Applied Catalysis A: General 221 (2001) 313

Catalysis as a foundational pillar of green chemistry

Paul T. Anastas a, , Mary M. Kirchhoff b , Tracy C. Williamson c
a White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, Department of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
b U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Trinity College, Washington, DC, USA
c U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA

Abstract
Catalysis is one of the fundamental pillars of green chemistry, the design of chemical products and processes that reduce or
eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances. The design and application of new catalysts and catalytic systems
are simultaneously achieving the dual goals of environmental protection and economic benefit.
No subject so pervades modern chemistry as that of catalysis. (Ron Breslow, Chemistry Today and Tomorrow: The Central,
Useful, and Creative Science)
Green chemistry, the design of chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous
substances, is an overarching approach that is applicable to all aspects of chemistry. From feedstocks to solvents, to synthesis
and processing, green chemistry actively seeks ways to produce materials in a way that is more benign to human health and
the environment. The current emphasis on green chemistry reflects a shift away from the historic command-and-control
approach to environmental problems that mandated waste treatment and control and clean up through regulation, and toward
preventing pollution at its source. Rather than accepting waste generation and disposal as unavoidable, green chemistry
seeks new technologies that are cleaner and economically competitive. Utilizing green chemistry for pollution prevention
demonstrates the power and beauty of chemistry: through careful design, society can enjoy the products on which we depend
while benefiting the environment.
The economic benefits of green chemistry are central drivers in its advancement. Industry is adopting green chemistry
methodologies because they improve the corporate bottom line. A wide array of operating costs are decreased through the use
of green chemistry. When less waste is generated, environmental compliance costs go down. Treatment and disposal become
unnecessary when waste is eliminated. Decreased solvent usage and fewer processing steps lessen the material and energy
costs of manufacturing and increase material efficiency. The environmental, human health, and the economic advantages
realized through green chemistry are serving as a strong incentive to industry to adopt greener technologies.
Developing green chemistry methodologies is a challenge that may be viewed through the framework of the Twelve
Principles of Green Chemistry [1]. These principles identify catalysis as one of the most important tools for implementing
green chemistry. Catalysis offers numerous green chemistry benefits including lower energy requirements, catalytic versus
stoichiometric amounts of materials, increased selectivity, and decreased use of processing and separation agents, and al-
lows for the use of less toxic materials. Heterogeneous catalysis, in particular, addresses the goals of green chemistry by
providing the ease of separation of product and catalyst, thereby eliminating the need for separation through distillation or
extraction. In addition, environmentally benign catalysts such as clays and zeolites, may replace more hazardous catalysts
currently in use. This paper highlights a variety of ways in which catalysis may be used as a pollution prevention tool in green

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-202-456-6105.

E-mail address: panastas@ostp.eop.gov (P.T. Anastas).

0926-860X/01/$ see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 6 - 8 6 0 X ( 0 1 ) 0 0 7 9 3 - 1
4 P.T. Anastas et al. / Applied Catalysis A: General 221 (2001) 313

chemistry reactions. The benefits to human health, environment, and the economic goals realized through the use of catalysis
in manufacturing and processing are illustrated by focusing on the catalyst design and catalyst applications. 2001 Elsevier
Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Catalysis; Green chemistry; Environmental protection

1. Catalyst design
The design of a catalyst strives to optimize fac-
tors such as stability, turnover number, solubility, and
ease of separation from the product. Changes in lig-
and design or metal selection can provide significant
improvements in selectivity, energy consumption, and
solvent utilization. In some cases, design of better cat-
alysts (Fig. 1) also permits the use of more environ-
mentally friendly feedstocks and reagents. Examples
in this section illustrate the types of green chemistry
benefits achieved through the appropriate design of a
catalyst.
The development of improved catalysts has facil-
itated the synthesis of a specific class of polycar-
bonates that are used as binders in ceramics. The

Fig. 1. The 12 principles of green chemistry.

