LD Didactic Optics

OPTICS
Geometrical optics 165

Dispersion and chromatics 169
Wave optics 175
Polarization 186
Light intensity 192
Velocity of light 194
Spectrometer 198
Laser optics 202
WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS 163

P5 OPTICS
P5.1 Geometrical optics 165 P5.6 Velocity of light 194

P5.1.1 Reflection, refraction 165 P5.6.1 Measurement according to
P5.1.2 Laws of imaging 166 Foucault/Michelson 194
P5.1.3 Image distortion 167 P5.6.2 Measuring with short light pulses 195
P5.1.4 Optical instruments 168 P5.6.3 Measuring with a
periodical light signal 196-197
P5.2 Dispersion and chromatics 169
P5.2.1 Refractive index and dispersion 169 P5.7 Spectrometer 198
P5.2.2 Decomposition of white light 170 P5.7.1 Prism spectrometer 198
P5.2.3 Color mixing 171 P5.7.2 Grating spectrometer 199-201
P5.2.4 Absorption spectra 172-173
P5.2.5 Reflection spectra 174 P5.8 Laser optics 202
P5.8.1 Helium-neon laser 202-203
P5.3 Wave optics 175 P5.8.5 Technical applications 204
P5.3.1 Diffraction 175-178
P5.3.2 Two-beam interference 179
P5.3.3 Newtons Rings 180
P5.3.4 Michelson interferometer 181-182
P5.3.5 Mach-Zehnder interferometer 183
P5.3.6 White-light reflection holography 184
P5.3.7 Transmission holography 185
P5.4 Polarization 186

P5.4.1 Basic experiments 186
P5.4.2 Birefringence 187
P5.4.3 Optical activity, polarimetry 188
P5.4.4 Kerr effect 189
P5.4.5 Pockels effect 190
P5.4.6 Faraday effect 191
P5.5 Light intensity 192

P5.5.1 Quantities and measuring methods of
lighting engineering 192
P5.5.2 Laws of radiation 193
164 PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM

OPTICS GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
P5.1.1
Reflection, refraction
P5.1.1.1
Reflection of light at straight and curved
mirrors
P5.1.1.2
Refraction of light at straight surfaces and
investigation of ray paths in prisms and
lenses
Reflection, refraction (P5.1.1)
Frequently, the propagation of light can be adequately described

simply by defining the ray path. Examples of this are the ray paths of
P5.1.1.1-2
light in mirrors, in lenses and in prisms using sectional models.

Cat. No. Description The experiment P5.1.1.1 examines how a mirror image is formed by
reflection at a plane mirror and demonstrates the reversibility of the
463 52 Optical disc with accessories 1 ray path. The law of reflection is experimentally validated:
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 AB
450 511 Incandescent lamps 6 V, 30 W, E14, set of 2 1 A: angle of incidence, B: angle of reflection
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1
Further experiment objectives deal with the reflection of a parallel
460 43 Small optical bench 1 light beam in the focal point of a concave mirror, the existence of a
463 51 Diaphragm with 5 slits 1 virtual focal point for reflection in a convex mirror, the relationship
460 08 Lens in frame f = +150 mm 1 between focal length and bending radius of the curved mirror and the
300 01 Stand base, V-shape, 28 cm 1
creation of real and virtual images for reflection at a curved mirror
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 4
The experiment P5.1.1.2 deals with the change of direction when light
passes from one medium into another. The law of refraction discov-
300 41 Stand rod 25 cm, 12 mm 1
ered by W. Snell is quantitatively verified:
sin A n2

sin B n1
A: angle of incidence, B: angle of refraction,,
n1: refractive index of medium 1 (here air),
n2 : refractive index of medium 2 (here glass)
This experiment topic also studies total reflection at the transition
from a medium with a greater refractive index to one with a lesser
refractive index, the concentration of a parallel light beam at the focal
point of a collecting lens, the existence of a virtual focal point when
a parallel light beam passes through a dispersing lens, the creation
of real and virtual images when imaging with lenses and the ray path
through a prism.

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS OPTICS
P5.1.2
Laws of imaging
P5.1.2.1
Determining the focal lengths at collecting
and dispersing lenses using collimated
light
P5.1.2.2
lenses through autocollimation
P5.1.2.3
lenses using Bessels method
P5.1.2.4
Verifying the imaging laws with a collecting
lens
Determining the focal lengths at collecting lenses using Bessels method (P5.1.2.3)
The focal lengths of lenses are determined by a variety of means. The

P5.1.2.3-4
basis for these are the laws of imaging.

P5.1.2.2
P5.1.2.1
In the experiment P5.1.2.1, an observation screen is set up parallel to

Cat. No. Description the optical axis so that the path of a parallel light beam can be ob-
served on the screen after passing through a collecting or dispersing
450 511 Incandescent lamps 6 V, 30 W, E14, set of 2 1 1 1 lens. The focal length is determined directly as the distance between
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 1 1 the lens and the focal point
460 20 Aspherical condenser with diaphragm holder 1 1 1 In autocollimation, experiment P5.1.2.2 a parallel light beam is re-
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 1 1 flected by a mirror behind a lens so that the image of an object is
viewed right next to that object. The distance d between the object
460 02 Lens in frame f = +50 mm 1 1
and the lens is varied until the object and its image are exactly the
460 03 Lens in frame f = +100 mm 1 1
same size. At this point, the focal length is
460 04 Lens in frame f = +200 mm 1
f d
460 06 Lens in frame f = -100 mm 1
In the Bessel method, experiment P5.1.2.3 the object and the obser-
441 53 Translucent screen 1 1 vation screen are set up at a fixed overall distance s apart. Between
460 43 Small optical bench 1 1 1 these points there are two lens positions x1 and x2 at which a sharply
300 02 Stand base, V-shape, 20 cm 1 1 1 focused image of the object is produced on the observation screen.
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 3 3 3 From the lens laws, we can derive the following relationship for the
focal length
311 77 Steel tape measure, l = 2 m/78 1 1 1
1 x x2
2
f s 1
4 s

461 66 Objects for investigating images, pair 1 1
In the experiment P5.1.2.4, the object height G, the object width g,
460 28 Plane mirror with ball joint 1 the image height B and the image width b are measured directly for a
collecting lens in order to confirm the lens laws. The focal length can
be calculated using the formula:
g b
f
g b

OPTICS GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
P5.1.3
Image distortion
P5.1.3.1
Spherical aberration in lens imaging
P5.1.3.2
Astigmatism and curvature of image field in
lens imaging
P5.1.3.3
Lens imaging distortions (barrel and
cushion) and coma
P5.1.3.4
Chromatic aberration in lens imaging
Spherical aberration in lens imaging (P5.1.3.1)
A spherical lens only images a point in an ideal point when the im-
aging ray traces intersect the optical axis at small angles, and the
P5.1.3.2
P5.1.3.3
P5.1.3.4
P5.1.3.1
angle of incidence and angle of refraction are also small when the ray
Cat. No. Description passes through the lens. As this condition is only fulfilled to a limited
extent in practice, aberrations (image defects) are unavoidable.
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 1 1 1 The experiments P5.1.3.1 and P5.1.3.2 deal with aberrations of image
450 511 Incandescent lamps 6 V, 30 W, E14, set of 2 1 1 1 1 sharpness. In a ray path parallel to the optical axis, paraxial rays are
460 20 Aspherical condenser with diaphragm holder 1 1 1 1 united at a different distance from abaxial rays. This effect, known as
spherical aberration, is particularly apparent in lenses with sharp
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 1 1 1
curvatures. Astigmatism and curvature of field may be observed
461 61 Pair of diaphragms for spherical aberrations 1
when imaging long objects with narrow light beams. The focal plane
461 66 Objects for investigating images, pair 1 1 1 is in reality a curved surface, so that the image on the observation
460 08 Lens in frame f = +150 mm 1 1 1 1 screen becomes increasingly fuzzy toward the edges when the mid-
460 26 Iris diaphragm 1 1 1 dle is sharply focused. Astigmatism is the phenomenon whereby a
tightly restricted light beam does not produce a point-type image,
441 53 Translucent screen 1 1 1 1
but rather two lines which are perpendicular to each other with a
460 43 Small optical bench 1 1 1 1 finite spacing with respect to the axis.
300 02 Stand base, V-shape, 20 cm 1 1 1 1
The experiment P5.1.3.3 explores aberrations of scale. Blocking light
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 4 4 4 4 rays in front of the lens causes a barrel-shaped distortion, i. e. a
460 02 Lens in frame f = +50 mm 1 reduction in the imaging scale with increasing object size. Screen-
467 95 Filter set, primary colours 1 ing behind the lens results in cushion-type aberrations. Coma is
the term for one-sided, plume-like or blob-like distortion of the im-
age when imaged by a beam of light passing through the lens at an
oblique angle.
The experiment P5.1.3.4 examines chromatic aberrations. These are
caused by a change in the refractive index with the wavelength, and
are thus unavoidable when not working with non-monochromatic
light.
Intersections of paraxial and abaxial rays

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS OPTICS
P5.1.4
Optical instruments
P5.1.4.1
Magnifier and microscope
P5.1.4.2
Keplers telescope and Galileos telescope
Keplers telescope and Galileos telescope (P5.1.4.2)
The magnifier, the microscope and the telescope are introduced as

optical instruments which primarily increase the angle of vision. The
P5.1.4.2
P5.1.4.1
design principle of each of these instruments is reproduced on the

Cat. No. Description optical bench. For quantitative conclusions, the common definition
of magnification is used:
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 tan Y
V
450 511 Incandescent lamps 6 V, 30 W, E14, set of 2 1 tan J
460 20 Aspherical condenser with diaphragm holder 1 Y: angle of vision with instrument
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 J: angle of vision without instrument
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1
In the experiment P5.1.4.1, small objects are observed from a short
311 09 Glass scale, l = 5 cm 1 distance. First, a collecting lens is used as a magnifier. Then, a micro-
460 02 Lens in frame f = +50 mm 1 1 scope in its simplest form is assembled using two collecting lenses.
460 03 Lens in frame f = +100 mm 1 1 For the total magnification of the microscope, the following applies:
460 08 Lens in frame f = +150 mm 1 VM Vob Voc
460 04 Lens in frame f = +200 mm 1 1 Vob : imaging scale of objective
460 32 Optical bench, standard cross section, 1 m 1 1 Voc : imaging scale of ocular
460 370 Optics rider 60/34 4
Here, Voc corresponds to the magnification of the magnifier.
460 373 Optics rider 60/50 2 2
s0
441 53 Translucent screen 1 Voc
foc
311 77 Steel tape measure, l = 2 m/78 1
s0 : clear field of vision
foc : focal length of ocular
311 22 Vertical scale, l = 1 m 1 The aim of the experiment P5.1.4.2 is to observe distant objects us-
ing a telescope. The objective and the ocular of a telescope are ar-
300 11 Saddle base 1
ranged so that the back focal point of the objective coincides with
the front focal point of the ocular. A distinction is made between the
Galilean telescope, which uses a dispersing lens as an ocular and
produces an erect image, and the Kepler telescope, which produces
an inverted image because its ocular is a collecting lens. In both
cases, the total magnification can be determined as:
fob
VT
foc
fob : focal length of objective
Ray path through the Kepler telescope foc : focal length of ocular

OPTICS DISPERSION AND CHROMATICS
P5.2.1
Refractive index and dispersi-

on
P5.2.1.1
Determining the refractive index and
dispersion of flint glass and crown glass
P5.2.1.2
Determining the refractive index and
dispersion of liquids
Determining the refractive index and dispersion of liquids (P5.2.1.2)
Dispersion is the term for the fact that the refractive index n is dif-
ferent for different-colored light. Often, dispersion also refers to the
P5.2.1.2
P5.2.1.1
quantity dn/d, i.e. the quotient of the change in the refractive index
Cat. No. Description dn and the change in the wavelength d.
In the experiment P5.2.1.1, the angle of minimum deviation is deter-
465 22 Crown glass prism 1 mined for a flint glass and a crown glass prism at the same refract-
465 32 Flint glass prism 1 ing angle . This enables determination of the refractive index of the
460 25 Prism table on stand rod 1 1 respective prism material according to the formula
1
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 1
sin E J
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 1 n 2
1
450 511 Incandescent lamps 6 V, 30 W, E14, set of 2 1 1 sin E
2
460 20 Aspherical condenser with diaphragm holder 1 1
The measurement is conducted for several different wavelengths, so
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 1
that the dispersion can also be quantitatively measured.
468 03 Monochromatic filter, red 1 1
In the experiment P5.2.1.2, an analogous setup is used to investigate
468 07 Monochromatic filter, yellow-green 1 1
dispersion in liquids. Toluol, turpentine oil, cinnamic ether, alcohol
468 11 Monochromatic filter, blue-violet 1 1 and water are each filled into a hollow prism in turn, and the differ-
460 08 Lens in frame f = +150 mm 1 1 ences in the refractive index and dispersion are observed.
460 43 Small optical bench 1 1
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 4 4
300 01 Stand base, V-shape, 28 cm 1 1
311 77 Steel tape measure, l = 2 m/78 1 1
465 51 Hollow prism 1
665 002 Funnel, glass, 35 mm 1
675 2100 Toluene, 250 ml 1
675 0410 Turpentine oil, rectified, 250 ml 1
675 4760 Cinnamic ethylester, 100 ml 1

