Physics revision:

P2
 Static and current electricity = Topic 1

Atomic Structure:

Electric shocks

You can get an electrostatic shock if you are electrically 'charged' and you touch something that is earthed
or if you're earthed and you touch something that is charged.

Charged objects- making static electricity

How can you tell if an insulator is charged? Examples could be:
If a plastic rod is rubbed with a duster, it attracts small pieces of paper
When a balloon is rubbed against a jumper it can stick to a wall. Some dusters are designed to become
charged so that they attract dust.
The objects become charged by either gaining or losing electrons

A substance that Gains electrons becomes neGatively charged,

while a substance that lOses electrons becomes pOsitively charged.

If the charges are the same - they repel

If the charges are opposite - they attract
If one is charged and the other is not - they attract

Problems with static

Static is a nuisance when:
Dust and dirt are attracted to insulators such as TV screens and computer monitors
Clothes made from synthetic materials cling to each other and to the body, especially just after they've
been in a tumble drier
Anti-static sprays, liquids and cloths prevent the build-up of charge by allowing it to conduct away.
 Uses of electrostatics

Defibrillators: for cardiac arrests

Two paddles with insulated handles are charged from a high-voltage supply. They are put in good electrical
contact with the patient's chest. It is important that no one else gets a shock, which is why the paddles
have insulating handles and the operator tells any one nearby to 'stand clear' before charge is passed
through the patient to make the heart contract.

Electrostatic dust precipitators:

Smoke is produced when fossil fuels burn. Smoke is made of tiny solid particles, such as carbon. To remove
these particles from the waste gases an electrostatic precipitator is used.

Paint spraying:
The spray gun is charged positively, which causes every paint particle to become positively charged. Like
charges repel and the paint particles spread out.

The object to be painted is given a negative charge and so attracts the paint particles.

Advantages:

1. less paint is wasted,

2. the object receives an even coat and
3. the paint covers awkward 'shadow' surfaces that the operator cannot see.

Dangers of static

1. Static electricity can build up in clouds. This can cause a huge spark to form between the ground
and the cloud. This causes lightning a flow of charge through the atmosphere.
2. There are inflammable gases or vapours or a high concentration of oxygen. A spark could ignite the
gases and cause an explosion. E.g when filling in vehicles at a petrol station
You touch something with a large electric charge on it. The charge will flow through your body causing an
electric shock. This could cause burns or even stop your heart. A person could die from an electric shock.

6 mark question: static electricity can pose serious dangers in every day life. Describe some ways in which the
harmful effects of static electricity can be minimised

Earthing:- so any charge immediately flows down the earth wire.

Electrical machinery are put on insulating mats
wear shoes with insulating (rubber) soles.
Lorries containing inflammable gases, liquids and powders are connected to the Earth by an
earth wire before being unloaded.
When an aircraft is refuelled, static can build up. This could cause sparks, which could ignite
the fuel. A bonding line is used to earth the aircraft before it is refuelled.
 Electric circuits

In order to flow, an electric current needs:

A complete circuit.
Something to push the current around the circuit.

An electric current is a flow of electric charge. Conventional current flows from the positive terminal of
the power source to the negative terminal.

In wires, negatively charged electrons carry charge. These are free to move from atom to atom in
conductors such as metals. They move in the opposite direction to the conventional current.

Calculating electrical power

You should be able to recall and apply:

The relationship between charge, current and time
The relationship between energy transferred, voltage and charge

Charge, current and time:

Electrical charge is measured in coulomb (C). The amount of electrical charge that moves in a circuit
depends on the current flow and how long it flows for.
The equation below shows the relationship between charge, current and time:
Charge (coulomb, C) = current (ampere, A) time (second, s)
For example, if a current of 10 A flows for 30 s, then 10 x 30 = 300 coulombs of electrical charge moves.

Energy transferred, voltage and charge:

For a given amount of electrical charge that moves, the amount of energy transferred increases as the
voltage increases.
The equation below shows the relationship between energy transferred, voltage and charge:
Energy transferred (joule, J) = potential difference (volt, V) charge (coulomb, C)
For example, if the voltage is 120 V and the charge is 2 C, the energy transferred is 240 J (120 2).