 P.T. Anastas et al. / Applied Catalysis A: General 221 (2001) 313 5

Scheme 1. Copolymerization of cyclohexene oxide and carbon dioxide.

copolymerization of cyclohexene oxide and carbon (TetraAmido-Macrocyclic Ligand) activators contain

dioxide has been accomplished using a variety of zinc
catalysts (Scheme 1). A recent catalyst modification
by Coates and coworkers [2] affords the polycarbon-
ate product at enhanced rates and at milder conditions
than previous catalysts. A key design change incor-
porates the substitution of bulky nitrogen ligands for
the commonly used oxygen ligands tethered to zinc,
thereby increasing the stability of the catalyst. In ad-
dition, either an acetate or methoxide group bound to
zinc enables the monomers to link in an alternating
sequence and ensures that the polymer chains are ap-
proximately of the same length. One green chemistry
benefit is the use of carbon dioxide, a renewable feed-
stock, that serves as both monomer and solvent in this
reaction. In addition, development of a more robust
catalyst for this polymerization reaction decreases en-
ergy demands while increasing the reaction rate and
utilizing a renewable feedstock.
Terry Collins and coworkers [3] at Carnegie Mel-
lon University have designed a series of catalysts
that activate the natural oxidant hydrogen perox-
ide in a variety of applications. These TAMLTM
elements commonly found in life processes and are
devoid of toxic functional groups (Fig. 2). In design-
ing these activators, the Collins group found that the
lifetime of the catalyst could be controlled by varying
the identity of the R groups. The catalyst was more
robust, for example, with a cyclopropyl ring than with
methyl groups.
Combining TAMLTM activators with hydrogen
peroxide affords the pulp and paper industry a
low-temperature delignification process for treat-
ing kraft pulp. This technology eliminates the
use of chlorine hypochlorite oxidation, a process
that generates chlorinated organics such as TCDD
(2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin) as undesirable
byproducts. A second application of TAMLTM ac-
tivators may be found in the laundry sector, where
these catalysts activate peroxide commonly found in
household bleaches. TAMLTM activators are effec-
tive in inhibiting dye transfer, advancing the potential
for washing machines that use less water and are
effective at fairly low temperatures. The stain re-
moval and dye inhibition properties of these catalysts

Fig. 2. TAMLTM activator.