DISPERSION AND CHROMATICS OPTICS
P5.2.2
Decomposition of white light
P5.2.2.1
Newtons experiments on dispersion and
recombination of white light
P5.2.2.2
Adding complementary colors to create
white light
Newtons experiments on dispersion and recombination of white light (P5.2.2.1)
The discovery that white sunlight is made up of light of different

colors was one of the great milestones toward understanding the
P5.2.2.2
P5.2.2.1
perception of color. Isaac Newton, in particular, conducted numer-

Cat. No. Description ous experiments on this topic.
The experiment P5.2.2.1 topic looks at Newtons experiments on the
465 32 Flint glass prism 2 1 decomposition of a beam of white light using the light of an incan-
450 511 Incandescent lamps 6 V, 30 W, E14, set of 2 1 1 descent light bulb. In the first step, the white light is broken down into
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 1 its spectral components in a glass prism. The second step shows
that the dispersed light cannot be broken down further by a second
prism. If only one spectral component is allowed to pass through a
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 1
slit behind the first prism, the second prism will deviate this light,
460 25 Prism table on stand rod 2 2 but will not break it down further. Using an assembly of two crossed
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 prisms with the refracting edges perpendicular to each other pro-
460 43 Small optical bench 1 1 vides additional confirmation of this principle. The vertical spectrum
behind the first prism is deviated obliquely by the second prism, as
the spectral colors are not broken down further by the second prism.
301 03 Rotatable clamp 2 The fourth step demonstrates the recombination of spectral colors
300 51 Stand rod, right-angled 1 1 to create white light by viewing the spectrum behind the first prism
300 01 Stand base, V-shape, 28 cm 1 1 through a second prism arranged parallel to the first.
465 25 Narrow prism 1 The experiment P5.2.2.2 also uses the color spectrum of an incan-
460 03 Lens in frame f = +100 mm 1 descent light bulb. This experiment starts with the recombination of
the spectrum in a collecting lens to create white light. Subsequent
460 26 Iris diaphragm 1
screening of individual spectral ranges using an extremely narrow
441 53 Translucent screen 1 prism produces two images of different colors, which partially over-
lap on the observation screen. The colors can be varied by laterally
shifting the narrow prism. The overlap field is white, which means
that the respective complementary colors are projected next to each
other on the screen.

P5.2.3
Color mixing
P5.2.3.1
Additive and subtractive color mixing
Additive and subtractive color mixing (P5.2.3.1)
The colour recognition of the human eye is determined by

three types of light receptor cones in the retina. Compari-
P5.2.3.1
son of the different colours (wavelength ranges) of the vis-

Cat. No. Description ible spectrum with the sensitivity of the different types of cone
reveals division into the primary colours: red, green and blue.
466 16 Additive colour mixing 1 Combinations of two primary colours result in the secondary col-
466 15 Subtractive colour mixing 1 ours: cyan, magenta and yellow. This means that secondary colour
filters only filter out the third primary colour. A combination of all
452 111 Overhead projector Famulus alpha 250 1
three primary colours results in white.
300 43 Stand rod 75 cm, 12 mm 1
The apparatus for additive color mixing in experiment P5.2.3.1
contains three color filters with the primary colors red, green and
yellow. The colored light is made to overlap either partially or com-
pletely using mirrors. In the areas of overlap, additive color mixing
creates the colors cyan (green + blue), magenta (blue + red) and
yellow (red + green), and in the middle white (red + blue + green).
The apparatus for subtractive color mixing contains three color fil-
ters with the colors cyan, magenta and yellow. The filters partially
overlap; in the overlap zones, the three primary colors blue, red and
green, and in the middle, black, are formed
Additive color mixing Subtractive color mixing

P5.2.4
Absorption spectra
P5.2.4.1
Absorption spectra of tinted glass samples
P5.2.4.2
Absorption spectra of colored liquids
Absorption spectra of tinted glass samples (P5.2.4.1)
The colors we perceive when looking through colored glass or liquids

are created by the transmitted component of the spectral colors.
P5.2.4.2
P5.2.4.1
In the experiment P5.2.4.1, the light passing through colored pieces

Cat. No. Description of glass from an incandescent light bulb is viewed through a direct-
vision prism and compared with the continuous spectrum of the
466 05 Direct vision prism 1 1 lamp light. The original, continuous spectrum with the continuum of
467 96 Filter set, secondary colours 1 spectral colors disappears. All that remains is a band with the color
468 01 Monochromatic filter, darkred 1 components of the filter.
468 09 Monochromatic filter, blue-green 1 In the experiment P5.2.4.2, the light passing through colored liquids
from an incandescent light bulb is viewed through a direct-vision
468 11 Monochromatic filter, blue-violet 1
prism and compared with the continuous spectrum of the lamp light.
The original, continuous spectrum with the continuum of spectral
460 25 Prism table on stand rod 1 2 colors disappears. All that remains is a band with the color compo-
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 1 nents of the liquid.
450 511 Incandescent lamps 6 V, 30 W, E14, set of 2 1 1
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 1
441 53 Translucent screen 1 1
460 03 Lens in frame f = +100 mm 1 1
460 43 Small optical bench 1 1
300 01 Stand base, V-shape, 28 cm 1 1
477 14 Plate glass cells, 50 x 50 x 20 mm 1
672 7010 Potassium permanganate, 250 g 1
Absorption spectra of tinted glass samples (without filter set, magenta, yellow, cyan)

P5.2.4
Absorption spectra
P5.2.4.3
Absorption spectra of tinted glass samples
- Recording and evaluating with a spectro-
photometer
P5.2.4.4
Absorption and fluorescence spectra
of coloured liquids - Recording and
evaluating with a spectrophotometer
P5.2.4.5
Absorption spectra of PMMA optical
waveguide - Recording and evaluating with
a spectrophotometer
Absorption spectra of tinted glass samples - Recording and evaluating with a spectrophotometer (P5.2.4.3)
In the experiment P5.2.4.3, the light from an incandescent light

bulb passing through coloured pieces of glass is recorded with a
P5.2.4.5
P5.2.4.3
P5.2.4.4
spectrometer and compared with the continuous spectrum of the

Cat. No. Description lamp light. The original, continuous spectrum with the continuum of
spectral colors disappears. All that remains is a band with the colour
467 96 Filter set, secondary colours 1 components of the filter. The transmission coefficient and the optical
468 01 Monochromatic filter, darkred 1 density of the coloured pieces of glass are calculated.
468 09 Monochromatic filter, blue-green 1 In the experiment P5.2.4.4, the light from an incandescent light bulb
passing through a coloured liquid is recorded using a spectrometer.
468 11 Monochromatic filter, blue-violet 1 1
The fluorescence of the coloured liquid is recorded under a right an-
gle. A blue filter is used to clearly separate fluorescence and light
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 1 scattering. Both, absorption and fluorescence spectra are compared
450 511 Incandescent lamps 6 V, 30 W, E14, set of 2 1 1 with the continuous spectrum of the lamp light.
460 20 Aspherical condenser with diaphragm holder 1 1 In the experiment P5.2.4.5, light passing through an optical fiber is
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 1 recorded by a compact spectrometer. The higher order overtones
of molecular oscillations create spectral ranges of high absoption,
467 251 Spectrometer (compact) USB, physics 1 1 1
leaving ranges of high transmission in between, the so called opti-
460 251 Fibre holder 1 1 1
cal windows.
460 310 Optical bench, S1 profile, 1 m 1 1
460 311 Clamp rider with clamp 3 4
460 25 Prism table on stand rod 1
300 11 Saddle base 1 2
604 5672 Micro spatula, 150 mm 1
672 0110 Fluoresceine-sodium, 25 g 1
451 17 E27 socket, protective plug 1
505 301 Incandescent lamp 230 V/60 W 1
579 44 Light waveguide, 2 each 1
additionally required:
1 1 1
PC with Windows 2000/XP/Vista
Absorption and fluorescence spectra of coloured liquids (P5.2.4.4)

P5.2.5
Reflection spectra
P5.2.5.1
Reflection spectra of different materials
- Recording and evaluating with a spectro-
photometer
Reflection spectra of different materials - Recording and evaluating with a spectrophotometer (P5.2.5.1)
The colors we perceive of opaque objects are induced by the re-

flected component of the spectral colors.
P5.2.5.1
In the experiment P5.2.5.1, the light from an incandescent light bulb

Cat. No. Description reflected by different materials is recorded using a spectrometer.
The reflection coefficients are calculated and compared.
567 06 Conductors/insulators, set of 6 1
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1
450 511 Incandescent lamps 6 V, 30 W, E14, set of 2 1
460 20 Aspherical condenser with diaphragm holder 1
467 251 Spectrometer (compact) USB, physics 1
460 251 Fibre holder 1
460 310 Optical bench, S1 profile, 1 m 1
460 311 Clamp rider with clamp 3
PC with Windows 2000/XP/Vista

OPTICS WAVE OPTICS
P5.3.1
Diffraction
P5.3.1.1
Diffraction at a slit, at a post and at a
circular iris diaphragm
P5.3.1.2
Diffraction at a double slit and multiple slits
P5.3.1.3
Diffraction at one- and two-dimensional
gratings
Diffraction at a double slit and multiple slits (P5.3.1.2)
The experiment P5.3.1.1 looks at the intensity minima for diffraction

at a slit. Their angles k with respect to the optical axis for a slit of the
P5.3.1.2
P5.3.1.3
P5.3.1.1
width b is given by the relationship

Cat. No. Description L
sin Jk k k 1; 2; 3;
b
469 91 Diaphragm with 3 single slits 1
L: wavelength of the light
469 96 Diaphragm with 3 diffracting holes 1
In accordance with Babinets theorem, diffraction at a post produces
469 97 Diaphragm with 3 diffracting lines 1
similar results. In the case of diffraction at a circular iris diaphragm
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 1 1 with the radius r, concentric diffraction rings may be observed; their
471 830 He-Ne-Laser, linear polarized 1 1 1 intensity minima can be found at the angles k using the relation-
460 01 Lens in frame f = +5 mm 1 1 1 ship
L
460 02 Lens in frame f = +50 mm 1 1 1
sin Jk k k 0.610; 1.116; 1.619;
460 32 Optical bench, standard cross section, 1 m 1 1 1 r
460 370 Optics rider 60/34 4 4 4
441 53 Translucent screen 1 1 1 The experiment P5.3.1.2 explores diffraction at a double slit. The
300 11 Saddle base 1 1 1 constructive interference of secondary waves from the first slit with
469 84 Diaphragm with 3 double slits 1
secondary waves from the second slit produces intensity maxima;
at a given distance d between slit midpoints, the angles n of these
maxima are specified by
469 86 Diaphragm with 5 multiple slits 1
L
469 87 Diaphragm with 3 gratings 1 sin Jn n n 0; 1; 2;
d
469 88 Diaphragm with 2 wire-mesh gratings 1
The intensities of the various maxima are not constant, as the ef-
fect of diffraction at a single slit is superimposed on the diffraction
at a double slit. In the case of diffraction at more than two slits with
equal spacings d, the positions of the interference maxima remain
the same. Between any two maxima, we can also detect N-2 sec-
ondary maxima; their intensities decrease for a fixed slit width b and
increasing number of slits N.
The experiment P5.3.1.3 investigates diffraction at a line grating and
a crossed grating. We can consider the crossed grating as consist-
ing of two line gratings arranged at right angles to each other.The
diffraction maxima are points at the nodes of a straight, square
matrix pattern.