Circuits= Topic 2
 Series and parallel circuits

You should know the difference between series and parallel connections in circuits.

Series connections
Components that are connected one after another on the same loop of the circuit are connected in series.
The current that flows across each component connected in series is the same.

Two lamps connected in series

The circuit diagram shows a circuit with two lamps connected in series. If one lamp breaks, the other lamp
will not light.

Parallel connections
Components that are connected on separate loops are connected in parallel. The current is shared
between each component connected in parallel. The total amount of current flowing into the junction, or
split, is equal to the total current flowing out. The current is described as being conserved.

Two lamps connected in parallel

The circuit diagram shows a circuit with two lamps connected in parallel. If one lamp breaks, the other
lamp will still light.

Current and voltage

You need to know how to measure the current that flows through a component in a circuit. You also need
to know how to measure the potential difference, also called voltage, across a component in a circuit.
Current

A current flows when an electric charge moves around a circuit. No current can flow if the circuit is broken,
for example, when a switch is open. Click on the animation to see what happens to the charge when the
switch is opened or closed.
Measuring current:
Current is measured in amperes
Amperes is often abbreviated to amps or A
 The current flowing through a component in a circuit is measured using an ammeter
The ammeter must be connected in series with the component

Potential difference - voltage

A potential difference, also called voltage, across an electrical component is needed to make a current flow
through it. Cells or batteries often provide the potential difference needed.
Measuring potential difference:
Potential difference is measured in volts, V
Potential difference across a component in a circuit is measured using a voltmeter
The voltmeter must be connected in parallel with the component

Cells and circuits

You should know what happens to the potential difference and current when the number of cells in a
circuit is changed.

Potential difference
A typical cell produces a potential difference of 1.5 V. When two or more cells are connected in series in a
circuit, the total potential difference is the sum of their potential differences. For example, if two 1.5 V
cells are connected in series in the same direction, the total potential difference is 3.0 V. If two 1.5 V cells
are connected in series, but in opposite directions, the total potential difference is 0 V, so no current will
flow.

Current
When more cells are connected in series in a circuit, they produce a bigger potential difference across its
components. More current flows through the components as a result.

Resistance
 Resistance is a measure of how hard it is for a current to flow through a component in a circuit. Resistors
are added into a circuit to reduce the amount of current flowing. The bigger the value of resistance, the
lower the current.

Components such as bulbs have resistance. When more bulbs are added to a series circuit, resistance
increases. This causes the current to decrease.

A variable resistor or rheostat is a device with variable resistance. It can be used to vary the amount of
current in a circuit.
Current, potential difference and resistance
The size of the current flowing in a circuit depends on the
potential difference (voltage) driving it and the amount of
resistance it has to flow through.
For a fixed potential difference the amount of current
decreases with increasing resistance.

For a fixed resistance the amount of current increases with

increasing potential difference.
Thermistors and LDRs

You should be able to recognise the circuit symbols for the thermistor and the LDR (light-dependent
resistor), and know how the resistance of these components can be changed.

The thermistor

Thermistor
Thermistors are used as temperature sensors - for example, in fire alarms. Their resistance decreases as
the temperature increases:
At low temperatures, the resistance of a thermistor is high and little current can flow through them.
At high temperatures, the resistance of a thermistor is low and more current can flow through them.

The LDR

Light dependent resistor (LDR)

LDRs (light-dependent resistors) are used to detect light levels, for example, in automatic security lights.
Their resistance decreases as the light intensity increases:
In the dark and at low light levels, the resistance of an LDR is high and little current can flow through it.
In bright light, the resistance of an LDR is low and more current can flow through it.

Energy transfer in a resistor

When electric current flows through a resistor some of the energy is transferred to heat energy. This
results in the resistor heating up.
 Examples include:
Heating water in a kettle
Electric fires
However this heating effect isn't always useful. When too much current flows through wires, they can
become too hot and catch fire or burn the user.

