ignition coil (the height of this point is the ignition
voltage).
Point C: After the spark is generated, the high
voltage is down to this point. During the ignition,
it maintains a constant value.
Point D: This is the point for terminating the
flame at the ignition plug.
(2) Intermediate section: D E section
This section is continuously showing in the ignition
section. The residual voltage inside the ignition coil
is reduced gradually in this section.
(3) Dwell section: E A' section
This section indicates the time interval in which the
ignition first coil is ON, that is, the electric current
flows to the power transistor during the interval.
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a. Point E: The point on which the voltage at the
ignition first coil is ON. As a magnetic field is
formed at the ignition coil, a waveform is
occurred. The waveform is shown under the
zero line by the vibration from the reverse
electromotive force induced ignition coil when
the voltage of ignition first coil is ON.
b. Point A': The point on which the voltage of the
ignition first coil is OFF.
Distributor
(1) Distributor cap and rotor
The distributor cap and the rotor distribute the
high voltage induced from the ignition coil to each
ignition plug according to the ignition order.
Fig 4-8 Distributor cap and rotor
Distributor cap
At the distributor cap, there is central terminal
connected to the ignition coil, and ignition plug
terminals of the same number with the engine
cylinder number are arrayed around the ignition coil.
In the central terminal, a carbon piece connecting to
the rotor head is installed with a spring. The
distributor cap is made of resin material, its
withstanding voltage should be more than 25,000V
and it has good heat and magnetic resistance and
high mechanical strength.
67
* Rotor
The rotor is installed at the top of the distributor
shaft. It distributes the high voltage received from
the central terminal of the distributor cap to each
ignition plug terminal. The rotor is inserted from one
side of the distributor shaft. There is a gap of
0.3~0.4mm between the front end of the rotor and
the ignition plug terminal in the cap.
(2) Type of distributor
A. Optical type
Distributor for 4-cylinder engine
The distributor for 4-cylinder engine comprises
of the crank shift angle sensor, the first cylinder top
dead center (TDC) sensor, the disk rotating with the
distributor shaft, and the rotor distributing the high
voltage induced from the ignition coil according to
the ignition order.
In the unit assembly, there are two set of the
LED and photo diode to detect the two kind slits, to
make pulse signals and to send to the computer.
The crank shift angle sensor and the first cylinder
TDC sensor comprise of the disk and unit assembly.
The disk made of metal includes 4 slits for passing
the light arrayed around the circumference of the
disk with 90 and used for crank shift angle sensor,
and inside of these 4 slits, there is one slit used for
the first cylinder TDC sensor.
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Fig 4-9 Structure of the unit assembly
Between the LED and the photo diode, as the disk
rotates, the light from the LED is transmitted to the
photo diode through the slits on the disk or
interrupted.
At this time, if the photo diode receives the light,
then the current flow in opposite direction and this
Fig 4-10 Operation of the crank shift angle sensor and the No.1 cylinder TDC sensor
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current can be detected by input to the comparator
with 5V, and then 5V is applied to the computer
from the terminal shown in Fig 4-9. In this state,
if the disk rotates more and the light to the photo
diode is interrupted, then the voltage applied to the
terminal will be 0V. By repeating this operation,
the pulse signal from the unit assembly is
transmitted to the computer.
The signal acquired from the 4 slits for sensing the
crank angle is the standard signal for calculating the
engine speed. By detecting whether the piston of
each cylinder is upper point of the compression
stroke, according to the signal acquired from the slit
for the first cylinder TDC sensor, the standard signal
for the first cylinder is distinguished so that the
computer can decide the distribution order using
these signals.
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Fig 4-11 Structure of TDC and crank shift angle sensor in the 6-cylinder engine
For 6-cylinder engine
The TDC sensor of the distributor for 6-cylinder
engine detects not only the TDC of the first cylinder
but also the TDC of the first, third and fifth cylinder
and converts into pulse signal and transmits to the
computer so that the order for fuel injecting is
decided according these signals. There are two
kinds of disk, one includes the 360 slits for detecting
the 1 of TDC sensor at the circumference of the
disk and 6 slits for crank shift angle sensor inside of
the disk, the other includes 6 slits for crank shift
angle sensor at the circumference of the disk and 4
slits for TDC sensor inside of the disk.
The operation is the same in the 4-cylinder
engine as the photo diode detects the emitted light
from the LED according to the rotation of the
distributor shaft. Basis on the signal detected from
the crank shift angle sensor, the engine speed can
be calculated and the fuel injecting timing and the
ignition timing can be controlled.
Fig 4-12 Structure of the induction type
69
B. Induction type
The induction type uses the ton wheel and the
permanent magnet. In this type, the ton wheel of the
first cylinder TDC sensor and the crank shift angle
sensor is installed at the back of the crank shaft
pulley or the fly wheel side, and the engine rotation
speed and the first cylinder TDC are detected
according to the rotation of the crank shaft. By
receiving these signals, the computer distinguishes
the basic signal of the first cylinder and decides the
order for fuel injection. As the structure of the first
cylinder and crank shift angle sensor is like that a
coil is wound around a permanent magnet, when
the ton wheel is rotating, pulse signals are induced
according to the variations of the air gap. Input
these signals into the computer, the first cylinder
TDC and engine speed are detected.
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Fig 4-13 Pulse generated by the rotation of the crank shaft