WAVE OPTICS OPTICS
P5.3.1
Diffraction
P5.3.1.4
Diffraction at a single slit - Recording and
evaluating with CASSY
P5.3.1.5
- Recording and evaluating with CASSY
Diffraction at a single slit - Recording and evaluating with CASSY (P5.3.1.4)
A photoelement with a narrow light opening is used to measure the

diffraction intensities; this sensor can be moved perpendicularly to
P5.3.1.5
P5.3.1.4
the optical axis on the optical bench, and its lateral position can be
Cat. No. Description measured using a displacement transducer. The measured values
are recorded and evaluated using the software CASSY Lab.
460 14 Adjustable slit 1 The experiment P5.3.1.4 investigates diffraction at slit of variable
471 830 He-Ne-Laser, linear polarized 1 1 width. The recorded measured values for the intensity I are com-
578 62 Si Photocell STE 2/19 1 1 pared with the results of a model calculation for small diffraction an-
gles which uses the slit width b as a parameter:
460 21 Holder for plug-in elements 1 1
2
460 01 Lens in frame f = +5 mm 1 1 Pb
sin J
l t L where J s
Pb L
460 33 Optical bench, standard cross section, 2 m 1 1
J
460 374 Optics rider 90/50 4 4 L
460 383 Sliding rider 90/50 1 1 L: wavelength of the light
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 s: lateral shift of photoelement
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 L: distance between object and photoelement
524 040 V box 1 1 The experiment P5.3.1.5 explores diffraction at multiple slits. In the
524 082 Rotary motion sensor S 1 1 model calculation performed for comparison purposes, the slit width
301 07 Bench clamp, simple 1 1 b and the slit spacing d are both used as parameters.
2 2
309 48ET2 Fishing line, set of 2 1 1 Pb N Pd
sin J sin J
342 61 Weights, 50 g each, set of 12 1 1
L L
l t
501 46 Cable, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1 P b Pd
J sin J
469 84 Diaphragm with 3 double slits 1 L L
469 85 Diaphragm with 4 double slits 1 N: number of illuminated slits
1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7

OPTICS WAVE OPTICS
P5.3.1
Diffraction
P5.3.1.6
Diffraction at a single slit - Recording and
evaluating with VideoCom
P5.3.1.7
- Recording and evaluating with VideoCom
P5.3.1.8
Diffraction at a half-plane - Recording and
evaluating with VideoCom
Diffraction at a single slit - Recording and evaluating with VideoCom (P5.3.1.6) - top and at half-plane (P5.3.1.8) - bottom
Diffraction at a single slit P5.3.1.6 or multiple slits P5.3.1.7 can also

be measured as a one-dimensional spatial intensity distribution us-
P5.3.1.8
P5.3.1.6
P5.3.1.7
ing the single-line CCD camera VideoCom (here used without the
Cat. No. Description camera lens).The VideoCom software enables fast, direct compari-
son of the measured intensity distributions with model calculations
460 14 Adjustable slit 1 in which the wavelength , the focal length f of the imaging lens, the
471 830 He-Ne-Laser, linear polarized 1 1 1 slit width b and the slit spacing d are all used as parameters. These
parameters agree closely with the values arrived at through experi-
472 401 Polarization filter 1 1 1
ment.
337 47USB VideoCom USB 1 1 1
It is also possible to investigate diffraction at a half-plane P5.3.1.8.
460 01 Lens in frame f = +5 mm 1 1 1
Thanks to the high-resolution CCD camera, it becomes easy to fol-
460 02 Lens in frame f = +50 mm 1 1 low the intensity distribution over more than 20 maxima and minima
460 11 Lens in frame f = +500 mm 1 1 1 and compare it with the result of a model calculation. The model
460 32 Optical bench, standard cross section, 1 m 1 1 1 calculation is based on Kirchhoffs formulation of Huygens principle.
The intensity I at point x in the plane of observation is calculated
460 373 Optics rider 60/50 7 7 6
from the amplitude of the electric field strength E at this point using
469 84 Diaphragm with 3 double slits 1 the formula
l x E x
2

460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 1 The field strength is obtained through the phase-correct additionof
additionally required: all secondary waves originating from various points x in the diffrac-
1 1 1
PC with Windows 2000/XP/Vista tion plane, from the half-plane boundary x = 0 to x = :
d
E x exp i J x, x ' dx '
0
Here,
2P x x '
2
J x, x '
L 2L
In the phase shift of the secondary wave which travels from point x
in the diffraction plane to point x in the observation plane as a func-
tion of the direct wave. The parameters in the model calculation are
the wavelength and the distance L between the diffraction plane
and the observation plane. Here too, the agreement with the values
obtained in the experiment is close.
Measured (black) and calculated (red) intensity distributions (P5.3.1.6, P5.3.1.8)

WAVE OPTICS OPTICS
P5.3.1
Diffraction
P5.3.1.9
Investigation of the spatial coherence of an
extended light source
Investigation of the spatial coherence of an extended light source (P5.3.1.9)
Coherence is the property of waves that enables them to exhibit sta-

tionary interference patterns. The spatial coherence of a light source
P5.3.1.9
can be examined in a Youngs double-slit interferometer. A light

Cat. No. Description source illuminates a double slit with slit width b and distance g. If the
partial beams emitted by the light source are coherent at the posi-
451 062 Spectrum lamp Hg 100 1 tion of the two slits an interference pattern can be observed after the
451 16 Housing for spectrum lamps 1 double slit. The condition for coherent illumination of the two slits is
1 a L
451 30 Universal choke 1
$s a sin A (g b )
460 32 Optical bench, standard cross section, 1 m 1 2 L 2
460 370 Optics rider 60/34 2 The experiment P5.3.1.9 explores the condition for spatial coher-
460 373 Optics rider 60/50 1 ence. The light source is a single slit of variable width illuminated
by a Hgspectral lamp. Combined with a filter this results in a mono-
460 374 Optics rider 90/50 3
chromatic light source with variable width a. At a distance L double
468 07 Monochromatic filter, yellow-green 1 slits of different distances of the slits g (and fixed slit width b) are
460 22 Holder with spring clips 2 illuminated. For each distance g the width a of the adjustable single
688 045 Sliding diaphragms, set of 6 1 slit is determined where the interference pattern after the double slit
460 14 Adjustable slit 1
vanishes. Then, the coherence condition is no longer fulfilled.
460 135 Ocular with scale 1

OPTICS WAVE OPTICS
P5.3.2
Two-beam interference
P5.3.2.1
Interference at a Fresnels mirror with an
He-Ne laser
P5.3.2.2
Lloyds mirror experiment with an He-Ne
laser
P5.3.2.3
Interference at Fresnels biprism with an
He-Ne laser
Interference at a Fresnels mirror with an He-Ne laser (P5.3.2.1)
In these experiments, two coherent light sources are generated

P5.3.2.1-2
by recreating three experiments of great historical significance.

P5.3.2.3
In each of these experiments, the respective wavelength of the

Cat. No. Description light used is determined by the distance d between two interference
lines and the distance a of the (virtual) light sources. At a sufficiently
471 830 He-Ne-Laser, linear polarized 1 1 great distance L between the (virtual) light sources and the projec-
471 05 Fresnels mirror, adjustable 1 tion screen, the relationship
d
L a
460 04 Lens in frame f = +200 mm 1 1 L
460 32 Optical bench, standard cross section, 1 m 1 1 obtains. The determination of the quantity a depends on the respec-
460 370 Optics rider 60/34 3 3 tive experiment setup.
460 373 Optics rider 60/50 1 1 In 1821, A. Fresnel used two mirrors inclined with respect to one
another to create two virtual light sources positioned close together,
441 53 Translucent screen 1 1
which, being coherent, interfered with each other - P5.3.2.1.
In 1839, H. Lloyd demonstrated that a second, virtual light source
311 53 Vernier callipers 1 1
coherent with the first can be created by reflection in a mirror. He
311 77 Steel tape measure, l = 2 m/78 1 1 observed interference phenomena between direct and reflected light
471 09 Fresnel Biprism 1 - P5.3.2.2.
460 25 Prism table on stand rod 1 Coherent light sources can also be produced using a Fresnel biprism,
first demonstrated in 1826 (P5.3.2.3). Refraction in both halves of the
prism results in two virtual images, which are closer together the
smaller the prism angle is.
P5.3.2.1 P5.3.2.2 P5.3.2.3

WAVE OPTICS OPTICS
P5.3.3
Newtons Rings
P5.3.3.1
Newtons Rings in transmitted
monochromatic light
P5.3.3.2
Newtons rings in transmitted and reflected
white light
Newtons rings in transmitted and reflected white light (P5.3.3.2)
Newtons rings are produced using an arrangement in which a con-

vex lens with an extremely slight curvature is touching a glass plate,
P5.3.3.2
P5.3.3.1
so that an air wedge with a spherically curved boundary surface is

Cat. No. Description formed. When this configuration is illuminated with a vertically inci-
dent, parallel light beam, concentric interference rings (the Newtons
471 111 Glass plates for Newtons rings 1 1 rings) are formed around the point of contact between the two glass
460 03 Lens in frame f = +100 mm 2 surfaces both in reflection and in transmitted light. For the path dif-
ference of the interfering partial beams, the thickness d of the air
wedge is the defining factor; this distance is not in a linear relation to
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 the distance r from the point of contact:
460 32 Optical bench, standard cross section, 1 m 1 1
r2
460 370 Optics rider 60/34 6 5 d
2R
451 111 Spectrum lamp Na 1
R: bending radius of convex lens
451 062 Spectrum lamp Hg 100 1
In the experiment P5.3.3.1, the Newtons rings are investigated with
451 16 Housing for spectrum lamps 1
monochromatic, transmitted light. At a known wavelength , the
451 30 Universal choke 1 bending radius R is determined from the radii rn of the interference
468 30 Light filter, 580 nm, yellow 1 rings. Here, the relationship for constructive interference is:
468 31 Light filter, 520 nm, green 1 L
d n where n 0, 1, 2,
468 32 Light filter, 450 nm, blue 1 2
441 53 Translucent screen 1 Thus, for the radii of the bright interference rings, we can say:
rn2 n R L where n 0, 1, 2,
In the experiment P5.3.3.2, the Newtons rings are studied both in
460 373 Optics rider 60/50 1
reflection and in transmitted light. As the partial beams in the air
460 380 Cantilever arm 1
wedge are shifted in phase by /2 for each reflection at the glass sur-
471 88 Beam splitter 2 faces, the interference conditions for reflection and transmitted light
450 64 Halogen lamp housing, 12 V, 50 / 90 W 1 are complementary. The radii rn of the bright interference lines cal-
450 63 Halogen lamp, 12 V / 90 W 1 culated for transmitted light using the equations above correspond
precisely to the radii of the dark rings in reflection. In particular, the
521 25 Transformer, 2 ... 12 V, 120 W 1
center of the Newtons rings is bright in transmitted light and dark in
501 33 Connecting lead, 100 cm, black 2
reflection. As white light is used, the interference rings are bordered
by colored fringes.

OPTICS WAVE OPTICS
P5.3.4
Michelson interferometer
P5.3.4.1
Setting up a Michelson interferometer on
the laser optics base plate
P5.3.4.2
Determining the wavelength of the light of
an He-Ne laser using a Michelson interfe-
rometer
P5.3.4.3
Determining the wavelength of the light of
an He-Ne laser using a Michelson interfe-
rometer - Setup on the optical bench
Setting up a Michelson interferometer on the laser optics base plate (P5.3.4.1)
In a Michelson interferometer, an optical element divides a coherent

light beam into two parts. The component beams travel different paths,
P5.3.4.2
P5.3.4.3
P5.3.4.1
are reflected into each other and finally recombined. As the two com-
Cat. No. Description ponent beams have a fixed phase relationship with respect to each
other, interference patterns can occur when they are superposed on
473 40 Base plate for laser optics 1 1 each other. A change in the optical path length of one component beam
471 830 He-Ne-Laser, linear polarized 1 1 1 alters the phase relation, and thus the interference pattern as well.
Thus, given a constant refractive index, a change in the interference
473 411 Laser mount 1 1
pattern can be used to determine a change in the geometric path,
473 421 Optics base 4 5 e.g. changes in length due to heat expansion or the effects of electric
473 432 Beam divider 50 % 1 1 or magnetic fields. When the geometric path is unchanged, then this
473 431 Holder for beam divider 1 1 configuration can be used to investigate changes in the refractive
473 461 Planar mirror with fine adjustment 2 2 2 index due to variations e.g. in pressure, temperature and density
473 471 Spherical lens f = 2.7 mm 1 1 In the experiment P5.3.4.1, the Michelson interferometer is assem-
bled on the vibration-proof laser optics base plate. This setup is ideal
441 53 Translucent screen 1 1 1
for demonstrating the effects of mechanical shocks and air streak-
300 11 Saddle base 1 1 1 ing.
311 02 Metal rule, l = 1 m 1 1
In the experiment P5.3.4.2, the wavelength of an He-Ne laser is de-
473 48 Fine adjustment drive 1 1 termined from the change in the interference pattern when moving an
460 32 Optical bench, standard cross section, 1 m 1 interferometer mirror using the shifting distance s of the mirror. Dur-
460 373 Optics rider 60/50 1 ing this shift, the interference lines on the observation screen move.
In evaluation, either the interference maxima or interference minima
460 374 Optics rider 90/50 5
passing a fixed point on the screen while the plane mirror is shifted
471 88 Beam splitter 1 are counted. For the wavelength , the following equation applies:
$s
460 01 Lens in frame f = +5 mm 1 L 2
Z
Z: number of intensity maxima or minima counted
In the experiment P5.3.4.3, the Michelson interferometer is assem-
bled on the optical bench. The wavelength of an He-Ne laser is de-
termined from the change in the interference pattern when moving an
interferometer mirror using the shifting distance s of the mirror.