6 P.T. Anastas et al. / Applied Catalysis A: General 221 (2001) 313
Scheme 2. Biocatalytic synthesis of adipic acid.
promise both water and energy conservation in the
laundry field. The versatility of TAMLTM activators
in catalyzing peroxide reactions promises further ap-
plications potentially in the critically important area
of water disinfection. The green chemistry benefits of
this chlorine-free oxidation using a non-toxic metal,
mild reaction conditions, and a waste-free process are
all due to thoughtful catalyst design.
Advances in genetic engineering permit the cus-
tomization of organisms to catalyze specific trans-
formations that are currently finding applications in
numerous chemical processes. The work of Draths
and Frost [4,5] exemplifies the use of biocatalysis in
organic synthesis. Using genetically engineered Kleb-
siella pneumoniae in a non-virulent strain of E. coli,
d-glucose may be converted to cis, cis-muconic acid,
then reduced to adipic acid, a monomer in the manu-
facture of nylon-6,6 (Scheme 2). The traditional syn-
thesis of adipic acid uses benzene (a non-renewable,
carcinogenic feedstock), employs high temperature
and high pressure steps, and produces the greenhouse
gas nitrous oxide as a byproduct. The biocatalytic
approach features a renewable feedstock, uses mild
reaction conditions, and emits no nitrous oxide. Simi-
lar genetic engineering using E. coli has also resulted
in an effective catalyst in the synthesis of catechol,
a chemical building block used to synthesize flavors
such as vanillin.
Two new catalytic routes to adipic acid have re-
cently been reported by Thomas [6]. In one approach,
the terminal methyl groups of n-hexane are selectively
air oxidized to carboxylic acids using an aluminophos-
phate molecular sieve catalyst with cobalt(III) ions. A
free radical mechanism has been proposed in which
the n-hexane is oriented within the molecular sieve
such that the ends of the chain are in close proxim-
ity to the radical-generating cobalt ions. The second
protocol also employs air oxidation with a different
molecular sieve catalyst containing iron(III) ions. Di-
rect oxidation of cyclohexane to adipic acid with this
heterogeneous catalyst permits easy separation and re-
cycling of the catalyst, and avoids the use of typical
corrosive and hazardous reagents. Both of these proce-
dures eliminate the use of nitric acid found in conven-
tional adipic acid syntheses, as well as the production
of the nitrous oxide byproduct.
Oxidation of alkanes and alkenes using t-butyl hy-
droperoxide (TBHP) and O2 as oxidants has been
demonstrated by Fish and coworkers [7,8] using flu-
orous biphasic catalysis (FBC). Currently, the oxida-
tion of alkanes with TBHP occurs in a homogeneous
phase, resulting in a difficult separation of product
and catalyst. With FBC, however, the oxidation prod-
ucts and catalyst reside in separate phases, facilitating
separation and recovery. The success of this reaction
depends upon the in situ generation of a precatalyst
composed of a fluoroponytailed ligand and metal
complex (Fig. 3). The precatalyst initiates the forma-
tion of radicals necessary for CH radical abstraction,
ultimately yielding oxidation products. Combining a
fluoroponytailed ligand with a metal catalyst yields
a precatalyst that is fluorous phase soluble, enabling
simple separation of product and catalyst and easy
recycle of the catalyst.
In the nitration of aromatic compounds, solid
acid catalysts are a more environmentally benign
 P.T. Anastas et al. / Applied Catalysis A: General 221 (2001) 313
Fig. 3. Fluoroponytailed ligand and metal complex.
alternative to the conventional process employing a
mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids. Choudary et al. [9]
tested numerous clay and zeolite catalysts in the nitra-
tion of benzene and monosubstituted benzene rings.
The most active catalyst proved to be Fe3+ montmo-
rillonite, but the highest para selectivity was achieved
using 60% HNO3 and zeolite beta-I, a catalyst that
demonstrates high shape selectivity. Increased selec-
tivity and reactivity were observed as the Si/Al ratio
in the zeolite beta catalyst was decreased. Azeotropic
removal of water formed during the reaction regen-
erates the active acid sites on the catalyst, permitting
reuse of the solid acid catalyst. When compared with
the standard mixed acid nitration of aromatics, solid
acid catalysis offers high space time yields, improved
para selectivity, and simple separation of catalyst
from reaction mixture.
Two different catalytic protocols have been used to
convert ketones to lactones via the BaeyerVilliger
reaction. In one case, Stewart [10] employs geneti-
cally engineered bakers yeast to transform cyclohex-
anone to -caprolactone using atmospheric O2 as the
oxidizing agent (Scheme 3). Bakers yeast is a safer
alternative to m-chloroperoxybenzoic acid (mCPBA),
which is shock sensitive, explosive and is commonly
used for laboratory-scale BaeyerVilliger oxidations.
In addition, the use of mCPBA exhibits poor atom
economy in the BaeyerVilliger reaction: a single oxy-
gen atom is incorporated into the product, leaving
m-chlorobenzoic acid as byproduct. The use of de-
Scheme 3. Yeast-catalyzed BaeyerVilliger reaction.
7
signer yeast produces the desired lactone in high yield
and purity, enables the reaction to run in an aqueous
medium, and yields water as the sole byproduct.
A second variation on the BaeyerVilliger reaction
uses air oxidation in conjunction with a molecular
sieve catalyst and a sacrificial oxidant [11]. Metal-ion
substituted (manganese or cobalt) aluminophosphate