C. Hall sensor type

In this type, a Hall sensor is installed at the
distributor and the voltage variation occurred by the
Hall effect is input to the computer. By converting
this pulse to digital waveform using an analog-digital
converter the computer detects the crank angle.
The Hall device is a semiconductor device
comprising of thin film of germanium (Ge), potassium
(K) and arsenic (As), as shown in Fig 4-14.
As shown in figure, if a Hall device is installed
Fig 4-14 Hall effect
between two permanent magnetic poles and current
(Iv) is supplied, then the electrons in the Hall device
are refracted in perpendicular direction with the
current and magnetic flux direction. As the result, to
the cross sectional surface A1, the electrons are
plentiful and to the cross sectional surface A2, the
electrons are rare. Therefore, a voltage difference is
occurred between A1 and A2 and voltage (UH) is
generated. When the current (Iv) is constant, the
voltage (UH) is proportional to the magnetic flux
density. As the output voltage is very small, it should
be amplified by the OP AMP, as shown in Fig 4-15,
in order to be used as a signal. Fig 4-15 Structure of the Hall sensor

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4.2.3 Spark plug cable (Hi-tension cord) (1) Carbon wire

This cable is an insulated high voltage wire
connecting the second terminal of the ignition coil to
the central terminal of distributor cap, and the
ignition plug terminal of the distributor to the ignition
plug. One end of the spark plug cable is jointed with
the ignition plug terminal by the brass tag and the
other end is jointed with the ignition plug terminal of
the distributor cap, and then they are secured by
rubber cap.
The structure is, as shown in Fig 4-16, like that
the central conductor is insulated by rubber and its
surface is covered by plastic material. The cable in
which the central conductor is made by multiple of
copper wire or carbon implanted fiber to have
constant resistance is called the TVRS (Television
Radio Suppression) cable. This has about 10 unit
resistance over the all cable to prevent noises
according to the high frequency at the ignition circuit.
As shown in Fig 4-18, the resistance conductor
is the glass fiber made by implanting carbon into the
glass fiber to get constant resistance. The external
cover is the ethylene propylene rubber (EPDM),
which has good heat and cold resistances.
(2) Double wire wound type resistance cable
As shown in Fig 4-19, the resistance cable
comprises of the thin metallic core wire which is
wound around tetron core with tetron separator in
certain gap. The thickened wire core is surrounded
by insulator. Additionally, a special heat resistant
vinyl is used for the external cover considering the
state of the engine room. The resistance of the wire
is about 16/m.