WAVE OPTICS OPTICS
P5.3.4
P5.3.4.4
Determination of the coherence time and
the line width of spectral lines with the
P5.3.4.5
Investigation of the pressure induced line
broadening using a Michelson interfe-
rometer
P5.3.4.6
Determination of the line splitting of two
spectral lines using a Michelson interfe-
rometer
Determination of the coherence time and the line width of spectral lines with the Michelson interferometer
(P5.3.4.4_a)
Temporal coherence can be investigated by means of a Michelson

P5.3.4.5 (a)
P5.3.4.4 (a)
P5.3.4.6 (a)
interferometer. The maximum time difference t during which inter-

ference can be observed is called the coherence time. The coher-
Cat. No. Description ence length is defined as the distance sC the light travels in the
coherence time. Typical coherence lengths are a few microns in
451 062 Spectrum lamp Hg 100 1 1 1 incandescent lamps, some millimeters in spectral lamps and many
451 16 Housing for spectrum lamps 1 1 1 meters in lasers. In addition, the coherence time t C is connected to
the spectral width or of the light source:
451 30 Universal choke 1 1 1
1 1 L2
460 32 Optical bench, standard cross section, 1 m 1 1 1 $N or $L 0
460 373 Optics rider 60/50 1 1 1 $tC c $tC
460 374 Optics rider 90/50 7 7 7 In the experiment P5.3.4.4 the wavelength of the green spectral
460 380 Cantilever arm 1 1 1 line of a Hg spectral lamp is determined. To measure the coherence
473 461 Planar mirror with fine adjustment 2 2 2
length the positions of the movable plane mirror are measured where
interference can barely be seen. From the difference in path length
473 48 Fine adjustment drive 1 1 1
the coherence length sC, the coherence time t C and the line width
471 88 Beam splitter 1 1 1 of the spectral line are determined.
460 26 Iris diaphragm 2 2 2 In experiment P5.3.4.5 the coherence lengths and spectral widths
468 07 Monochromatic filter, yellow-green 1 1 of the green spectral line of a Hg spectral lamp and a high pres-
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 1 1 sure mercury lamp are determined and the results are compared.
The higher pressure in the high pressure mercury lamp leads to a
significant broadening of the spectral line causing a shorter coher-
300 11 Saddle base 1 1 1
ence length.
451 15 High pressure mercury lamp 1
In the experiment P5.3.4.6 the mean wavelength and the line split-
451 19 Socket E27, multi-way plug 1 ting of the yellow line doublet is determined. For two different
468 30 Light filter, 580 nm, yellow 1 proximate wavelengths 1 and 2 the coherent superposition of two
beams leads to a beating: At distinct path length differences the
contrast between bright and dark rings of the interference pattern
is big while for other path length differences the contrast vanishes
completely.

OPTICS WAVE OPTICS
P5.3.5
Mach-Zehnder interferometer
P5.3.5.1
Setting up a Mach-Zehnder interferometer
on the laser optics base plate
P5.3.5.2
Measuring the refractive index of air with a
Mach-Zehnder interferometer
Measuring the refractive index of air with a Mach-Zehnder interferometer (P5.3.5.2)
In a Mach-Zehnder interferometer, an optical element divides a co-

herent light beam into two parts. The component beams are de-
P5.3.5.2
P5.3.5.1
flected by mirrors and finally recombined. As the two partial beams

Cat. No. Description have a fixed phase relationship with respect to each other, interfer-
ence patterns can occur when they are superposed on each other. A
473 40 Base plate for laser optics 1 1 change in the optical path length of one component beam alters the
471 830 He-Ne-Laser, linear polarized 1 1 phase relation, and consequently the interference pattern as well. As
the component beams are not reflected into each other, but rather
473 411 Laser mount 1 1
travel separate paths, these experiments are easier to comprehend
473 421 Optics base 5 6 and didactically more effective than experiments with the Michelson
473 431 Holder for beam divider 2 2 interferometer. However, the Mach-Zehnder interferometer is more
473 432 Beam divider 50 % 2 2 difficult to adjust.
473 461 Planar mirror with fine adjustment 2 2 In the experiment P5.3.5.1, the Mach-Zehnder interferometer is as-
473 471 Spherical lens f = 2.7 mm 1 1 sembled on the vibration-proof laser optics base plate.
441 53 Translucent screen 1 1 In the experiment P5.3.5.2, the refractive index of air is determined.
To achieve this, an evacuable chamber is placed in the path of one
component beam of the Mach-Zehnder interferometer. Slowly evac-
311 02 Metal rule, l = 1 m 1 1
uating the chamber alters the optical path length of the respective
473 485 Vacuum chamber 1 component beam.
375 58 Manual vacuum pump 1 Note: Setting up a Michelson interferometer is recommended before
300 02 Stand base, V-shape, 20 cm 1 using a Mach-Zehnder interferometer for the first time.
666 555 Universal clamp, 0 ... 80 mm 1
Setting up a Mach-Zehnder interferometer on the laser optics base plate (P5.3.5.1)

WAVE OPTICS OPTICS
P5.3.6
White-light Reflection Holo-
graphy
P5.3.6.1
Creating white-light reflection holograms
on the laser optics base plate
Creating white-light reflection holograms on the laser optics base plate (P5.3.6.1)
In creating white-light reflection holograms, a broadened laser beam

passes through a film and illuminates an object placed behind the film.
P5.3.6.1
Light is reflected from the surface of the object back onto the film,
Cat. No. Description where it is superposed with the light waves of the original laser beam.
The film consists of a light-sensitive emulsion of sufficient thickness.
473 40 Base plate for laser optics 1 Interference creates standing waves within the film, i.e. a series of
471 830 He-Ne-Laser, linear polarized 1 numerous nodes and antinodes at a distance of /4 apart. The film is
exposed in the planes of the anti-nodes but not in the nodes. Semi-
473 411 Laser mount 1
transparent layers of metallic silver are formed at the exposed areas.
473 421 Optics base 3 To reconstruct the image, the finished hologram is illuminated with
473 441 Film holder 1 white light the laser is not required. The light waves reflected by the
473 451 Object holder 1 semitransparent layers are superposed on each other in such a way
473 471 Spherical lens f = 2.7 mm 1 that they have the same properties as the waves originally reflected
by the object. The observer sees at three-dimensional image of the
311 02 Metal rule, l = 1 m 1
object. Light beams originating at different layers only reinforce each
663 615 Schuko socket strip, 5 sockets (safety mains sockets) 1 other when they are in phase. The in-phase condition is only fulfilled
313 17 Stopclock II, 60 s/0,2 s 1 for a certain wavelength, which allows the image to be reconstructed
649 11 Storage trays 86 x 86 x 26 mm, set 6 1 using white light.
661 234 Screw cap bottle, PE, 1000 ml 3 The object of the experiment P5.3.6.1 is to create white-light re-
667 016 Scissors, 200 mm long 1 flection holograms. This process uses a protection class 2 la-
ser, so as to minimize the risk of eye damage for the experi-
473 448 Holography film, 3000 lines/mm 1
menter. Both amplitude and phase holograms can be created
473 446 Darkroom accessories 1 simply by varying the photochemical processing of the exposed film.
473 444 Photographic chemicals 1 Recommendation: The Michelson interferometer on the laser optics
671 8910 Iron(III)-nitrate-9-hydrate, 250 g 1 base plate is ideal for demonstrating the effects of disturbances due
672 4910 Potassium bromide, 100 g 1
to mechanical shocks or air streaking in unsuitable rooms, which can
prevent creation of satisfactory holograms

OPTICS WAVE OPTICS
P5.3.7
Transmission Holography
P5.3.7.1
Creating transmission holograms on the
laser optics base plate
Creating transmission holograms on the laser optics base plate (P5.3.7.1)
In creating transmission holograms, a laser beam is split into an ob-

ject beam and a reference beam, and then broadened. The object
P5.3.7.1
beam illuminates an object and is reflected. The reflected light is fo-

Cat. No. Description cused onto a film together with the reference beam, which is coher-
ent with the object beam. The film records an irregular interference
473 40 Base plate for laser optics 1 pattern which shows no apparent similarity with the object in ques-
471 830 He-Ne-Laser, linear polarized 1 tion. To reconstruct the hologram, a light beam which corresponds
to the reference beam is diffracted at the amplitude hologram in such
473 411 Laser mount 1
a way that the diffracted waves are practically identical to the object
473 421 Optics base 5 waves. In reconstructing a phase hologram the phase shift of the ref-
473 435 Beam divider, variable 1 erence waves is exploited. In both cases, the observer sees a three-
473 431 Holder for beam divider 1 dimensional image of the object.
473 441 Film holder 1 The object of the experiment P5.3.7.1 is to create transmission holo-
473 451 Object holder 1 grams and subsequently reconstruct them. This process uses a pro-
tection class 2 laser, so as to minimize the risk of eye damage for the
473 471 Spherical lens f = 2.7 mm 2
experimenter. Both amplitude and phase holograms can be created
311 02 Metal rule, l = 1 m 1 simply by varying the photochemical processing of the exposed film.
663 615 Schuko socket strip, 5 sockets (safety mains sockets) 1
313 17 Stopclock II, 60 s/0,2 s 1 Recommendation: The Michelson interferometer on the laser optics
649 11 Storage trays 86 x 86 x 26 mm, set 6 1 base plate is ideal for demonstrating the effects of disturbances due
to mechanical shocks or air streaking in unsuitable rooms, which can
661 234 Screw cap bottle, PE, 1000 ml 3
prevent creation of satisfactory holograms.
667 016 Scissors, 200 mm long 1
473 448 Holography film, 3000 lines/mm 1
473 446 Darkroom accessories 1
473 444 Photographic chemicals 1
671 8910 Iron(III)-nitrate-9-hydrate, 250 g 1
672 4910 Potassium bromide, 100 g 1

POLARIZATION OPTICS
P5.4.1
Basic experiments
P5.4.1.1
Polarization of light through reflection at a
glass plate
P5.4.1.2
Fresnels laws of reflection
P5.4.1.3
Polarization of light through scattering in
an emulsion
P5.4.1.4
Malus law
Fresnels laws of reflection (P5.4.1.2)
The fact that light can be polarized is important evidence of the

transversal nature of light waves. Natural light is unpolarized. It con-
P5.4.1.2
P5.4.1.3
P5.4.1.4
P5.4.1.1
sists of mutually independent, unordered waves, each of which has

Cat. No. Description a specific polarization state. Polarization of light is the selection of
waves having a specific polarization state.
477 20 Plate glass cells, 100 x 100 x 10 mm 1 1 1 In the experiment P5.4.1.1, unpolarized light is reflected at a glass
460 25 Prism table on stand rod 1 1 1 surface. When we view this through an analyzer, we see that the re-
450 64 Halogen lamp housing, 12 V, 50 / 90 W 1 1 1 flected light as at least partially polarized. The greatest polarization
is observed when reflection occurs at the polarizing angle (Brewster
450 63 Halogen lamp, 12 V / 90 W 1 1 1
angle) p. The relationship
450 66 Picture slider 1 1 1
tanAp n
521 25 Transformer, 2 ... 12 V, 120 W 1 1 1
460 26 Iris diaphragm 1 1 1 1 gives us the refractive index n of the glass.
472 401 Polarization filter 2 2 2 2 Closer observation leads to Fresnels laws of reflection, which de-
460 03 Lens in frame f = +100 mm 1 1 1 scribe the ratio of reflected to incident amplitude for different direc-
tions of polarization. These laws are quantitatively verified in the ex-
441 53 Translucent screen 1
periment P5.4.1.2.
460 43 Small optical bench 2 2 1 1
The experiment P5.4.1.3 demonstrates that unpolarized light can also
460 40 Swivel joint with protractor scale 1 1
be polarized through scattering in an emulsion, e. g. diluted milk, and
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 6 7 6 6 that polarized light is not scattered uniformly in all directions.
300 01 Stand base, V-shape, 28 cm 2 2 1 1 The aim of the experiment P5.4.1.4 is to derive Maluss law: when
501 33 Connecting lead, 100 cm, black 2 2 2 linearly polarized light falls on an analyzer, the intensity of the trans-
460 08 Lens in frame f = +150 mm 1 mitted light is
578 62 Si Photocell STE 2/19 1 1 I I0 cos2 J
460 21 Holder for plug-in elements 1 1 I0 : intensity of incident light
531 282 Multimeter Metrahit Pro 1 1 J: angle between direction of polarization and analyzer
501 46 Cable, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1