IGCSE-1P-Jun2012
10 A light dependent resistor (LDR) can be used as a sensor to detect light intensity.
Describe how the resistance of an LDR varies as the light intensity changes.
You may sketch a graph to help your answer.
(3)
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(Total for Question 10 = 3 marks)

Calculating electrical power

You should be able to recall and apply:

The relationship between charge, current and time
The relationship between energy transferred, voltage and charge

Charge, current and time

Electrical charge is measured in coulomb (C). The amount of electrical charge that moves in a circuit
depends on the current flow and how long it flows for.
The equation below shows the relationship between charge, current and time:
Charge (coulomb, C) = current (ampere, A) time (second, s)
For example, if a current of 10 A flows for 30 s, then 10 x 30 = 300 coulombs of electrical charge moves.

Energy transferred, voltage and charge

For a given amount of electrical charge that moves, the amount of energy transferred increases as the
voltage increases.
The equation below shows the relationship between energy transferred, voltage and charge:
Energy transferred (joule, J) = potential difference (volt, V) charge (coulomb, C)
For example, if the voltage is 120 V and the charge is 2 C, the energy transferred is 240 J (120 2).
12 The photograph shows equipment used for generating electricity from renewable sources.
(a) Complete the sentences using words from the box.
chemical heat kinetic light sound

(i) The panel of solar cells transforms ............................................................................................. energy into electrical energy.
(1)
(ii) The wind turbine transforms ............................................................................................. energy into electrical energy.
(1)
(b) On a windy day, the wind turbine transfers 78 W of power.
(i) State the equation linking power, energy transferred and time.
(1)
(ii) Calculate the amount of energy the turbine transfers in 10 s.
(3)
Energy transferred = ............................ J

(c) The Sankey diagram shows the energy

transferred by the panel of solar cells.

Show that the efficiency of the panel of solar cells

is 12%.
(2)

Motion and forces = Topic 3

 Displacement, velocity, acceleration and force are all vector quantities. The speed of an object can be
calculated from the slope on a distance-time graph.
The velocity of an object is its speed in a particular direction. The slope on a velocity-time graph
represents the acceleration of an object. The distance travelled is equal to the area under a velocity-time
graph.

Forces and motion

At Key Stage 3, you learned to calculate the speed of an object using the time taken and the distance
travelled. At GCSE we take this knowledge further to look at vector quantities. A vector quantity has a size
and a direction. The following are all vector quantities:
Displacement
Velocity
Acceleration
Force

Displacement is the distance travelled in a straight line. It has both a direction and a size.
The velocity of an object is its speed in one particular direction.
The acceleration of an object is calculated from its change in velocity and the time taken.
The force of an object is also a vector as it has a size (measured in Newtons) and a direction.

Speed

Speed, distance and time

At Key Stage 3, you learned how to calculate the speed of an object from the distance travelled and the
time taken.

The equation
When an object moves in a straight line at a steady speed, you can calculate its speed if you know how far
it travels and how long it takes. This equation shows the relationship between speed, distance travelled
and time taken:

For example, a car travels 300 metres in 20 seconds.

Its speed is 300 20 = 15m/s.
The speed of an object can then be used to calculate the velocity.
Acceleration

You should be able to calculate the acceleration of an object from its change in velocity and the time taken.

The equation
When an object moves in a straight line with a constant acceleration, you can calculate its acceleration if
you know how much its velocity changes and how long this takes. This equation shows the relationship
between acceleration, change in velocity and time taken:

Forces
A stationary object remains stationary if the sum of the forces acting upon it - resultant force - is zero. A
moving object with a zero resultant force keeps moving at the same speed and in the same direction.
Acceleration depends on the force applied to an object and the object's mass. Gravity is a force that
attracts objects with mass towards each other. The weight of an object is the force acting on it due to
gravity.

Resultant force

You should be able to use the idea of the resultant force on an object to determine its movement.
An object may have several different forces acting on it, which can have different strengths and directions.
They can be added together to give the resultant force. This is a single force that has the same effect on
the object as all the individual forces acting together.