catalysts are effective in converting a series of ketones
to the corresponding lactones. The Co(III) and Mn(III)
ions lining the microporous catalysts provide the ac-
tive sites where the sacrificial oxidant (benzaldehyde)
is converted by O2 to a peroxy acid. This peroxy acid
subsequently transforms the ketone to the lactone out-
side the catalyst. Although this method generates an
equivalent of waste acid, the use of redox molecular
sieve catalysts eliminates the use of problematic oxi-
dants such as CrO3 and KMnO4 , which are commonly
used in stoichiometric, rather than catalytic, amounts.
The reaction proceeds at low temperatures and se-
lectively yields the lactone product, thereby lowering
energy costs and minimizing waste generation.
Methylation of cresols produces methyl anisoles,
industrially-important compounds in the manufacture
of dyes and agrochemicals. The conventional process
for manufacturing methyl anisoles combines cresols
with a methylating agent, such as dimethyl sulfate
and alkali or a methyl halide and sodium hydrox-
ide, in tetrahydrofuran. These reagents are corrosive
and toxic, while the process itself is atom inefficient
and generates salt waste. The recent development of
a cesium-loaded silica (Cs/SiO2 ) catalyst promotes
vapor phase methylation of cresols with high selec-
tivities and conversions [12]. Direct methylation of
cresols with methanol improves atom economy, pro-
duces water as the only byproduct, and eliminates the
formation of salt waste. Furthermore, fixed bed vapor
phase methylation over a solid catalyst permits con-
tinuous processing rather than currently used batch
processing. In this reaction, continuous processing
is beneficial in providing facile separation of cata-
lyst and product, reuse of catalyst, simplified product
work-up, and continuity of operation.
Paciello et al. [13] employed molecular modeling
as a tool in designing catalysts with improved selec-
tivity in the hydroformylation of olefins. The rhodium
catalysts typically used in the hydroformylation pro-
cess contain chelating ligands such as bisphosphanes
and bisphosphites. A calixarene bisphosphite ligand
8 P.T. Anastas et al. / Applied Catalysis A: General 221 (2001) 313
Fig. 4. Calixarene bisphosphite ligand.
(Fig. 4) was found to give very high regioselectivity
(99.5%) in the conversion of 1-octene to n-nonanal.
Molecular modeling calculations on the catalyst sug-
gested that, by decreasing the steric requirements of
the ligand, the reaction rate could be increased without
compromising the regioselectivity. Subsequent exper-
iments confirmed this prediction; high regioselectivity
was retained while the reaction time was cut in half and
milder reaction conditions were employed. The green
chemistry benefits of this reaction include increased
selectivity and decreased energy demands in the form
of lower temperature and pressure requirements.
Bandgar and Kasture [14] and Bandgar et al. [15]
have developed a protocol to catalytically remove
carbonyl protecting groups under microwave radiation
and solvent-free conditions. Conventional cleavage
and removal of thioacetals and thioketals frequently
employ heavy metals such as mercury(II) chloride
and selenium dioxide. Less toxic alternatives to
mercury salts are desirable given the environmental
problems associated with the use of mercury. Mi-
crowaving the thioacetal or thioketal with a catalytic
amount of kaolinitic clay regenerates the carbonyl
compound in good yield (Scheme 4). A similar pro-
cedure has been developed for the deprotection of
1,1-diacetates. Microwave activation of the diacetate
Scheme 4. Catalytic removal of carbonyl protecting groups.
with the solid-supported catalyst envirocat EPZG
(Contract Chemicals Ltd.), again in the absence of
solvent, produces the aldehyde in high yield. While
one would prefer to avoid protection/deprotection
steps from a green chemistry perspective, when un-
avoidable both of these methods offer improvements
over current deprotection strategies. Catalysis elimi-
nates the use of toxic and corrosive reagents and the
need for organic solvents.
2. Catalyst applications
The application of catalysts is ubiquitous in the
chemical industry in areas ranging from pharmaceuti-
cals to polymers to petroleum processing. More than
90% of all industrial processes are based on catal-
ysis [16]. The widespread utilization by industry of
catalytic processes reflects the economic and environ-
mental benefits achieved through catalysis.
Ibuprofen is one of the most commonly used
over-the-counter pain relievers. The traditional syn-
thesis requires six steps that use large volumes of sol-
vent, corrosive reagents, and stoichiometric quantities
of materials. This protocol also exhibits poor atom
economy, only 40% of the atoms in the starting ma-
terials are incorporated into the product. In contrast,
the BHC synthesis [17] of ibuprofen is accomplished
in only three steps (Scheme 5). Catalytic amounts
of reagents are used, and greater than 99% of the
HF catalyst is recycled and reused. Atom economy
doubles to 80%, significantly reducing the amount
of waste generated. While there is concern that this
improved synthesis of ibuprofen relies on anhydrous
hydrogen fluoride, it, however, does serve as both
catalyst and solvent to minimize aqueous and organic
waste streams and maximize reaction efficiency.
Another anti-inflammatory drug, Naproxen, can
be synthesized in high yield via a catalytic route
(Scheme 6) [18]. The final step in the synthetic se-
quence employs a chiral transition metal catalyst
 P.T. Anastas et al. / Applied Catalysis A: General 221 (2001) 313 9