OPTICS POLARIZATION
P5.4.2
Birefringence
P5.4.2.1
Birefringence and polarization with
calcareous spar
P5.4.2.2
Quarter-wavelength and half-wavelength
plate
P5.4.2.3
Photoelasticity: Investigating the distri-
bution of strains in mechanically stressed
bodies
Quarter-wavelength and half-wavelength plate (P5.4.2.2)
The validity of Snells law of refraction is based on the premise that

light propagates in the refracting medium at the same velocity in all
P5.4.2.2
P5.4.2.3
P5.4.2.1
directions. In birefringent media, this condition is only fulfilled for the

Cat. No. Description ordinary component of the light beam (the ordinary ray); the law of
refraction does not apply for the extraordinary ray.
472 02 Iceland spar crystal 1 Theexperiment P5.4.2.1 looks at birefringence of calcite (Iceland
460 25 Prism table on stand rod 1 1 spar). We can observe that the two component rays formed in the
460 26 Iris diaphragm 1 1 crystal are linearly polarized, and that the directions of polarization
are perpendicular to each other.
The experiment P5.4.2.2 investigates the properties of /4 and /2
plates and explains these in terms of their birefringence; it further
demonstrates that the names for these plates refer to the path dif-
441 53 Translucent screen 1 1 1 ference between the ordinary and the extraordinary rays through the
460 32 Optical bench, standard cross section, 1 m 1 1 1 plates.
460 370 Optics rider 60/34 7 7 9 In the experiment P5.4.2.3, the magnitude and direction of mechani-
450 64 Halogen lamp housing, 12 V, 50 / 90 W 1 1 1 cal stresses in transparent plastic models are determined. The plas-
tic models become optically birefringent when subjected to mechan-
450 63 Halogen lamp, 12 V / 90 W 1 1 1
ical stress. Thus, the stresses in the models can be revealed using
450 66 Picture slider 1 1 1
polarization-optical methods. For example, the plastic models are
521 25 Transformer, 2 ... 12 V, 120 W 1 1 1 illuminated in a setup consisting of a polarizer and analyzer arranged
501 46 Cable, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 2 1 at right angles. The stressed points in the plastic models polarize
472 601 Quarter-wavelength plate, 140 nm 2 2 the light elliptically. Thus, the stressed points appear as bright spots
in the field of view. In another configuration, the plastic models are
472 59 Half-wavelength plate 1
illuminated with circularly polarized light and observed using a quar-
468 30 Light filter, 580 nm, yellow 1
ter-wavelength plate and an analyzer. Here too, the stressed points
578 62 Si Photocell STE 2/19 1 appear as bright spots in the field of view.
460 21 Holder for plug-in elements 1
531 282 Multimeter Metrahit Pro 1
471 95 Photoelastic models, set 1
Photoelasticity: Investigating the distribution of strains in mechanically stressed bodies

(P5.4.2.3)

POLARIZATION OPTICS
P5.4.3
Optical activity, polarimetry
P5.4.3.1
Rotation of the plane of polarization with
quartz
P5.4.3.2
Rotation of the plane of polarization with
sugar solutions
P5.4.3.3
Building a half-shadow polarimeter with
discrete elements
P5.4.3.4
Determining the concentration of sugar
solutions with a standard commercial
polarimeter
Rotation of the plane of polarization with sugar solutions (P5.4.3.2)
Optical activity is the property of some substances of rotating the

plane of linearly polarized light as it passes through the material.
P5.4.3.2
P5.4.3.3
P5.4.3.4
P5.4.3.1
The angle of optical rotation is measured using a device called a

Cat. No. Description polarimeter.
The experiment P5.4.3.1 studies the optical activity of crystals, in
472 62 Quartz, parallel 1 this case a quartz crystal. Depending on the direction of intersection
472 64 Quartz, right-handed 1 with respect to the optical axis, the quartz rotates the light clockwise
472 65 Quartz, left-handed 1 (right-handed), counterclockwise (left-handed) or is optically
inactive. The angle of optical rotation is closely dependent on the
wavelength of the light; therefore a yellow filter is used.
450 64 Halogen lamp housing, 12 V, 50 / 90 W 1 1 1
The experiment P5.4.3.2 investigates the optical activity of a sugar
450 63 Halogen lamp, 12 V / 90 W 1 1 1
solution. For a given cuvette length d, the angles of optical rotation
450 66 Picture slider 1 1 1 of optically active solutions are proportional to the concentrationc
521 25 Transformer, 2 ... 12 V, 120 W 1 1 1 of the solution.
468 30 Light filter, 580 nm, yellow 1 1 A ;A = c d
;A =: rotational effect of the optically active sollution
460 03 Lens in frame f = +100 mm 1 1 1
The object of the experiment P5.4.3.3 is to assemble a half-shadow
polarimeter from discrete components. The two main elements are
460 43 Small optical bench 1 1 1
a polarizer and an analyzer, between which the optically active sub-
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 6 6 7 stance is placed. Half the field of view is covered by an additional,
300 01 Stand base, V-shape, 28 cm 1 1 1 polarizing foil, of which the direction of polarization is rotated slightly
501 33 Connecting lead, 100 cm, black 2 2 2 with respect to the first. This facilitates measuring the angle of opti-
477 20 Plate glass cells, 100 x 100 x 10 mm 1 cal rotation.
460 25 Prism table on stand rod 1 1 In the experiment P5.4.3.4, the concentrations of sugar solutions are
measured using a standard commercial polarimeter and compared
468 03 Monochromatic filter, red 1
with the values determined by weighing.
468 07 Monochromatic filter, yellow-green 1
468 11 Monochromatic filter, blue-violet 1
666 963 Spatula with spoon end, 120 x 20 mm 1 1 1
674 6050 D(+)-Saccharose, 100 g 1 1 1
688 107 Polarizing foils 38 mm , set of 2 1
688 109 Slides cover slip 5 x 5 cm, set of 100 1
657 591 Polarimeter 1
664 111 Beaker, 100 ml, tall form 1 Determining the concentration of sugar solutions with a standard commercial polarimeter
OHC S-200E Compact Balance CS-200E, 200 : 0,1 g 1 (P5.4.3.4)

OPTICS POLARIZATION
P5.4.4
Kerr effect
P5.4.4.1
Investigating the Kerr effect in nitrobenzol
Investigating the Kerr effect in nitrobenzol (P5.4.4.1)
In 1875, J. Kerr discovered that electrical fields cause birefringence

in isotropic substances. The birefringence increases quadratically
P5.4.4.1
with the electric field strength. For reasons of symmetry, the opti-
Cat. No. Description cal axis of birefringence lies in the direction of the electric field. The
normal refractive index of the substance is changed to ne for the
473 31 Kerr cell 1 direction of oscillation parallel to the applied field, and to no for the
450 64 Halogen lamp housing, 12 V, 50 / 90 W 1 direction of oscillation perpendicular to it. The experiment results in
the relationship
450 63 Halogen lamp, 12 V / 90 W 1
450 66 Picture slider 1 ne no K L E 2
468 03 Monochromatic filter, red 1 K : Kerr constant
468 05 Monochromatic filter, yellow 1 L: wavelength of light used
468 07 Monochromatic filter, yellow-green 1 E: electic field strength
468 11 Monochromatic filter, blue-violet 1 The experiment P5.4.4.1 demonstrates the Kerr effect for nitroben-
472 401 Polarization filter 2 zol, as the Kerr constant is particularly great for this material. The
460 03 Lens in frame f = +100 mm 1 liquid is filled into a small glass vessel in which a suitable plate ca-
pacitor is mounted. The arrangement is placed between two polari-
460 25 Prism table on stand rod 1
zation filters arranged at right angles, and illuminated with a linearly
441 53 Translucent screen 1 polarized light beam. The field of view is dark when no electric field is
460 32 Optical bench, standard cross section, 1 m 1 applied. When an electric field is applied, the field of view brightens,
460 373 Optics rider 60/50 6 as the light beam is elliptically polarized when passing through the
521 25 Transformer, 2 ... 12 V, 120 W 1
birefringent liquid.
521 70 High voltage power supply, 10 kV 1
501 05 Cable for high voltages, 1 m 2
673 9410 Nitrobenzene, 250 ml 1

POLARIZATION OPTICS
P5.4.5
Pockels effect
P5.4.5.1
Demonstrating the Pockels effect in a
conoscopic beam path
P5.4.5.2
Pockels effect: transmitting information
using modulated light
Demonstrating the Pockels effect in a conoscopic beam path (P5.4.5.1)
The occurrence of birefringence and the alteration of existing bi-

refringence in an electrical field as a linear function of the electric
P5.4.5.2
P5.4.5.1
field strength is known as the Pockels effect. In terms of the vis-

Cat. No. Description ible phenomena, it is related to the Kerr effect. However, due to its
linear dependency on the electric field strength, the Pockels effect
472 90 Pockels cell 1 1 can only occur in crystals without an inversion center, for reasons of
521 70 High voltage power supply, 10 kV 1 1 symmetry.
471 830 He-Ne-Laser, linear polarized 1 1 The experiment P5.4.5.1 demonstrates the Pockels effect in a lithium
niobate crystal placed in a conoscopic beam path. The crystal is illu-
minated with a divergent, linearly polarized light beam, and the trans-
mitted light is viewed behind a perpendicular analyzer. The optical
472 401 Polarization filter 1 1 axis of the crystal, which is birefringent even when no electric field
460 32 Optical bench, standard cross section, 1 m 1 1 is applied, is parallel to the incident and exit surfaces; as a result,
460 370 Optics rider 60/34 5 4 the interference pattern consists of two sets of hyperbolas which are
rotated 90 with respect to each other. The bright lines of the interfer-
ence pattern are due to light rays for which the difference between
300 11 Saddle base 1 1 the optical paths of the extraordinary and ordinary rays is an integral
500 604 Safety connection lead, 10 cm, black 1 multiple of the wavelength . The Pockels effect alters the difference
500 641 Safety connection lead, 100 cm, red 1 1 of the main refractive indices, no - ne, and consequently the position
500 642 Safety connection lead, 100 cm, blue 1 1 of the interference lines. When the so-called half-wave voltage U is
applied, changes by one half wavelength. The dark interference
522 621 Function generator S 12 1
lines move to the position of the bright lines, and vice versa. The
500 98 Safety adapter sockets, black, set of 6 1 process is repeated each time the voltage is increased by U .
578 62 Si Photocell STE 2/19 1 The experiment P5.4.5.2 shows how the Pockels cell can be used
460 21 Holder for plug-in elements 1 to transmit audio-frequency signals. The output signal of a function
522 61 AC / DC Amplifier, 30 W 1 generator with an amplitude of several volts is superposed on a DC
587 08 Broad-band speaker 1 voltage which is applied to the crystal of the Pockels cell. The inten-
sity of the light transmitted by the Pockels cell is modulated by the
500 621 Safety connection lead, 50 cm, red 2
superposed frequency. The received signal is output to a speaker via
501 46 Cable, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 2 an amplifier and thus made audible.