Resultant forces and motion

You should know that objects accelerate when the resultant force is not zero, and understand the factors
that affect the size of the acceleration.

Size of the force

An object will accelerate in the direction of the resultant force. The bigger the force, the greater the
acceleration.
Doubling the size of the (resultant) force doubles the acceleration.

The mass
An object will accelerate in the direction of the resultant force. A force on a large mass will accelerate it
less than the same force on a smaller mass.
Doubling the mass halves the acceleration.

Falling objects

You should be able to describe the forces affecting a falling object at different stages of its fall. Usually, you
need to think about two forces:

1. The weight of the object. This is a force acting downwards, caused by the object's mass in the Earth's
gravitational field.
2. Air resistance. This is frictional force acting in the opposite direction to the movement of the object.

Three stages of falling

When an object is dropped, we can identify three stages before it hits the ground:

1. At the start, the object accelerates downwards because of its weight. There is no air resistance. There
is a resultant force acting downwards.
2. As it gains speed, the object's weight stays the same, but the air resistance on it increases. There is a
resultant force acting downwards.
3. Eventually, the object's weight is balanced by the air resistance. There is no resultant force and the
object reaches a steady speed, called the terminal velocity.

15 (a) Parachutes are used to slow down a spacecraft as it falls through the atmosphere.
Photograph G shows an Apollo spacecraft with three parachutes attached.

This spacecraft falls at a constant velocity.

(i) State the name of this constant velocity.
(1)

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(ii) Explain why this velocity stays at a constant value.

(3)

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(iii) Photograph H shows an identical Apollo spacecraft. Only two of its parachutes
are working.

Photograph H
Explain how the constant velocity reached by this spacecraft compares with
the constant velocity of the spacecraft shown in photograph G.
(2)
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(b) Photograph I shows a Space Shuttle using a parachute when it lands on a runway.

Photograph I
Explain what would happen to the stopping distance of the Shuttle if this parachute
did not open.
(2)
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(Total for Question 15 = 8 marks)

16 The diagram shows the driving force on a sports car as it moves along a race track.
(a) Name two forces that oppose the driving force.
(2)
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2 .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b) The car has a mass of 1400 kg.
The acceleration of the car is 5.5 m/s2.
(i) State the equation linking force, mass and acceleration.
(1)
(ii) Calculate the force causing this acceleration.
(2)
Force = ........................................... N
driving force
(c) Graph 1 shows how the velocity of the car changes with time.
Graph 1
Calculate the distance that the car travels in the first four seconds.
(3)
Distance = ........................................... m
(d) As the car travels further along the track, its acceleration changes as shown in graph 2.
Graph 2

(i) Which feature of graph 2 shows that the acceleration changes?

(1)
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(ii) The acceleration changes even though the driving force does not change.
Suggest two possible reasons for this change in acceleration.
(2)
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(Total for Question 16 = 11 marks)

 Momentum, energy, work and power = Topic 4

Stopping distance

A change in momentum happens when a force is applied to an object that is moving or is able to move.
The total momentum in an explosion or collision stays the same.

To be a safe driver you need to understand the factors that affect a car's stopping distance.

The stopping distance depends on two factors:

Thinking distance - It takes time for a driver to react to a situation. During this reaction time the car
carries on moving. The thinking distance is the distance travelled in between the driver realising he
needs to brake and actually braking.

Braking distance - The braking distance is the distance taken to stop once the brakes are applied.

Stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance

Factors that might increase stopping distance

Thinking distance can be increased by:

Greater speed

Tiredness

Alcohol and drugs

Distractions

Braking distance can be increased by:

Greater speed

Poor road conditions (icy, wet)

Car conditions (bald tyres, poor brakes, full of people)

Friction

Another common force is friction.

When two surfaces slide past each other, the interaction between them produces a force of
friction.
Interaction pair
 The blue and green arrows show the interaction pair of friction forces.
The book experiences a backwards force. This will tend to slow it down.
The table experiences a forwards force. This will tend to move it forwards with the book.
When you push backwards on the floor with your foot, the friction between your foot and the floor
exerts a backwards force on the floor. The other force of the interaction pair is the floor pushing
your foot forwards.
The result is that you move forwards, but the floor stays still.
A common experiment is to show the change in friction with different surfaces. In this experiment,
a block of wood is pulled along a surface with a force metre. The greater the forces needed to pull
the block, the higher the friction.