Fig 4-16 Spark plug cable

Fig 4-18 Carbon line

Fig 4-19 Double wire wound type cable

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4.2.4 Spark (Ignition) plug
The spark plug, as shown in Fig 4-20, is
installed at the combustion chamber of the cylinder
head and ignites the fuel mixture in the cylinder by
generating an electric spark between the central
electrode and ground electrode using the high
voltage generated at the ignition second coil.
Fig 4-20 Installation position of the spark plug
(1) Structure of the spark plug
The spark plug, as shown in Fig 4-21,
comprises of the three major parts including the
electrode, the insulator, and the shell.
Fig 4-21 Structure of the spark plug
* Electrode
The electrode comprises of the central
electrode and the ground electrode. As the high
voltage induced from the ignition coil is applied to
the central electrodes via the central shaft, a spark
will be generated at the gap with the ground
electrode. Between the central and ground
electrodes, the gap is 0.7~1.1mm. The material of
electrodes should have good endurance against the
damage and good heat resistance and corrosion
resistance so it is made of nickel alloy or platinum
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alloy. In some cases, considering the heat radiation
performance, the central electrode can comprises of
copper. The diameter of central electrode is
generally 2.5mm. Recently, in order to prevent the
spark voltage from being lowered and to enhance
the ignition performance, some central electrodes
shall have the thin central diameter down to 1mm or
the ground electrode shall have U-shaped groove.
* Insulator
The insulator works in hindering the leakage of
voltage by surrounding the core or central electrode,
so it plays an important role in deciding the
performance. Therefore, it should have good
electrical insulation performance, heat conduction
performance and heat resistance, and mechanical
strength and it should be stable in chemical. The
insulator is made of ceramic having good insulation
performance and has a rib for prevent the flashover
of high voltage current.
* Shell
The shell is the metal part surrounding the
insulator and has a screw part for installing itself at
the cylinder head. The ground electrode is soldered
at the end of the screw. According to the diameter of
the screw, there are 4 kinds of the screw, 10mm,
12mm, 14mm and 18mm. The length (reach) of the
screw is decided by the diameter. For the screw of
length 14mm, there are 3 kind screws, 9.5mm,
12.7mm and 19mm. The gap between the insulator
and the core wire or the shell is caulked by filling a
special sealant, using a glass seal (after the glass
and copper powder are filled in the joint part of the
central electrode and core and melted to attach the
insulator and the metal) or melting them with spark.
(2) Requirement for the spark plug
The spark plug has the simple structure in
which two electrodes of ignition circuit are facing
each other to make a spark. However, the ambient
condition for working is very tough so it should have
performances satisfying the following conditions.
* It should have good heat resistance
The spark plug is exposed in combustion gas
having temperature of 2,000 and is cooled
suddenly at the intake stroke by the injected gas.
Therefore, it should endure the sudden change of
temperature.
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* It should have good mechanical strength
The spark plug is influenced by a large vibration
according to the change of pressure of the vacuum
pressure at the intake stroke and of about
35~45kgf/ at the expansion stroke. It should have
mechanical strength enough to endure this change
of pressure.
* It should have good corrosion resistance
The electrodes of the spark plug are exposed in
the combustion gas so they can be chemically
attacked by the carbon and so on. Therefore, it is
needed to endure the corrosion. Generally, they are
made of Ni-Cr alloy.
* It should have good airtight-ness
The spark plug should have the airtight-ness
enough to endure the pressure applied from the
compression and expansion strokes. Especially,
there is no gas leakage at the high temperature.
* It should keep the self-cleaning temperature
If the temperature of the electrode is extremely
increased, then it will be a reason of the advancing
spark, otherwise if it is too low then carbon slug will
be stacked and current leakage will be occurred.
These are the main reason of misfire. Therefore,
during the engine operation, the temperature of the
electrode should be maintained in 500~600.
* It should have good electric insulation
performance.
The spark plug should endure against the high
voltage of 15,000~20,000V during engine operation
and maintain good insulation property under sudden
change of temperature. It generally is made of
alumina (AlO3) or other magnetic insulating
materials.
* The spark should have strong energy
As the end part of the electrode is sharp as
possible, the spark will be easily made. If the end
part of the electrode is too sharp, then it has short
lift time. Therefore, it should have proper shape to
make the spark smoothly.
* It should have good ignition performance
Even the electrode makes a spark, if the energy
is not sufficient, then the firing is not accomplished.
Therefore, the shape of electrode should be
considered to make sufficient energy in the lean
73
mixture of fuel gas.
* It should have good heat conduction
If the heat from the combusted gas is not
radiated, the electrode could have short life time
from the melting or corrosion. Therefore, it has heat
conduction enough to maintain the temperature
being under 950. Especially, at the high
temperature, it has high heat conduction efficiency.
(3) The self cleaning temperature and the heat
value of the spark plug
During engine operation, as the spark plug is
exposed in the high temperature by the combustion
of the fuel mixture, the electrode should maintain
proper temperature. If the operating temperature of
the electrode of the spark plug is lower than 400,
then the carbon made from the combustion will
attach to the electrode so that the insulation
property will be degraded and the spark will be
weakened, finally the misfiring is occurred. If its
temperature is over 800~950, then the firing time
will be advanced so that the engine output will be
lowered. Therefore, the most proper temperature of
the electrode is 500~600. This temperature is
called the self-cleaning temperature of spark plug.
The self-cleaning temperature is decided by the
applied heat capacity and the radiated heat capacity.
The applied heat capacity is varied by the type of
engine and driving status, and the radiated heat
capacity is varied by the structure of spark plug. As
the spark plug has different radiated heat capacity
property contrast in its structure, it should be
carefully selected for the engine. The numerical
expression of the radiation heat capacity is the heat
value. The heat value is decided by the length from
the part just below of the insulator to the lower seal.
The used heat value of spark plug is very important
and varied by the style of combustion chamber of
engine, the position of intake-exhaust valve, the
compression ratio, and the rotation speed. With the
same material, when the area exposed to the
combustion gas is large and the radiation path
(length of the all part of insulator) of the heat is long,
the radiation property is inferior and it is easy for the
temperature to increase. This type is called hot type.
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The characteristic of the hot type spark plug is
large resistance against the damage but low
resistance for the advancing ignition. Therefore, it is
proper to the low speed and low load engine. The
cold type has high heat radiation property and low
temperature increasing. The characteristic of the
cold type is that this type has high resistance
against the advancing ignition but it has low
damage resistance. Therefore, it is proper to the
high speed and high load engine.
Fig 4-22 Heat value of the spark plug
74
Recently, the wide range spark plug which can
maintain the self cleaning temperature in wide
range of driving condition is used. Generally, the
heat value is shown by number in the marks
indicating the type and size of the spark plug. The
number indicating the heat value is varied by the
manufacturer. The large number means the cold
type, and the low number means the heat type.
Fig 4-23 Radiation of the spark plug
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4.3 DLI (Distributor less Ignition)