Scheme 5. BHC synthesis of ibuprofen.

Scheme 6. Synthesis of Naproxen.

containing BINAP [2,2 -bis(diarylphospheno)-1,1 -
binaphthyl] to produce the desired enantiomer in 97%
yield. The high selectivity of the transition metal cata-
lyst is attributed to steric factors that restrict rotation.
Improved selectivity through catalysis minimizes or
eliminates the need for product separation, reducing
the use of solvents and separation agents.
Catalytic methods can provide safer alternatives
to reagents commonly used in oxidation reactions,
such as chromium, a suspected carcinogen. Phar-
macia and Upjohn [19] improved the manufacturing
process of bisnoraldehyde, a key intermediate in
the synthesis of progesterone and corticosteroids, by
switching from a heavy metal oxidant to a bleach and
catalyst/co-factor system (Scheme 7). The revised
synthesis employs a genetically modified bacterium
that uses whole soya sterols, a renewable feedstock,
more efficiently than the previous process, increasing
feedstock utilization from 15 to 100%. The new cat-
alytic features of the process reduce aqueous waste

Scheme 7. Synthesis of bisnoraldehyde.

10 P.T. Anastas et al. / Applied Catalysis A: General 221 (2001) 313

Scheme 8. Selective acylation of castanospermine.

by 79% and non-recoverable organic solvent waste by
89%.
Traditional catalysts may be complemented by
enzymes that provide remarkable selectivity in or-
ganic synthesis. Analogues of castanospermine, a
potential AIDS drug, may be synthesized using the
enzyme catalyst subtilisin [20]. The regioselectiv-
ity of the catalyst permits acylation exclusively at
the C-1 hydroxyl group, leaving the remaining three
secondary hydroxyl groups untouched (Scheme 8).
Typically, the synthesis of individual esters of cas-
tanospermine requires protection and deprotection
of the neighboring hydroxyl groups. Enzymatic syn-
thesis of castanospermine derivatives permits simple
isolation and purification of the product, recovery and
reuse of unreacted starting material, and elimination
of protection/deprotection steps.
Wong and coworkers [21] extensively use chemo-
enzymatic methods to synthesize a variety of bio-
logically important compounds. One example is the
synthesis of cyclic imine sugars, which act as in-
hibitors of glycoprocessing enzymes. An enzymatic
aldol condensation yields a mixture of azido sugars
that is subsequently hydrogenated under catalytic con-
ditions to cyclic imine sugars (Scheme 9). To prevent
over-reduction of the azido sugar, the amino-carbonyl
sugar intermediate was trapped as its hydrochloride
salt, yielding the desired cyclic imine rather than the
fully hydrogenated iminocyclitol. Cyclic imines serve
as key intermediates in the synthesis of nitrogen het-
erocycles and iminocyclitols.
Eli Lilly and Company used an interdisciplinary
approach in redesigning the synthesis of an anticon-
vulsant drug candidate [22]. In one key step, a biocat-
alyst was employed to selectively reduce the starting
ketone to the optically pure alcohol (Scheme 10).
The yeast chosen to effect this transformation, Z.
rouxii, was deactivated with increasing organic con-
centration, necessitating the design of a three-phase
system to prevent build-up of the product. Additional

Scheme 9. Chemo-enzymatic synthesis of cyclic imine sugars.

Scheme 10. Biocatalytic ketone reduction.