OPTICS POLARIZATION
P5.4.6
Faraday effect
P5.4.6.1
Faraday effect: determining Verdets
constant for flint glass as a function of the
wavelength
Faraday effect: determining Verdets constant for flint glass as a function of the wavelength (P5.4.6.1_b)
Transparent isotropic materials become optically active in a

P5.4.6.1 (b)
magnetic field; in other words, the plane of polarization of lin-

early polarized light rotates when passing through the ma-
Cat. No. Description terial. M. Faraday discovered this effect in 1845 while seek-
ing a relationship between magnetic and optical phenomena.
560 482 Flint glass square with holder 1 The angle of optical rotation of the plane of polarization is propor-
460 381 Rider base with threads 1 tional to the illuminated length s and the magnetic field B.
562 11 U-core with yoke 1 $J V B s
560 31 Bored pole pieces, pair 1 The proportionality constant V is known as Verdets constant, and
562 13 Coil with 250 turns 2 depends on the wavelength of the light and the dispersion.
450 63 Halogen lamp, 12 V / 90 W 1 e dn
V L
450 64 Halogen lamp housing, 12 V, 50 / 90 W 1 2mc 2 dL
450 66 Picture slider 1 For flint glass, the following equation approximately obtains:
468 05 Monochromatic filter, yellow 1 dn 1.8 10 14 m2

468 09 Monochromatic filter, blue-green 1 dL L3
468 11 Monochromatic filter, blue-violet 1 In the experiment P5.4.6.1, the magnetic field is initially calibrated
468 13 Monochromatic filter, violet 1 with reference to the current through the electromagnets using
460 02 Lens in frame f = +50 mm 1 a magnetic field probe, and then the Faraday effect in a flint glass
472 401 Polarization filter 2
square is investigated. To improve measuring accuracy, the magnet-
ic field is reversed each time and twice the angle of optical rotation is
measured. The proportionality between the angle of optical rotation
460 32 Optical bench, standard cross section, 1 m 1 and the magnetic field and the decrease of Verdets constant with the
460 373 Optics rider 60/50 5 wavelength are verified.
521 39 Variable extra-low voltage transformer 1
531 282 Multimeter Metrahit Pro 1
524 009 Mobile-CASSY 1
524 0381 Combi B Sensor S 1
501 11 Extension cable, 15-pole 1
300 41 Stand rod 25 cm, 12 mm 1
501 45 Cable, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1
501 461 Cable, 100 cm, black, pair 1

LIGHT INTENSITY OPTICS
P5.5.1
Quantities and measuring
methods of lighting engineer-
ing
P5.5.1.1
Determining the radiant flux density and
the luminous intensity of a halogen lamp
P5.5.1.2
Determining the luminous intensity as
a function of the distance from the light
source - Recording and evaluating with
CASSY
P5.5.1.3
Verifying Lamberts law of radiation
Determining the luminous intensity as a function of the distance from the light source - Recording and evaluating
with CASSY (P5.5.1.2_a)
There are two types of physical quantities used to character-

P5.5.1.2 (a)
ize the brightness of light sources: quantities which refer to the

P5.5.1.3
P5.5.1.1
physics of radiation, which describe the energy radiation in terms

Cat. No. Description of measurements, and quantities related to lighting engineer-
ing, which describe the subjectively perceived brightness un-
450 64 Halogen lamp housing, 12 V, 50 / 90 W 1 1 der consideration of the spectral sensitivity of the human eye.
450 63 Halogen lamp, 12 V / 90 W 1 1 The first group includes the irradiance Ee, which is the radiated pow-
er per unit of area e. The corresponding unit of measure is watts
450 66 Picture slider 1
per square meter. The comparable quantity in lighting engineering is
468 03 Monochromatic filter, red 1
illuminance E, i. e. the emitted luminous flux per unit of area , and it
521 25 Transformer, 2 ... 12 V, 120 W 1 1 is measured in lumens per square meter, or lux for short.
557 36 Molls thermopile 1 1 In the experiment P5.5.1.1, the irradiance is measured using the
532 13 Microvoltmeter 1 1 Molls thermopile, and the luminous flux is measured using a luxm-
666 243 Lux sensor 1 1 eter. The luxmeter is matched to the spectral sensitivity of the human
524 0511 Lux adapter S 1 1
eye V () by means of a filter placed in front of the photoelement. A
halogen lamp serves as the light source. From its spectrum, most of
524 009 Mobile-CASSY 1
the visible light is screened out using a color filter; subsequently, a
460 03 Lens in frame f = +100 mm 1 1 heat filter is used to absorb the infrared component of the radiation
The experiment P5.5.1.2 demonstrates that the luminous intensity is
590 13 Insulated stand rod, 25 cm 1 1 proportional to the square of the distance between a point-type light
590 02ET2 Clip plug, small, set of 2 1 1 source and the illuminated surface
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 3 2 4 The aim of the experiment P5.5.1.3 is to investigate the angular dis-
300 02 Stand base, V-shape, 20 cm 1 1 tribution of the reflected radiation from a diffusely reflecting surface,
501 46 Cable, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1
e.g. matte white paper. To the observer, the surface appears uni-
formly bright; however, the apparent surface area varies with the cos
501 33 Connecting lead, 100 cm, black 2 2
of the viewing angle. The dependency of the luminous intensity is
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 described by Lamberts law of radiation:
Ee F Ee 0 cos F
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
450 68 Halogen lamp, 12 V / 50 W 1
460 40 Swivel joint with protractor scale 1
additionally required: PC with Windows XP/Vista/7 1

OPTICS LIGHT INTENSITY
P5.5.2
U
V 5
4
Laws of radiation
3
2 P5.5.2.1
1 Stefan-Boltzmann law: measuring the
0
0 10 20 radiant intensity of a black body as a
T 4 - T04
K4 function of temperature
P5.5.2.2
Stefan-Boltzmann law: measuring the
radiant intensity of a black body as a
function of temperature - Recording and
evaluating with CASSY
P5.5.2.3
Confirming the laws of radiation with
Leslies cube
Stefan-Boltzmann law: measuring the radiant intensity of a black body as a function of temperature (P5.5.2.1)
The total radiated power MB of a black body increases in propor-

tion to the fourth power of its absolute temperature T (Stefan-Boltz-
P5.5.2.2
P5.5.2.3
P5.5.2.1
manns law).
Cat. No. Description MB S T 4
555 81 Electric oven, 230 V 1 1 S 5.67 10-8 W m-2 K -4 : (Stefan-Boltzmann's constant)
389 43 Black body accessory 1 1 For all other bodies, the radiated power M is less than that of the
502 061 Safety connection box with ground 1 1
black body, and depends on the properties of the surface of the
body. The emittance of the body is described by the relationship
555 84 Support for electric oven 1 1 1
M
666 190 Digital thermometer with one input 1 1 E
MB
666 193 Temperature sensor, NiCr-Ni 1 1
M: radiated power of body
557 36 Molls thermopile 1 1 1
532 13 Microvoltmeter 1 1 In the two experiments P5.5.2.1 and P5.5.2.2, a cylindrical electric
oven with a burnished brass cylinder is used as a black body. The
brass cylinder is heated in the oven to the desired temperature be-
300 01 Stand base, V-shape, 28 cm 1 1 1
tween 300 and 750 K. A thermocouple is used to measure the tem-
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 4 4 3 perature. A water-coolable screen is positioned in front of the oven
666 555 Universal clamp, 0 ... 80 mm 1 1 to ensure that the setup essentially measures only the temperature of
501 46 Cable, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1 1 the burnished brass cylinder. The measurement is conducted using
a Molls thermopile; its output voltage provides a relative measure of
388 181 Immersion pump, 12 V 1* 1*
the radiated power M. The thermopile can be connected either to an
521 231 Low-voltage power supply 1* 1* amplifier or, via the V box, to the CASSY computer interface device.
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 x 1.5 mm, 1 m 1* 1* In the former case, the measurement must by carried out manually,
604 313 Wide-mouthed can, 10 l 1* 1* point by point; the latter configuration enables computer-assisted
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 measuring and evaluation. The aim of the evaluation is to confirm
Stefan-Boltzmanns law.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
The experiment P5.5.2.3 uses a radiation cube after Leslie (Leslies
524 0673 NiCr-Ni Adapter S 1
cube). This cube has four different face surfaces (metallic matte,
529 676 NiCr-Ni temperature sensor 1.5 mm 1
metallic shiny, black finish and white finish), which can be heated
524 040 V box 1 from the inside to almost 100 C by filling the cube with boiling water.
389 261 Leslies cube with Stirrer 1 The heat radiated by each of the surfaces is measured as a function
303 25 Safety immersion heater 1 of the falling temperature. The aim of the evaluation is to compare the
emittances of the cube faces.
590 06 Plastic beaker, 1000 ml 1
665 009 Funnel, PP, 75 mm 1
additionally required: PC with Windows XP/Vista/7 1
*additionally recommended

VELOCITY OF LIGHT OPTICS
P5.6.1
Measurement according to
Foucault/Michelson
P5.6.1.1
Determining the velocity of light by means
of the rotating-mirror method according to
Foucault and Michelson - Measuring the
image shift as a function of the rotational
speed of the mirror
P5.6.1.2
Determining the velocity of light by means
of the rotating-mirror method according
to Foucault and Michelson - Measuring
the image shift for the maximum rotational
speed of the mirror
Determining the velocity of light by means of the rotating-mirror method according to Foucault and Michelson
- Measuring the image shift as a function of the rotational speed of the mirror (P5.6.1.1)
Measurement of the velocity of light by means of the rotary mirror

method utilizes a concept first proposed by L. Foucault in 1850 and
P5.6.1.2
P5.6.1.1
perfected by A. A. Michelson in 1878. In the variation utilized here,

Cat. No. Description a laser beam is deviated into a fixed end mirror located next to the
light source via a rotating mirror set up at a distance of a =12.1 m.
476 40 Rotary mirror with motor 230 V 1 1 The end mirror reflects the light so that it returns along the same path
471 830 He-Ne-Laser, linear polarized 1 1 when the rotary mirror is at rest. Part of the returning light is imaged
on a scale using a beam divider. A lens with f = 5 m images the light
463 20 Front-silvered mirror 1 1
source on the end mirror and focuses the image of the light source
460 12 Lens in frame f = +5 m 1 1 from the mirror on the scale. The main beam between the lens and
471 88 Beam splitter 1 1 the end mirror is parallel to the axis of the lens, as the rotary mirror is
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 1 set up in the focal point of the lens.
311 09 Glass scale, l = 5 cm 1 1 Once the rotary mirror is turning at a high frequency , the shift x of
521 40 Variable low voltage transformer, 0 ... 250 V 1 the image on the scale is observed. In the period
575 212 Two-channel oscilloscope 400 1 2a
$t
559 921 Semiconductor detector 1 c
501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 1 which the light requires to travel to the rotary mirror and back to the
501 10 BNC straight 1 end mirror, the rotary mirror turns by the angle
300 41 Stand rod 25 cm, 12 mm 1 $A 2Pv $t
300 42 Stand rod 47 cm, 12 mm 1 1 Thus, the image shift is
300 44 Stand rod 100 cm, 12 mm 1 1 $x 2$A a
300 01 Stand base, V-shape, 28 cm 1 1 The velocity of light can then be calculated as
300 02 Stand base, V-shape, 20 cm 4 4 v
c 8P a 2
300 11 Saddle base 1 $x
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 2 2 To determine the velocity of light, it is sufficient to measure the shift
301 09 Bosshead S 1 in the image at the maximum speed of the mirror, which is known
311 02 Metal rule, l = 1 m 1 1 (P5.6.1.2). Measuring the image shift as a function of the speed sup-
plies more precise results (P5.6.1.1).
537 35 Rheostat 330 Ohm 1
537 36 Rheostat 1000 Ohm 1
502 05 Measuring junction box 1
504 48 Two-way switch 1
500 644 Safety connection lead, 100 cm, black 5

OPTICS VELOCITY OF LIGHT
P5.6.2
Measuring with short light

pulses
P5.6.2.1
Determining the velocity of light in air from
the path and transit time of a short light
pulse
P5.6.2.2
Determining the propagation velocity of
voltage pulses in coaxial cables
Determining the velocity of light in air from the path and transit time of a short light pulse (P5.6.2.1)
The light velocity measuring instrument emits pulses of light with a

pulse width of about 20 ns. After traversing a known measuring dis-
P5.6.2.2
P5.6.2.1
tance in both directions, the light pulses are converted into voltage
Cat. No. Description pulses for observation on the oscilloscope.
In the experiment P5.6.2.1, the path of the light pulses is aried once,
476 50 Velocity of light measurement set (VLM) 1 1 and the change in the transit time is measured with the oscilloscope.
460 10 Lens in frame f = +200 mm 1 The velocity of light can then be calculated as quotient of the change
460 335 Optical bench, standard cross section, 0.5 m 1 in the transit distance and the change in the transit time. Alterna-
tively, the total transit time of the light pulses can be measured in ab-
460 374 Optics rider 90/50 2
solute terms using a reference pulse. In this case, the velocity of light
575 212 Two-channel oscilloscope 400 1 1
can be calculated as quotient of the transit distance and the transit
501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 3 2 time. A quartz-controlled oscilloscope signal can be displayed on
311 02 Metal rule, l = 1 m 1 the instrument simultaneously with the measuring pulse in order to
300 01 Stand base, V-shape, 28 cm 1 calibrate timing. Time measurement is then independent of the time
base of the oscilloscope.
300 44 Stand rod 100 cm, 12 mm 1
In the experiment P5.6.2.2, the propagation velocity of voltage pulses
in coaxial cables is determined. In this configuration, the reference
501 024 BNC cable, 10 m 1
pulses of the light velocity measuring instrument are output to an
501 091 BNC T adapter 1 oscilloscope and additionally fed into a 10 m long coaxial cable via a
501 10 BNC straight 1 T-connector. After reflection at the cable end, the pulses return to the
575 35 Adapter BNC/4 mm socket, 2-pole 1 oscilloscope, delayed by the transit time. The propagation velocity
can be calculated from the double cable length and the time differ-
577 79 STE Regulation resistor 1 kOhm 1
ence between the direct and reflected voltage pulses. By inserting
577 28 Resistor 47 Ohm, STE 2/19 1 these values in the equation
c
v c: velocity of light in a vacuum
Er
we obtain the relative dielectricity r of the insulator be-
tween the inner and outer conductors of the coaxial cable.
By using a variable terminating resistor R at the cable end, it be-
comes possible to additionally measure the reflection behaviour of
voltage pulses. In particular, the special cases open cable end (no
phase shift at reflection), shorted cable end (phase shift due to
reflection) and termination of cable end with the 50 characteristic
wave impedance (no reflection) are of special interest here.
Schematic diagram of light velocity measurement with short light pulses (P5.6.2.1)