The individual spark type uses the method in
4.3.1 Purpose of the DLI
which the each cylinder has individual ignition coil
In all ignition type including transistor ignition and spark plug to make the spark directly.
type, the high voltage is induced using one ignition
The diode distribution type is one of synchronous
coil and supplied to the spark plug through the rotor
type in which the direction of the high voltage is
installed on the distributor shaft and the spark plug controlled by the diode. DLI has many merits such
cable. However, because this high voltage is as followings.
distributed by mechanical method, the voltage drop
The distributor doesn't make any current
down or current leakage may be occurred. As the
leakage.
voltage should go through the air gap (0.3~0.4 mm)
between the rotor of distributor and segment of cap, There is no energy loss of high voltage between
energy will be loss or this is the reason of noise of the rotor and the cap of distributor.
the electromagnetic wave. The ignition method for The cap of distributor doesn't have any radio
overcoming these problems is the DLI (Distributor wave noise.
Less Ignition). There is no limitation in advancing angle range
of the ignition
4.3.2 Kind and characteristic of DLI
Even if the output of high voltage is reduced, the
Classifying the DLI according to the electric
discharge effective energy is not reduced.
control method, there are the ignition coil
distribution type and the diode distribution type. The It has good endurance.
ignition coil distribution type is that the high voltage As it has no electromagnetic wave interruption, it
is directly distributed from the ignition coil to the doesn't make influence to other electro devices.
spark plug, and there are two kinds, the
synchronous spark type and the individual spark
type. The synchronous type distributes the high
voltage to two cylinders with one ignition coil. That
is, when the first and fourth cylinders are ignited at
the same time, the first spark plug is discharged
when the first cylinder is at the upper position, while
the fourth spark plug makes invalid discharging
because the fourth cylinder is exhausting the gas.