Momentum

A moving object has momentum. This is the tendency of the object to keep moving in the same direction.
It is difficult to change the direction of movement of an object with a lot of momentum. Momentum is a
vector quantity as it has both a force and a direction.
You can calculate momentum using this equation:
Momentum (kg m/s) = mass (kg) velocity (m/s)
Notice that momentum has:
Magnitude - the amount of the object's mass
Direction - because it depends on the velocity of the object

Kinetic energy, work and power

Work and force

Work done
Work is done whenever a force moves something.

Everyday examples of work include walking up stairs, or lifting heavy objects. Whenever work is done
energy is transferred from one place to another. Both energy and work are measured in joules, J.
Work done (joules, J) = energy transferred (joules, J)

The amount of work done depends on:

The size of the force on the object
The distance the object moves

Equation
Work done (joule, J) = force (newton, N) x distance (metre, m)

How much work is done when a man lifts a box weighing 200 N off the floor to a shelf 2 m high?
Work done = force x distance = 200 N x 2 m = 400 J

Higher tier
 Use the triangle to help you rearrange the equation to:
Force = work done / distance
Distance = work done / force

Kinetic energy and braking distance

When a car brakes, its kinetic energy is changed into heat energy.
Work done by brakes = loss in kinetic energy
If the speed of the car doubles, the kinetic energy and braking distance quadruple.
Kinetic energy = x mass x speed2
This can be summarised as KE = mv2

Power work and time

Power is a measure of how quickly work is being done and so how quickly energy is being transferred.
More powerful engines in cars can do work quicker than less powerful ones. As a result they usually travel
faster and cover the same distance in less time but also require more fuel.

Gravitational potential energy (GPE)

On Earth we always have the force of gravity acting on us. When we're above the Earth's surface we have
potential (stored) energy. This is called gravitational potential energy. The amount of gravitational
potential energy an object on Earth has depends on its:
Mass
Height above the ground

Kinetic energy

All moving objects have kinetic energy. The amount of kinetic energy they have depends on:
Speed
Mass
A person has more kinetic energy when running than walking.
If a car and a lorry are driving at the same speed on the motorway the lorry has more kinetic energy than
the car.

Conservation of energy

Energy is always conserved the total amount of energy present stays the same before and after any
changes.

The pendulum
The pendulum shows the principal of conservation of energy in action. Gravitational potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy and back, over and over again, as the pendulum swings.
The diagram shows a pendulum in three positions. It shows the two ends of its swing and the position it
will be in as it passes through the
middle point.

Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion =

Topic 5
Atoms are made of three types of sub-
atomic particle: neutrons and protons in the nucleus and electrons orbiting the nucleus.
Some materials are radioactive because the nucleus of each atom is unstable and gives out nuclear
radiation in the form of alpha particles, beta particles or gamma rays. The radiation can be detected
using a Geiger counter.
Nuclear reactors use a type of nuclear reaction called nuclear fission. Another type of nuclear reaction -
nuclear fusion - happens in the Sun and other stars.

Radioactivity

The structure of the atom

Atoms are made up of two main parts, the nucleus and orbiting electrons. Electrons can be lost or gained
and this forms charged particles - ions.
The nucleus contains two types of particles called neutrons and protons. As protons, neutrons and
electrons are the building blocks of atoms they're called sub-atomic particles.

Properties of sub-atomic particles

Particle Relative mass Relative charge

Proton 1 +1

Neutron 1 0

Electron Almost zero -1

Some materials are radioactive because the nucleus of each atom is unstable and can decay, or split up, by
giving out nuclear radiation in the form of alpha particles, beta particles or gamma rays. The nuclear
radiation given off can be detected using a Geiger counter. The number of nuclei that decay and give off
radiation every second is called the activity of the material and is measured in Becquerels (Bq).