VELOCITY OF LIGHT OPTICS
P5.6.3
Measuring with an electroni-
cally modulated signal
P5.6.3.1
Determining the velocity of light using a
periodical light signal at a short measuring
distance
P5.6.3.2
Determining the velocity of light in various
materials
Determining the velocity of light in various materials (P5.6.3.2_c)
In determining the velocity of light with an electronically modulated

P5.6.3.2 (b)
P5.6.3.2 (a)
P5.6.3.2 (c)
signal, a light emitting diode which pulses at a frequency of 60 MHz

P5.6.3.1
is used as the light transmitter. The receiver is a photodiode which

Cat. No. Description converts the light signal into a 60 MHz AC voltage. A connecting lead
transmits a reference signal to the receiver which is synchronized
476 301 Light transmitter and receiver 1 1 1 1 with the transmitted signal and in phase with it at the start of the
575 223 Two-Channel Oscilloscope HM1500 1 1 1 1 measurement. The receiver is then moved by the measuring distance
s, so that the received signal is phase-shifted by the additional tran-
460 08 Lens in frame f = +150 mm 1 1 1 1
sit time t of the light signal.
300 11 Saddle base 2 4 3 3
$J 2P f1 $t where f1 60 MHz
311 02 Metal rule, l = 1 m 1 1 1 1
476 35 Tube with 2 end-windows 1 Alternatively, a medium with a greater index of refraction can be
placed in the beam path. The apparent transit time to be measured
is increased by means of an electronic trick. The received signal
460 25 Prism table on stand rod 1 1
and the reference signal are each mixed (multiplied) with a 59.9 MHz
671 9720 Ethanol, denaturated, 1 l 1 signal before being fed through a frequency filter which only passes
672 1210 Glycerine, 99%, 250 ml 1 the low frequency components with the differential frequency f1 f 2
476 34 Acrylic glass block 1 = 0.1 MHz. This mixing has no effect on the phase shift; however, this
phase shift is now for a transit time t increased by a factor of
f1
600
f1 f2
In the experiment P5.6.3.1, the apparent transit time t is measured
as a function of the measuring distance s, and the velocity of light
in the air is calculated according to the formula
$s f
c 1
$t ' f1 f2
The experiment P5.6.3.2 determines the velocity of light in various
propagation media. In the way of accessories, this experiment re-
quires a tube 1 m long with two end windows, suitable for filling with
water, a glass cell 5 cm wide for other liquids and an acrylic glass
body 5 cm wide.
Block circuit diagram

OPTICS VELOCITY OF LIGHT
P5.6.3
Measuring with an electroni-

cally modulated signal
P5.6.3.3
Determining the velocity of light using a
periodical light signal at a short measuring
distance - measuring with the laser motion
sensor S and CASSY
P5.6.3.4
Determining the velocity of light for
different propagation media - measuring
with the laser motion sensor S and CASSY
Determining the velocity of light using a periodical light signal at a short measuring distance - measuring with the
laser motion sensor S and CASSY (P5.6.3.3)
Modern distance meters use a periodically modulated laser beam for

the measurement. They determine the phase shift between the emit-
P5.6.3.3
P5.6.3.4
ted and the reflected modulated laser beam and, with the modulation
Cat. No. Description frequency being known, obtain the time-of-flight t of the light on its
path to and back from the reflector. Only afterwards do the distance
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 1 meters calculate the distance with the aid of the known velocity of
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 light.
524 073 Laser motion sensor S 1 1 In the experment P5.6.3.3, the laser motion sensor S is used as a
time-of-flight meter because it is also capable of outputting the time-
337 116 End buffers, pair 1 1
of-flight t directly. The proportionality between the distance and the
311 02 Metal rule, l = 1 m 1
time-of-flight of light is confirmed, and the velocity of light is calcu-
477 03 Plate glass cells, 50 x 50 x 50 mm 1 lated.
476 34 Acrylic glass block 1 In the experiment P5.6.3.4 water and acrylic glass of thickness d are
additionally required: held into the path of the beam, and then the resulting increase of the
1 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7 time-of-flight t is measured. With the velocity of light c in air meas-
ured in the experiment P5.6.3.3, the velocity of light cM in matter can
now be determined:
2d 1
cM 2d $t
c 1 $t
c 2d
Finally, the refractive index n is determined according to
c 1 $t c
n c 1
cM c 2d 2d $t

SPECTROMETER OPTICS
P5.7.1
Prism spectrometer
P5.7.1.1
Measuring the line spectra of inert
gases and metal vapors using a prism
spectrometer
Measuring the line spectra of inert gases and metal vapors using a prism spectrometer (P5.7.1.1)
To assemble the prism spectrometer, a flint glass prism is placed

on the prism table of a goniometer. The light of the light source to
P5.7.1.1
be studied passes divergently through a collimator and is incident

Cat. No. Description on the prism as a parallel light beam. The arrangement exploits the
wavelength-dependency of the refractive index of the prism glass:
467 23 Spectrometer and goniometer 1 the light is refracted and each wavelength is deviated by a different
451 031 Spectrum lamp He 1 angle. The deviated beams are observed using a telescope focused
on infinity which is mounted on a slewable arm; this allows the posi-
451 041 Spectrum lamp Cd 1
tion of the telescope to be determined to within a minute of arc. The
451 16 Housing for spectrum lamps 1 refractive index is not linearly dependent on the wavelength; thus,
451 30 Universal choke 1 the spectrometer must be calibrated. This is done using e.g. an He
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 spectral lamp, as its spectral lines are known and distributed over
300 02 Stand base, V-shape, 20 cm 1 the entire visible range.
451 011 Spectrum lamp Ne 1* In the experiment P5.7.1.1, the spectrometer is used to observe the
spectral lines of inert gases and metal vapors which have been
451 071 Spectrum lamp Hg-Cd 1*
excited to luminance. To identify the initially unknown spec-
451 081 Spectrum lamp Tl 1* tral lines, the angles of deviation are measured and then convert-
451 111 Spectrum lamp Na 1* ed to the corresponding wavelength using the calibration curve.
Note: as an alternative to the prism spectrometer, the goniometer
can also be used to set up a grating spectrometer (see P5.7.2.1)
Ray path in a grating prism spectrometer

OPTICS SPECTROMETER
P5.7.2
Grating spectrometer
P5.7.2.1
Measuring the line spectra of inert
gases and metal vapors using a grating
spectrometer
Measuring the line spectra of inert gases and metal vapors using a grating spectrometer (P5.7.2.1)
To create a grating spectrometer, a copy of a Rowland grating is

mounted on the prism table of the goniometer in place of the prism.
P5.7.2.1
The ray path in the grating spectrometer is essentially analogous to

Cat. No. Description that of the prism spectrometer (see P 5.7.1.1). However, in this con-
figuration the deviation of the rays by the grating is proportional to
467 23 Spectrometer and goniometer 1 the wavelength:
471 23 Ruled grating 6000/cm (Rowland) 1 sin $A n g L
451 031 Spectrum lamp He 1 n: diffraction order
451 111 Spectrum lamp Na 1 g: grating constant
451 16 Housing for spectrum lamps 1 L: waveleength
451 30 Universal choke 1 $A: angel of deviation of nth-order spectral line
Consequently, the wavelengths of the observed spectral lines can be
300 02 Stand base, V-shape, 20 cm 1 calculated directly from the measured angles of deviation.
451 011 Spectrum lamp Ne 1* In the experiment P5.7.2.1, the grating spectrometer is used
451 041 Spectrum lamp Cd 1* to observe the spectral lines of inert gases and metal vapors
451 071 Spectrum lamp Hg-Cd 1* which have been excited to luminance. To identify the initial-
ly unknown spectral lines, the angles of deviation are meas-
451 081 Spectrum lamp Tl 1*
ured and then converted to the corresponding wavelength.
*additionally recommended The resolution of the grating spectrometer is sufficient to de-
termine the distance between the two yellow sodium D-lines
(D1)(D2)=0,60 nm with an accuracy of 0.10 nm. However, this
high resolution is achieved at the cost of a loss of intensity, as a sig-
nificant part of the radiation is lost in the undiffracted zero order and
the rest is distributed over multiple diffraction orders on both sides
of the zero order.
Ray path in a grating spectrometer

SPECTROMETER OPTICS
P5.7.2
P5.7.2.2
Assembling a grating spectrometer for
measuring transmission curves
P5.7.2.3
Assembling a grating spectrometer for
measuring spectral lines
Assembling a grating spectrometer for measuring spectral lines (P5.7.2.3)
When used in conjunction with a grating spectrometer, the single-

P5.7.2.2 (b)
line CCD camera VideoCom is ideal for relative measurements of

P5.7.2.3
spectral intensity distributions. In such measurements, each pixel of

Cat. No. Description the CCD camera is assigned a wavelength
L d sin A
337 47USB VideoCom USB 1 1
in the first diffraction order of the grating. The spec-
460 32 Optical bench, standard cross section, 1 m 1 1 trometer is assembled on the optical bench using individ-
460 335 Optical bench, standard cross section, 0.5 m 1 1 ual components. The grating in this experiment is a copy of
460 341 Swivel joint with circular scale 1 1 a Rowland grating with approx. 6000 lines/cm. The diffrac-
471 23 Ruled grating 6000/cm (Rowland) 1 1 tion pattern behind the grating is observed with VideoCom.
The VideoCom software makes possible comparison of two intensity
460 14 Adjustable slit 1 1
distributions, and thus recording of transmission curves of color fil-
460 08 Lens in frame f = +150 mm 2 1
ters or other light-permeable bodies. The spectral intensity distribu-
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 1 tion of a light source is measured both with and without filter, and
460 373 Optics rider 60/50 5 5 the ratio of the two measurements is graphed as a function of the
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 wavelength.
450 511 Incandescent lamps 6 V, 30 W, E14, set of 2 1 The experiment P5.7.2.2 records the transmission curves of color
filters. It is revealed that simple filters are permeable for a very broad
wavelength range within the visible spectrum of light, while so-called
line filters have a very narrow permeability range.
467 95 Filter set, primary colours 1
In the experiment P5.7.2.3, a grating spectrometer is assembled to
467 96 Filter set, secondary colours 1
observe the spectral lines of inert gases and metal vapors which
468 03 Monochromatic filter, red 1* have been excited to luminance. The wavelength and intensity of the
468 05 Monochromatic filter, yellow 1* spectral lines are measured and compared with literature.
468 07 Monochromatic filter, yellow-green 1*
468 09 Monochromatic filter, blue-green 1*
451 031 Spectrum lamp He 1
451 111 Spectrum lamp Na 1
451 16 Housing for spectrum lamps 1
451 30 Universal choke 1
451 011 Spectrum lamp Ne 1*
451 041 Spectrum lamp Cd 1*
451 071 Spectrum lamp Hg-Cd 1*
451 081 Spectrum lamp Tl 1* Transmissions curves of various color filters (P5.7.2.2)
additionally required: PC with Windows 2000/XP/Vista 1 1
OPTICS SPECTROMETER
P5.7.2
P5.7.2.4
Determination the grating constants of the
holographic grating with an He-Ne-Laser
P5.7.2.5
Investigating the spectrum of a xenon lamp
with a holographic grating
Investigating the spectrum of a xenon lamp with a holographic grating (P5.7.2.5_b)
To assemble a grating spectrometer with very high resolution and

P5.7.2.5 (b)
P5.7.2.5 (a)
high efficiency a holographic reflection grating with 24000 lines/cm