Fig 4-24 Various DLI types

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4.3.3 Parts of DLI and operation

The DLI comprises of the power transistor
operated by the signal from the ECU controlling the
No.3 No.2 No.1 No.4
ignition timing and the ignition coil inducing the high
voltage according to the intermitting operation of the
power transistor. The induced high voltage from the
ignition coil is sent to the spark plug through each
spark plug cable to make spark and the
compressed fuel mixture will be fired in the
combustion chamber.

(1) Ignition coil and power transistor

Capacitor
The ignition coil is attached at the cylinder head
(Condenser)
after the two mold types are combined to the one
coil. This ignition coil has separated terminal to
supply the high voltage from one ignition coil to two Fig 4-25 Structure of the ignition coil
cylinders. The first current of the ignition coil is
controlled by the power transistor. This power
transistor performs the intermittence operation by
the computer signal.

Fig 4-26 Basic circuit of power transistor

(2)CAS (Crank Shift Angle Sensor)
The CAS is installed at the body of the sensor
with the TDC sensor and driven by the camshaft at
the cylinder head. The body of the sensor
comprises of unit assembly and disk. The operation
of sensor is like followings. The CAS is used for
detecting the crank shift angle of each cylinder
using the 4 slits arrayed at the outer circumference
of the disk. When this signal is sent to the computer,
the computer calculates the rotation speed of the
engine, the air amount injected per stroke and the
ignition timing and sends the signal for intermitting
the first current of the ignition coil to the power
transistor.
The TDC sensor is used for detecting the upper
point at the compression stroke of the first and
fourth cylinder using the two slit arrayed at the inner
side of the disk and send these data to the
computer. The computer decides, basis on these
signals, the fuel injecting signal and the cylinder for
making ignition.

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Fig.4-27 Crankshaft angle sensor

Fig 4-28 Operation of the CAS and TDC sensor

4.3.4 Control for the ignition timing of DLI
To control the ignition timing at DLI, the
computer receiving the signals from various sensors
detecting the operating status of the engine
compares with the predetermined data in the
computer and calculates the best ignition timing.
After that, the computer sends the results to the two
power transistor. By the switching operation of the
power transistors, the first current which flows to the
two ignition coils is intermitted. The induced high
voltage to the second coil from this intermitting
operation is distributed with the ignition order of 1(4)
- 3(2) - 4(1) - 2(3) to fire the mixture in cylinder
(here, the number in parenthesis indicates the
cylinder ignited synchronously).