Radioactive atoms

There are three ways an unstable nucleus can decay.

It may give out:

An alpha particle

A beta particle

A gamma ray

Types of radiation

Type of radiation What is it?

Alpha particle Two protons and two neutrons the same as a helium nucleus

Beta particle Fast-moving electron

Gamma ray High energy electromagnetic radiation

Ionisation ability

Ionising radiation is radiation that has enough energy to cause other atoms to lose electrons and form ions.
The different forms of radiation have different levels of ionisation abilities:

Alpha particles very ionising

Beta particles moderately ionising

Gamma rays weakly ionising

You need to know the effect of alpha and beta decay on the nucleus. The nucleus of an atom can be
represented as:

Where:

A = atomic mass (number of protons + neutrons)

Z = atomic number (number of protons)

X = chemical symbol (as shown on the periodic table)

Alpha decay

When an alpha particle is emitted from a nucleus the nucleus loses two protons and two neutrons. This
means the atomic mass number decreases by 4 and the atomic number decreases by 2. A new element is
formed that is two places lower in the Periodic Table than the original element.

Example:

Radon decays into polonium when it emits an alpha particle. Here is the equation for that radioactive
decay.

Beta decay

In Beta decay a neutron changes into a proton plus an electron. The proton stays in the nucleus and the
electron leaves the atom with high energy, and we call it a beta particle.

When a beta particle is emitted from the nucleus the nucleus has one more proton and one less neutron.
This means the atomic mass number remains unchanged and the atomic number increases by 1.

Example:

Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon. (It's a carbon atom with 8 neutrons instead of the usual 6.)
Here is the equation for the beta decay of carbon-14 into nitrogen.

IGCSE-1P-Jun2012

8 Radon is a gas produced by some types of rocks.

(a) Radon is a natural source of radioactivity.
What is the name for this radioactivity?
(1)
_ _ _ A background radiation
_ _ _ B chain reaction
_ _ _ C radioactive dating
_ _ _ D radiotherapy
(b) There are two sources of alpha radiation in some houses:
radon gas in the air
solid americium in a smoke alarm
The alpha particles from radon are a greater risk to health than the alpha particles from americium.
Explain why.
(2)
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(c) Radon-222 and radon-220 are both isotopes of radon.

(i) A nucleus of radon-222 has 86 protons.
How many protons are there in a nucleus of radon-220?
(1)
_ _ _ A_86
_ _ _ B_less than 86
_ _ _ C_more than 86
_ _ _ D_none
(ii) A nucleus of radon-222 has 136 neutrons.
How many neutrons are there in a nucleus of radon-220 ?
(1)
_ _ _ A_ 86
_ _ _ B_134
_ _ _ C_136
_ _ _ D_220
(d) The graph shows how the activity of a sample of radon-220 changes with time.
(i) Complete the graph by adding the missing unit for activity.
(1)
(ii) Explain what is meant by the term half-life.
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(iii) Use the graph to find a value for the half-life of radon-220.

(2)
Half-life = .............................................................. s
 (Total for Question 8 = 10 marks)

Nuclear fission

Nuclear power reactors use a reaction called nuclear fission. The fission is a source of energy for the
generation of power. Two isotopes in common use as nuclear fuels are uranium-235 and plutonium-239.

Splitting atoms
Fission is another word for splitting. The process of splitting a nucleus is called nuclear fission. Uranium or
plutonium isotopes are normally used as the fuel in nuclear reactors. Their atoms have relatively large
nuclei that are easy to split, especially when hit by neutrons.
When a uranium-235 or plutonium-239 nucleus is hit by a neutron, the following happens:
The nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei daughter nuclei, which are radioactive
Two or three more neutrons are released
Some energy is released
The additional neutrons released may also hit other uranium or plutonium nuclei and cause them to split.
Even more neutrons are then released, which in turn can split more nuclei. This is called a chain reaction.
The chain reaction in nuclear reactors is controlled to stop it moving too quickly.