P5.7.2.4
is used. The loss of intensity is small compared to a transmission

Cat. No. Description grating.
In the experiment P5.7.2.4 the grating constant of the holographic
471 830 He-Ne-Laser, linear polarized 1 reflection grating is determined for different values of the angle of
460 01 Lens in frame f = +5 mm 1 incidence. The light source used is a He-Ne-Laser with the wave-
460 09 Lens in frame f = +300 mm 1 1 1 length =632.8nm. The best value is achieved for the special case
where angle of incidence and angle of diffraction are the same, the
460 13 Projection objective 1 1 1
so called Littrow condition.
471 27 Holographic grating in frame 1 1 1
In the experiment P5.7.2.5 the spectrum of a xenon lamp is investi-
441 531 Screen 1 1 1
gated. The diffraction pattern behind the holographic grating is re-
460 335 Optical bench, standard cross section, 0.5 m 1 1 1 corded by varying the position of a screen or a photocell. The cor-
460 32 Optical bench, standard cross section, 1 m 1 1 1 responding diffraction angle is read of the circular scale of the rail
460 341 Swivel joint with circular scale 1 1 1 connector or measured by a rotary motion sensor. It is revealed that
the spectrum of the lamp which appears white to the eye consists of
460 374 Optics rider 90/50 5 5 6
a variety of different spectral lines.
450 80 Xenon lamp 1 1
450 83 Power supply unit for Xenon lamp 1 1
460 14 Adjustable slit 1 1
460 382 Tilting rider 90/50 1 1
501 25 Connecting lead, 50 cm, red 1 1
501 26 Connecting lead, 50 cm, blue 1 1
461 62 Slit diaphragms, set of 2 1
578 62 Si Photocell STE 2/19 1
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
524 082 Rotary motion sensor S 1
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7

PHOTONICS OPTICS
P5.8.1
Helium-neon laser
P5.8.1.1
Setting up a He-Ne laser
P5.8.1.2
Measuring of wavelength, polarization and
beam profile
P5.8.1.3
Determining the beam diameter inside the
resonator
P5.8.1.4
Dependence of the output power on
the position of the laser tube inside the
resonator
Setting up a He-Ne laser (P5.8.1.1)
The He-Ne laser is a type of gas laser. The gain medium is a

mixture of helium and neon gases. The energy source is pro-
P5.8.1.2
P5.8.1.3
P5.8.1.4
P5.8.1.1
vided by an electrical discharge induced by an high voltage ap-

Cat. No. Description plied to the tube. The optical cavity consists of two high-re-
flecting mirrors providing the amplification of the radiation.
471 810 Basic set He-Ne Laser 1 1 1 1 Using discrete elements for the setup the influence of each on the
460 33 Optical bench, standard cross section, 2 m 1 1 1 1 emitted radiation can be analysed.
460 02 Lens in frame f = +50 mm 1 1 In experiment P5.8.1.1 an He-Ne laser is set up using discrete ele-
ments. By means of an adjusting laser the laser tube and the two
high-reflecting mirrors are aligned. Then, the laser tub is part of
460 21 Holder for plug-in elements 1 1 1
a stable optical cavity. The emitted light intensity is optimized by
578 62 Si Photocell STE 2/19 1 1 1 beam walking.
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1 1 1 The propagation of laser light can be described as Gaussian beams.
441 531 Screen 1 1 1 1 In the experiment P5.8.1.2 two typical parameters of an Gaussian
500 444 Connecting lead, 100 cm, black 2 2 2 beam are determined: the beam profile and the beam divergence of
the radiation emitted by an He-Ne laser. To analyse the beam profile
471 828 Adjustment goggles for He-Ne-laser 1* 1* 1* 1*
an aparture is moved across the laser beam and the optical power
610 071 Safety gloves medium 1* 1* 1* 1*
behind the aparture is measured. This measurement is repeated for
604 580 Tweezers, pointed, 115 mm, PMP 1* 1* 1* 1* several distances from the outcoupler. From these the beam diver-
604 110 Wash bottle, 100 ml 1* 1* 1* 1* gence is determined.
305 00 Lens cleaner 1* 1* 1* 1* In the experiment P5.8.1.3 the intensity distribution inside the optical
675 3400 Water, pure, 1 l 1* 1* 1* 1* cavity is examined. A vernier calliper is used to measure the beam
diameter at different positions inside the optical cavity. The results
674 4400 2-Propanol, 250 ml 1* 1* 1* 1*
are compared to the theoretical values.
460 383 Sliding rider 90/50 1
In experiment P5.8.1.4 the influence of the position of the laser tube
472 401 Polarization filter 1
in the optical cavity on the emitted laser power is determined. It turns
460 22 Holder with spring clips 1 out that the emitted power is the higher the better the intensity dis-
471 23 Ruled grating 6000/cm (Rowland) 1 tribution inside the cavity matches the dimensions of the gain me-
311 02 Metal rule, l = 1 m 1 dium.
311 54 Precision vernier callipers 1
470 103 Laser mirror, HR, R = -1000 nm 1* 1*
471 020 Holder for laser mirror 1* 1*
additionally required for adjusting the laser:
1 1 1
complete equipment from experiment P5.8.1.1

OPTICS PHOTONICS
P5.8.1
Helium-neon laser
P5.8.1.5
Stability condition of an optical resonator
P5.8.1.6
Excitation of different transverse modes
P5.8.1.7
Investigating the beam profile
Investigating the beam profile (P5.8.1.7)
In experiment P5.8.1.5 the stability condition for optical cavities is

verified. The stability condition determines at which mirror distanc-
P5.8.1.5
P5.8.1.6
P5.8.1.7
es a stable optical cavity can be set up for the mirror radii used.
Cat. No. Description To check the stability condition the mirror distance is gradually in-
creased. Each time, the laser power is measured. Beyond the stabil-
471 810 Basic set He-Ne Laser 1 1 1 ity region no laser activity can be observed.
460 33 Optical bench, standard cross section, 2 m 1 1 1 In the experiment P5.8.1.6 different transverse modes of the opti-
460 21 Holder for plug-in elements 1 cal cavity are excited. For this, losses for the fundamental mode are
increased by bringing a thin absorber into the cavity. Then, higher
578 62 Si Photocell STE 2/19 1
transverse modes with a minimum of the intensity distribution at this
531 120 Multimeter LDanalog 20 1
position can be excited and the intensity distribution determined.
In the experiment P5.8.1.7 different transverse modes of the laser
471 828 Adjustment goggles for He-Ne-laser 1* 1* 1* resonator are excited. The beam profile, i.e. the intensity distribution
470 103 Laser mirror, HR, R = -1000 nm 1* 1 at right angles to the beam direction of the laser beam, of the base
471 020 Holder for laser mirror 1* 1 mode TEM00 and higher transverse modes are measured by means
of a beam profiler and are analysed.
610 071 Safety gloves medium 1* 1* 1*
604 580 Tweezers, pointed, 115 mm, PMP 1* 1* 1*
604 110 Wash bottle, 100 ml 1* 1* 1*
305 00 Lens cleaner 1* 1* 1*
675 3400 Water, pure, 1 l 1* 1* 1*
674 4400 2-Propanol, 250 ml 1* 1* 1*
460 383 Sliding rider 90/50 1 1
441 531 Screen 1 1
470 201 Beamprofiler 1
additionally required for adjusting the laser:
1 1 1
complete equipment from experiment P5.8.1.1
3D display of the laser profile

PHOTONICS OPTICS
P5.8.5
Technical applications
P5.8.5.1
Laser Doppler Anemometry with CASSY
Laser Doppler Anemometry with CASSY (P5.8.5.1)
In many technical applications the special properties of lasers as

high spatial and temporal coherence, small spectral width and small
P5.8.5.1
beam divergence are used.

Cat. No. Description Laser Doppler anemometry is a non-contact optical measurement
method to obtain the velocity of a flow (fluid, gas). In the experiment
471 821 He-Ne-laser head, 5 mW 1 P5.8.5.1 a laser Doppler anemometer is assembled. Measurements
471 825 Power supply for He-Ne-laser 5 mW 1 of the flow velocity of a fluid in a tube are conducted by measur-
470 010 Laser holder for He-Ne-Laser 5 mW 1 ing the velocity of small particles carried along in the flow. Moving
through the measuring volume the particals scatter light of a laser.
473 431 Holder for beam divider 1
The scattered light is frequency shifted due to the Doppler effect.
473 432 Beam divider 50 % 1
The frequency shift is determined and converted into the particle
473 461 Planar mirror with fine adjustment 1 velocity, i.e. the flow velocity.
P5.8.5.1

460 26 Iris diaphragm 1 Cat. No. Description
461 63 Diaphragms, set of 4 different 1

683 70 Reflecting particles of glass, 10 g 1
469 96 Diaphragm with 3 diffracting holes 1
664 146 Reaction tube, 200 x 8 mm dia., quartz 1
602 404 Separation funnel, 500 ml 1
460 335 Optical bench, standard cross section, 0.5 m 1
604 433 Silicone tubing, 7 x 2 mm, 1 m 2
460 32 Optical bench, standard cross section, 1 m 1
667 175 Tubing clamp after Hofmann, 20 mm 1
460 374 Optics rider 90/50 10
604 5672 Micro spatula, 150 mm 1
602 010 Beaker, 150 ml, tall form 1
460 385 Extension rod 1
604 215 Measuring beaker, clear SAN, 500 ml 1
311 77 Steel tape measure, l = 2 m/78 1
300 44 Stand rod 100 cm, 12 mm 1
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
666 546 Stand ring with clamp, 100 mm 1
558 835 Silicon photodetector 1
500 401 Connecting lead, 10 cm, red 1
522 61 AC / DC Amplifier, 30 W 1
577 68 Resistor 100 kOhm, STE 2/19 1
471 828 Adjustment goggles for He-Ne-laser 1*
575 24 Screened cable BNC/4 mm plug 1
1
501 641 Two-way adapters, red, set of 6 1 PC with Windows 2000/XP/Vista
590 02ET2 Clip plug, small, set of 2 1

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OPTICS

Geometrical optics 165

WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS 163

P5.1 Geometrical optics 165 P5.6 Velocity of light 194

P5.4 Polarization 186

P5.5 Light intensity 192

164 PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM

Reflection, refraction (P5.1.1)

Frequently, the propagation of light can be adequately described

light in mirrors, in lenses and in prisms using sectional models.

WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS 165

The focal lengths of lenses are determined by a variety of means. The

basis for these are the laws of imaging.

In the experiment P5.1.2.1, an observation screen is set up parallel to

166 PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM

Spherical aberration in lens imaging (P5.1.3.1)

Intersections of paraxial and abaxial rays

WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS 167

Keplers telescope and Galileos telescope (P5.1.4.2)

The magnifier, the microscope and the telescope are introduced as

design principle of each of these instruments is reproduced on the

168 PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM

Refractive index and dispersi-

Determining the refractive index and dispersion of liquids (P5.2.1.2)

WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS 169

Newtons experiments on dispersion and recombination of white light (P5.2.2.1)

The discovery that white sunlight is made up of light of different

perception of color. Isaac Newton, in particular, conducted numer-

170 PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM

Additive and subtractive color mixing (P5.2.3.1)

The colour recognition of the human eye is determined by

son of the different colours (wavelength ranges) of the vis-

Additive color mixing Subtractive color mixing

WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS 171

Absorption spectra of tinted glass samples (P5.2.4.1)

The colors we perceive when looking through colored glass or liquids

In the experiment P5.2.4.1, the light passing through colored pieces

172 PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM

In the experiment P5.2.4.3, the light from an incandescent light

spectrometer and compared with the continuous spectrum of the

Absorption and fluorescence spectra of coloured liquids (P5.2.4.4)

WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS 173

The colors we perceive of opaque objects are induced by the re-

In the experiment P5.2.5.1, the light from an incandescent light bulb

174 PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM

Diffraction at a double slit and multiple slits (P5.3.1.2)

The experiment P5.3.1.1 looks at the intensity minima for diffraction

width b is given by the relationship

WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS 175

Diffraction at a single slit - Recording and evaluating with CASSY (P5.3.1.4)

A photoelement with a narrow light opening is used to measure the

176 PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM

Diffraction at a single slit P5.3.1.6 or multiple slits P5.3.1.7 can also

469 86 Diaphragm with 5 multiple slits 1

Measured (black) and calculated (red) intensity distributions (P5.3.1.6, P5.3.1.8)

WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS 177

Investigation of the spatial coherence of an extended light source (P5.3.1.9)

Coherence is the property of waves that enables them to exhibit sta-

can be examined in a Youngs double-slit interferometer. A light

178 PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM

Interference at a Fresnels mirror with an He-Ne laser (P5.3.2.1)

In these experiments, two coherent light sources are generated

by recreating three experiments of great historical significance.

In each of these experiments, the respective wavelength of the