Fig 4-29 Circuit for DLI ignition

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In the Fig 4-29, as the power transistor is
ON, the current flow to the first coil of the ignition
coil and when the power transistor is OFF,
high voltages of (+) and (-) are induced at the
second coil of the ignition coil . At this time, the
induced high voltage is sent to the first and fourth
cylinder through the two terminals, the (-) high
voltage is induced to the first cylinder and the (+)
high voltage is induced to the fourth cylinder. When
the first cylinder is in the compression stroke, the
fourth cylinder is in the exhaust stroke, inversely,
when the fourth cylinder is in the compression
cylinder, the first cylinder is in the exhaust stroke.
Therefore, the valid spark is made at the
compression stroke of any one cylinder between the
two cylinders. As the air density is very high in the
compression stroke, the voltage needed for engine
should be high. As the current is discharged with
almost no load in the exhaust stroke, most high
voltages of (+) and (-) is applied to the spark plug in
the compression stroke. Therefore, by comparing
with the case of discharge with one spark plug in
the conventional ignition system, the discharged
voltage of the dual high voltages is similar with the
conventional system.
(1) Spark distribution control
The computer decides the cylinder which will be
fired basis on the TDC (No.1 and No.4 cylinder
TDC) signal, calculates the ignition timing basis on
the CAS signal and sends the first current
intermitting signal of the ignition coil to the power
transistor. When the High signal (Logic 1) of the
crank shift angle sensor and the TDC sensor are
input to the computer, the computer decides that the
78
first cylinder is in the compression stroke, interrupts
the current to the power transistor and then the
high voltage will be sent to the first and fourth
cylinder.
When the High signal of the CAS and the Low
(logic 0) signal of the TDC sensor are input, the
computer decides that the third cylinder is
compressed stroke (at that time, the second
cylinder is in the exhaust stroke) and interrupts the
current of the power transistor and then the high
voltage is sent to the third and second cylinder. Like
these, as the computer selects the power
transistors and alternately according to the
CAS and TDC sensor, the computer can interrupt
the electric current to distribute the spark.
(2) Ignition timing control
The computer measures the frequency T of CAS
signal and calculates the time (t) for one turn of
crank shaft about the T.
T
t=
180
When the signal frequency T of the CAS is acquired,
the ignition timing T1 is calculated basis on the 75
signal before the upper point and the interruption
signal of the first current is sent to the power
transistor.
T1 = t x (75 - )
Here, : Ignition advancing angle calculated
by the computer
Fig. 4-30
Spark distribution
of each cylinder
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(3) Ignition advancing angle
The computer stores the standard ignition
advancing angle optimized in accordance with the
air amount per one cycle of one cylinder and the
engine speed. By the input signal from each sensor,
this standard ignition advancing angle is
compensated additionally. When the engine is start,
the ignition timing is controlled with the stored value.
a. Ignition advancing angle in the normal
operation
Standard ignition advancing angle: The map
value predetermined according to the intake air
amount per one cycle at one cylinder and the
engine speed is the standard ignition advancing
angle. Here, the map value is the value stored in
ROM (Read Only Memory) in the computer.
Engine temperature compensation: According to
the signal of the water sensor, when the cooling
water is low, the ignition timing should be
advanced to enhance the driving performance.
Fig 4-31 Ignition advancing angle control
79
Atmospheric pressure compensation: According
to the signal of the atmospheric pressure sensor,
when the pressure is low, the ignition timing
should be advanced to enhance the driving
performance in the high land area.
b. Ignition advancing angle when the engine is
cranking
During the cranking of engine, by synchronizing
with the CAS signal, the fixed ignition timing (5
before upper point) is made.
c. Control when the ignition timing is regulated
At this time, as the terminal for control the crank
shift angle sensor, the ignition timing synchronized
to the signal of the crank shift angle sensor (5
before TDC) is formed. If it is need to control the
ignition timing, release the fixing nut of the crank
shift angle sensor and control by turning to left or
right in order that the CAS signal is controlled to
meet the standard ignition timing.
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4.4 Performance of the ignition system discharge, and when the end of the electrode has
sharpened shape as , it is easy to discharge.
The purpose of the ignition system is to form
Therefore, in the actual cases, the brand new spark
the spherical flame kernel in the mixture gas by
plug having a sharpened shape electrode has a
making the spark from a spark plug at the most
good discharging performance at first. After time is
proper time. Especially, adopting the emission
passed, as the electrode wears more and more, at
purification system, it is necessary for the
last, the shape of the electrode will be rounded so
performance to combust completely without any
that it is hard to discharge. The spark voltage will be
misfire under all driving conditions. Therefore, the
increased.
second voltage of the ignition system should
maintain high voltage value from low speed to the
high speed of the engine. Furthermore, the flame
energy from the spark plug should be large. Here,
we will explain about conditions influencing to the
ignition performance basis on the operation of the
high voltage circuit in the ignition system.

4.4.1 Ignition spark voltage

As the voltage generated at the second ignition
coil is increased, when it reaches to the spark
voltage (discharging start voltage), the spark is
generated at the electrode gap of spark plug. This
spark voltage is low in the easy condition for making
the spark; otherwise, the spark voltage is high in the
hard condition for making the spark. As the voltage
acquired from the ignition coil has a limitation, in
order to get perfect ignition without misfire under all
driving condition, the spark voltage should be rater
low than high. The elements influencing to the
magnitude of the spark voltage are the shape of the
spark plug electrode, the polarity, the gap of the
electrode, the pressure of the fuel mixture around
the electrode, the temperature of the electrode and
fuel mixture, the mixing ratio, moisture, movement
of gas. Among them, the gap of electrode and the
pressure and temperature of the fuel mixture are
the most important.
A. The influence from the shape and the gap of
the electrode of the spark plug
The Fig 4-32 shows the relation between the
electrode gap and spark voltage in the atmosphere
pressure. It shows that the spark voltage is
increasing proportional to the gap of the electrode.
In the same gap value, when the end portion of the
electrode has rounded shape as , it is hard to
Fig 4-32 Spark voltage and gap of electrode
B. Influence from the pressure and temperature
of the fuel mixture
The Fig 4-33 shows the relation between the
pressure of fuel mixture around the electrode and
the spark voltage. As the pressure of the mixture is
increasing, the spark voltage is also increased. With
the same pressure, when the temperature of the
mixture is high, the spark voltage will be lowered.
The Fig 4-34 shows the relation between the
temperature of the electrode and the spark voltage.
As the electrode temperature is increasing, the
spark voltage will suddenly be lowered because the
electrode will be easy to discharge from the surface
of the electrode. The electrode gap of the spark
plug is generally about 0.7~0.9mm. In the
atmosphere pressure, the spark is discharged with
2~3kV. When it is attached at the cylinder head, the
spark voltage will be higher than 10kV because the
pressure of the mixture around the electrode is
about 10kgf/ during the compression stroke.