Nuclear power

A power station makes electricity. Fossil fuel (coal, oil and gas) power stations and nuclear (uranium)
power stations both use the same processes to make electricity. These are:
1. Fuel produces heat and heat is used to boil water and is turned into steam
2. Steam turns a turbine
3. Turbine turns a generator and the generator makes electricity
4. Electricity goes to the transformers to produce the correct voltage

The only difference between fossil fuel and nuclear power stations is how the water is heated. Fossil fuel
power stations burn their fuel while a nuclear power station uses the fission of uranium to generate heat.
Uranium is a non-renewable energy resource.

Radioactive waste
All nuclear reactors produce radioactive waste. At present the most dangerous waste is sealed in glass-like
blocks which are buried deep within rocks. Careless disposal of waste in the past has led to pollution of
land, rivers and the ocean.

Nuclear reactors
As well as producing heat the nuclear reactor can be used to make other materials radioactive. The chain
reaction inside the reactor releases neutrons. If a material is put into the reactor some of these neutrons
may be absorbed by the nuclei of its atoms. This will make an atom's nucleus unstable which means it has
become radioactive. These man-made radioisotopes are often then used as tracers in hospitals to diagnose
and treat patients or in industry to detect leaks in pipes.

Higher example
The nuclear reactor is designed to allow a controlled chain reaction to take place. Each time a uranium
nucleus splits up it releases energy and three neutrons. If all the neutrons are allowed to be absorbed by
other uranium nuclei the chain reaction will spiral out of control causing an explosion. To control the
energy released in the reactor moveable control rods are placed between the fuel rods. These control rods
are made of boron which absorbs some of the neutrons so fewer neutrons are available to split uranium
nuclei. The control rods are raised to increase and lowered to decrease the number of free neutrons.
Nuclear fusion

Nuclear fusion involves two atomic nuclei joining to make a large nucleus. Energy is released when this
happens. Nuclear fusion can also be used as a source of energy.
The Sun and other stars use nuclear fusion to release energy. The sequence of nuclear fusion reactions in a
star is complex, but overall hydrogen nuclei join to form helium nuclei. Here is one nuclear fusion reaction
that takes place:

A nuclear fusion reaction showing the nuclei involved

Nuclear fusion involves a deuterium and a tritium nucleus colliding and being forced together. Both nuclei
are positively charged and therefore will repel each other. This is known as electrostatic repulsion. The
nuclei have to get very close in order to collide, which is approximately a million millionth of a millimetre. If
the nuclei are moving very fast then they can overcome the electrostatic repulsion. The hotter a molecule
is, the faster it will move and the more likely it is to collide.

For a nuclear fusion reactor to work, the temperature and pressure would each have to be very high. These
extremely high temperatures and pressures are very difficult to reproduce and are very expensive. As a
result, fusion as an energy source is a long way off.

Advantages and disadvantages of using radioactive materials = Topic 6

Background radiation is all around us and is mostly unavoidable. Most background radiation comes from
natural sources, while most artificial radiation comes from medical examinations, such as x-ray
photographs. Radiation has many uses. We measure the radioactivity of a source using half-lives.

Background radiation

You should know some of the sources of natural background radiation.

Sources
Radiation is all around us. It comes from radioactive substances including the ground, the air, building
materials and food. Radiation is also found in the cosmic rays from space.

Source Type of radiation

Cosmic rays Radiation that reaches the Earth from outer space

Animals All animals emit natural levels of radiation

Rocks Some rocks give off radioactive radon gas

Soil and Radioactive materials from rocks in the ground are absorbed by the soil
plants and hence passed on to plants

Some rocks contain radioactive substances that produce a radioactive gas called radon. The left-hand pie
chart shows the average contribution of these different sources to our natural background radiation.

Average contribution of different sources to natural background radiation

Uses of radiation
 Ionisation
Nuclear radiation ionises materials. This changes atoms or molecules into charged particles.

Uses of alpha radiation

Ionisation is useful for smoke detectors. Radioactive americium releases alpha radiation, which ionises the
air inside the detector. Smoke from a fire absorbs alpha radiation, altering the ionisation and triggering the
alarm.