 P.T. Anastas et al. / Applied Catalysis A: General 221 (2001) 313
Scheme 11. Benzoic acid synthesis in near-critical water.
environmental benefits were realized by switching
from chromium oxidation to air oxidation in a sub-
sequent step. By designing a new process, the over-
all yield of the pharmaceutical product increased
three-fold, with significant decreases in volumes of
solvent used and quantities of waste generated: for
every 100 kg product synthesized, 34,000 l of solvent
and 300 kg chromium waste were eliminated.
Catalysis is also finding new applications in
alternative reaction media. For example, an auto-
catalytic mechanism has been proposed in the con-
version of benzoic acid esters to benzoic acid in
near-critical water [23] (Scheme 11). Near-critical
water (250300 C) exhibits an ionization constant
orders of magnitude higher than ambient water, pro-
viding a source of both hydroxide and hydronium
ions. In contrast to conventional acid/base cataly-
sis, the hydroxide and hydronium ions do not re-
quire neutralization, eliminating formation of salt
byproducts. In addition, products may easily be sep-
Scheme 12. Indium-promoted cyclization in water.
Scheme 13. DielsAlder reaction in supercritical carbon dioxide.
11
arated from solvent simply by returning to ambient
conditions.
A variety of reactions can be carried out in
an aqueous environment given the right choice
of catalyst. Water is an extremely attractive sol-
vent choice: it is inexpensive and readily avail-
able, non-toxic, and non-flammable. Li et al. [24]
have successfully employed an indium catalyst in
a number of carboncarbon bond forming reactions
conducted in water. Allylation of 1,3-dicarbonyl
compounds, for example, is efficiently promoted
in water using an indium catalyst (Scheme 12).
Metal-mediated reactions in water have found applica-
tions in cyclization, ring expansion, and isomerization
reactions.
Supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2 ) is another
environmentally-benign solvent that is proving a vi-
able alternative to the traditional organic solvents.
Rayner and coworkers [25] recently investigated
catalysis of the DielsAlder reaction between n-butyl
acrylate and cyclopentadiene in SC-CO2 . Scandium
tris (trifluoromethanesulfonate) was selected as the
Lewis acid catalyst, primarily due to its solubility
in SC-CO2 . By varying the pressure of the solvent,
endo:exo selectivity was maximized at 24:1, a sig-
nificant improvement over selectivity achieved in
conventional solvents (11:1) (Scheme 13). Rate en-
hancement was also observed under SC-CO2 condi-
tions. Green chemistry benefits of a less hazardous
solvent, reduced energy usage, ease of separation, and
12 P.T. Anastas et al. / Applied Catalysis A: General 221 (2001) 313
Scheme 14. AzaDielsAlder reaction in ionic liquid.
selectivity for waste minimization are manifested in
this approach.
Ionic liquids are also gaining acceptance as alter-
natives to traditional organic solvents. Ionic liquids
are non-volatile and non-flammable, eliminating the
hazards associated with volatile organic compounds
(VOCs). In addition, the properties of ionic liquids
may be tuned by varying the identities of the cations
and anions, thereby tailoring the solvent to a specific
application. Kitazume and Zulfiqar [26] recently re-
ported conducting the AzaDielsAlder reaction in
ionic liquids (Scheme 14). This reaction is typically
run in an organic solvent, using a corrosive Lewis acid
catalyst. The new procedure uses a microencapsulated
Lewis acid catalyst (scandium trifluoromethanesul-
fonate) that may be recovered and reused. The ionic
liquid is also reused following purification. This
one-pot synthesis demonstrates the potential of ionic
liquids as alternative solvents in traditional organic
reactions.
Catalysts play a key role in the manufacture of
biodegradable polymers. The Donlar Corporation
[27], for example, employs a catalytic process to
polymerize thermal polyaspartic acid (TPA). Lower
reaction temperatures and improved physical and per-
formance properties of the polymer are achieved using
the catalytic procedure. TPA, a non-toxic biodegrad-
able polymer, is a viable replacement for polyacrylic
acid (PAC), which is not biodegradable. TPA has
proven effective in agricultural applications, where it
increases fertilizer and nutrient uptake of plants. TPA
is also useful as a corrosion and scale inhibitor in the
water treatment industry.
Natural polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) repre-
sent another class of biodegradable polymers. These
natural polyesters may be obtained directly from
recombinant plant systems or by microbial fermen-
tation in aqueous media from renewable resources.
Gross and coworkers [28] have focused on producing
PHAs with improved physico-mechanical properties
by integrating poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) into the
culture media. PEG has proven effective in control-
ling the molecular weight and composition of PHAs.
In addition to the biodegradability of the product,
this approach offers additional environmental ben-
efits through its use of renewable feedstocks such
as fructose, and its use of water as the reaction
medium.
3. Conclusion
As has been illustrated in this paper, the utilization
of catalysis to achieve the goals of green chemistry
has met with tremendous success. Through the use of
catalytic systems, the dual goals of attaining environ-
mental and economic benefit simultaneously are being
realized in applications ranging from very small-scale
fine chemical synthesis to commodity petrochemical
processes. An additional benefit from the use of catal-
ysis is that it enables the implementation of several
green chemistry goals ranging from the use of alterna-
tive solvents such as SC-CO2 or water, to utilization
of bio-based renewable feedstocks such as glucose, to
energy minimization.
The promise and the potential of catalysis are, how-
ever, even larger than their successes. Future devel-
opments in catalysis will propel the pursuit of green
chemistry forward. The design of catalysts that both
activate otherwise inert starting materials as well as
enhance reaction rates will reduce the current reliance
on reactive and toxic reagents. The continued move-
 P.T. Anastas et al. / Applied Catalysis A: General 221 (2001) 313
ment toward truly catalytic processes rather than pro-
cesses which merely catalyze stoichiometric reagents
will enhance atom economy. The use of catalysts to
design new classes of polymers and materials that ob-
viate the need for the additives such as plasticizers and
flame retardants will allow the materials to be reused
in a high value-retaining manner. Of course, catalysts
will continue to offer even greater improvements in
efficiency, selectivity, energy reduction, and rate en-
hancement.
Catalysis is clearly one of the foundational pillars
of green chemistry and it will continue to be one of
the main vehicles that takes the chemical enterprise
into a future of sustainability.
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