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When the mixture injected into the cylinder at
room temperature is compressed, its temperature
will be higher than 200. Furthermore, in the
engine driving state, the temperature of the spark
plug is higher than 500, so the spark voltage will
be lowered as the increased temperature. The
spark can be discharged at about 10kV. Contrarily,
when the engine is started in the cold weather, the
spark voltage will be increased. Additionally, when
the engine is accelerated, the intake efficiency is
enhanced and the compression pressure is
increased so that the spark voltage will be
increased temporarily.
Fig 4-33 Spark voltage and the pressure of the
mixture
Fig 4-34 Spark voltage and the temperature of
electrode
C. Other influences
Even the spark voltage is lower in the air than in
the mixture, the spark voltage tends to be increased
as the mixture is lean. When the moisture is high,
81
the electrode temperature of the spark plug is
lowered so that the spark voltage will be high
somewhat. With the different shape of the electrode,
according to the polarity that is, which electrode is
connected to the (+), there is a difference in the
spark voltage. This is called the polarity effect. If the
central electrode has cylindrical shape and the
ground electrode has flat shape, as shown in Fig 4-
35, when the electrode gap is in small range, then
the central electrode is applied with (-) and the
ground electrode is applied with (+) to make spark
easily.
Fig 4-35 Spark voltage and polarity
In actual spark plug, there is no extremely
different shape in the electrode shapes like needle
electrode and flat electrode. As shown in Fig 4-35,
the central electrode is corresponding to the needle
electrode and the ground electrode is
corresponding to the flat electrode. In the aspect of
temperature of electrode, the central electrode has
high temperature.
4.4.2 Spark energy and ignition performance
The purpose of the ignition system is to ignite
the mixture in the combustion chamber completely.
When the ignition is failed, it is called the misfire.
This includes the cases in which there is no spark
between the electrodes of the spark plug (it is called
miss spark) and in which the mixture is not fired
even the spark is made (it is called miss fire).
Recently, as the countermeasure of the emission
gas, the ignition system is required high
performance in which even the lean fuel mixture
can be fired.
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Engine Electrical

Therefore, various spark plugs which can meet

this requirement are developed. That the mixture is
combusted within a short time period by the spark
of the spark plug is called the explosion and this is
processing as the following procedure.
As shown in Fig 4-36, when the spark is
generated at the electrode gap of the spark plug in
the compressed mixture, then a small sphere flame
kernel is formed at first. This flame kernel can be
cooled by the ambient mixture and electrode.
However, if the heat capacity of this flame kernel is
enough large, then the combustion reaction will be
accelerated and grown and then the flame surface
will be spread into the mixture even after the flame
kernel is extinguished. The main role of the ignition
system is to generate a sphere flame kernel which
can spread into the mixture. However, the
combustion followed from this kernel is mainly
decided by the status of the mixture and the flame
does not govern the spread of the combustion.

Fig 4-36 Formation of flame kernel by the spark

When the heat capacity of the flame kernel is

low and the flame kernel is easy to be cooled by the
electrode of the spark plug, the flame can not
spread so that the ignition can not be completed.
Extinguish effect of the electrode is lessen as the
electrode is thinner and the gap electrode is larger.
Therefore, recently, the spark plug has larger
electrode gap and thinner central electrode or a
groove on the ground electrode in order to enhance
the ignition performance.