Uses of beta radiation

Beta radiation is used for tracers and monitoring the thickness of materials.
Doctors may use radioactive chemicals called tracers for medical imaging. Certain chemicals concentrate in
different damaged or diseased parts of the body, and the radiation concentrates with it. Radiation
detectors placed outside the body detect the radiation emitted and, with the aid of computers, build up an
image of the inside of the body.

Uses of gamma radiation

Gamma radiation is used in the treatment of cancer and testing equipment. Medical equipment can be
sterilised using gamma rays. This means that equipment made out of plastic can be sterilised. The
traditional method, using heat, would have destroyed it.

Half life

Radioactive decay is a random process. The radioactivity decreases over time. You cannot predict when
one unstable nucleus is going to decay. However, you can make predictions about decay when you have
large numbers of unstable nuclei. The activity of a radioactive substance is the number of nuclear decays
per second. It is measured in Becquerels (Bq).
The rate of decay of a radioactive material depends on:
The type of material
The number of un decayed nuclei present. The greater the number of nuclei present, the greater the rate
of decay

Problems with radioactivity

Radioactivity has many uses but it can also cause problems. Ionising radiation can cause significant
problems with damage to cell structures. Nuclear waste has also been a concern to scientists.

Ionising radiation and the body

 Radiation warning symbol
The radiations from radioactive materials alpha, beta and gamma radiation are all ionising radiations
which can damage living cells.
Ionising radiation can break molecules into smaller fragments. These charged particles are called ions. Ions
can then take part in other chemical reactions in the living cells. As a result, ionising radiation damages
substances and materials, including those in the cells of living things. The ions themselves can take part in
chemical reactions, spreading the damage. This may result in the living cells dying or becoming cancerous.
Radiation can also affect DNA, causing mutations.
Ionising radiation includes:
Ultraviolet radiation, which is found in sunlight
X-rays, which are used in medical imaging machines
Gamma rays, which are produced by some radioactive materials

How ideas about radioactivity have changed

Ideas about the risks of radioactivity have changed over time. Early scientists burned themselves when
working with radioactive substances. Since the 1920s, scientists began to link radioactivity with increased
risks of cancer and other health problems. As a result, scientists have to take precautions when handling
radioactivity. Steps to ensure safety include:
Using tongs used to pick up sources
Sources are kept in lead-lined containers
Sources are never pointed at people
Protective clothing worn by those who work with radioactivity
Exposure times are limited

Ideas about science - risk

Scientific or technological developments often introduce new risks. Scientists have to consider these risks
and often balance them against the potential benefits.
The development of radioactive materials in the early 20th century led to the deaths of many workers. As
the materials were new, no one realised they could be dangerous. Risk can sometimes be assessed by
measuring its chance of occurring in a large sample.

Nuclear power

The main nuclear fuels are uranium and plutonium, both of which are radioactive metals. Nuclear fuels are
not burned to release energy. Instead, heat is released from changes in the nucleus.
Just as with power stations burning fossil fuels, the heat energy is used to boil water. The kinetic energy in
the expanding steam spins turbines, which drive generators to produce electricity.

Advantages
Unlike fossil fuels, nuclear fuels do not produce carbon dioxide.

Disadvantages
Like fossil fuels, nuclear fuels are non-renewable energy resources. And if there is an accident, large
amounts of radioactive material could be released into the environment. In addition, nuclear waste
remains radioactive and is hazardous to health for thousands of years. It must be stored safely.
Nuclear waste is given different categories.

Nuclear waste categories

Category Examples Disposal

Low level Contaminated equipment, They are put in drums and surrounded by concrete, and put
materials and protective into clay lined landfill sites.
clothing

Intermediate Components from nuclear They are mixed with concrete, then put in a stainless steel
level reactors, radioactive drum in a purpose-built store.
sources used in medicine or
research

High level Used nuclear fuel and
chemicals from
reprocessing fuels
They are stored underwater in large pools for 20 years, then
placed in storage casks in purpose-built underground store
where air can circulate to remove the heat produced. High
level waste decays into intermediate level waste over many
thousands of years.