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5. The Micro 570 analyzer 5.2 Battery Test procedures

The Micro 570 analyzer provides the ability to 1) Connect the tester to the battery
test the charging and starting systems, including the
battery, starter and alternator.

Caution: Connect clamps securely. If CHECK

CONNECTON message is displayed on the
screen, reconnect clamps securely.

Fig 5-1 Micro 570 analyzer
Caution: Because of the possibility of
personal injury, always use extreme caution and
appropriate eye protection when working with
batteries.
2) The tester will ask if the battery is connected IN
A VEHICLE or OUT OF VEHICLE. Make
your selection by pressing the arrow buttons:
then press ENTER button.

5.1 Key pad

The Micro 570 button on the key pad provide
the following functions:

3) Choose either CCA or CCP and press the

Use the arrow buttons to ENTER button.
scroll to main menu.

Press the ENTER button

to make selection
Press the CODE button to
generate a warranty code

Press the MENU button to

print and view the last test
result, set the time, use
the voltmeter, and export
data to a PC. * CCA: Cold cranking amps, is an SAE specification
for cranking batteried at 18 .
* CCP: Cold cranking amps, is an SAE specification
for Korean manufacturers for cranking
Fig 5-2 Micro 570 analyzer switch
batteried at 18 .

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4) Set the CCA value displayed on the screen to the
CCA value marked on the battery label by
pressing up and down buttons and press
ENTER button.
The battery ratings (CCA) displayed on the
tester must be identical to the ratings marked
on battery label.
5) The tester displays battery test results including
voltage and battery ratings. A relevant action
must be given according to the test results by
referring to the battery test results as shown in
the table below.
6) To conduct starter test, continuously, press
ENTER button.

Result on printer Remedy

Good battery No action is required.
Battery is in a good state.
Good recharge
Recharge the battery and use.
Battery is not charged properly.
Charge & Retest Charge and test the battery again (Failure to charge the battery fully may read
incorrect measurement value)
Replace battery and recheck the charging system.(Improper connection between
battery and vehicle cables may cause REPLACE BATTERY, retest the battery
Replace battery
after removing cable and connecting the tester to the battery terminal directly prior
to replacing the battery)
Charge and retest the battery. And than, test results may cause REPLACE
Bad cell-replace
BATTERY, replace battery and recheck the charging system.

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5.3 Starter test procedure

1) After the battery test, press the Enter button 3) Cranking voltage and starter test results will be
immediately for the starter test. displayed on the screen. Take a relevant action
according to the test results by referring to the
starter test results as given below.

2) After pressing ENTER button, start the engine.

4) To continue charging system test, press ENTER
button.

Result on printer Remedy

Cranking voltage System shows a normal starter draw.
normal
Cranking voltage is lower than normal level.
Cranking voltage low
Check the battery and retest.
The state of battery charge is too low to test.
Charge battery
Check the battery and retest.
Replace battery.
If the vehicle is not started though the battery condition of Good and fully
charged is displayed.
Replace battery
Check wiring for open circuit, battery cable connection, starter and repair or
replace as necessary.
If the engine does crank, check fuel system.

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5.4 Charging system test procedure

1) Press ENTER button to begin charging system 4) Press ENTER button.
test.

2) If ENTER button is pressed, the tester displays 5) The Micro 570 analyzer charging system output
the actual voltage of alternator. Press, ENTER at idle for comparison to other readings.
button to test the charging system.

6) Take a relevant action according to the test

3) Turn off all electrical load and rev engine for results by referring to the table below after
5seconds with pressing the accelerator pedal. shutting off the engine and disconnect the tester
clamps from the battery.

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Result on printer Remedy

Charging system Charging system is normal
normal / Diode ripple
normal
Alternator does not supply charging current to battery.
No charging voltage Check belts, connection between alternator and battery.
Replace belts or cable or alternator as necessary.
Alternator does not supply charging current to battery and electrical load to system
Low charging voltage fully.
Check belts and alternator and replace as necessary.
The voltage from alternator to battery is higher than normal limit during voltage
regulating.
High charging voltage
Check connection, ground and replace regulator as necessary.
Check electrolyte level in the battery.
One or more diodes in the alternator are not functioning properly.
Excess ripple detected
Check alternator mounting, belts and replace as necessary.

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