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Article history: This paper presents the fresh, mechanical, and durability performance, of a structural concrete mix clas-
Received 20 August 2014 sied as C-1, by the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) made with controlled quality Recycled
Received in revised form 24 February 2015 Concrete Aggregate (RCA). Five mixes with water-to-cementing material (w/cm) ratio of 0.40 were pro-
Accepted 27 February 2015
duced with various RCA contents and tested against two 0% RCA control mixes made with General Use
Available online 10 April 2015
(GU) cement, and General Use Limestone cement (GUL). The RCA contents in the mixes were 10%, 20%,
and 30% by coarse aggregate volume replacement, as well as 10% and 20% ne and coarse (granular)
Keywords:
aggregate volume replacement. All evaluated mixes met the specications from the CSA for fresh,
Sustainability
Recycled concrete aggregates
mechanical, and durability properties. The coarse RCA mixes performed better than the granular RCA
Structural concrete mixes in terms of exural and splitting tensile strengths, linear drying shrinkage, water sorptivity, and
Fresh properties rapid chloride-ion permeability, where the test results were signicantly affected by the ultra nes pre-
Mechanical properties sent in the granular RCA.
Durability 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction of RCA in structural applications [2]. The use of RCA in high perfor-
mance concrete is not widely accepted as of yet, primarily due to a
The implementation of environmentally friendly construction few reductions in mechanical properties as well as durability
methods is becoming more widespread as awareness of the need which may be observed. It has been found that cement paste in
for sustainability in design grows. An ever-increasing rate of RCA contributes to a lowered relative density and higher water
construction is occurring with new buildings and thus demanding absorption than virgin aggregates, while higher shrinkage and
concrete, as a durable and widely used product in these structures. creep strains were also observed. However, coarse RCA was shown
It is therefore necessary to nd ways to make concrete a more to provide similar compressive and exural strength results to vir-
environmentally conscious material. Crushing concrete from gin aggregates [3]. Tighe and Butler [4] suggest that a good RCA
demolished or deconstructed structures provides Recycled should meet certain criteria in order to be suitable for use in rein-
Concrete Aggregates (RCA), which can be used as a partial substi- forced concrete. The criteria include: an aggregate relative density
tute of virgin aggregates in new concrete production. Not only will of 2.3 or higher (to contribute to bond strength), a maximum mor-
recycled concrete aggregates signicantly decrease the demand for tar content of 50%, and a maximum absorption of 3%.
quarried stone, thus decreasing transportation costs and emissions, The research presented in this paper is based on experimental
but these aggregates will also, in turn, be diverted from landlls. In results from testing 35 MPa structural concrete with RCA. Two
the United States alone, an estimated 200300 million tons of different gradations of RCA were used in this study; one was
construction and demolition waste is created each year [1]. A lot 200 mm RCA (which includes nes) and the other was
of this waste could be re-used by crushing the concrete waste 207 mm RCA, which was used as a substitution for virgin coarse
and using it as RCA. aggregate. These two gradations of RCA were used at various
RCA has already been widely used as granular material in replacement levels to achieve a good understanding of the con-
pavement design. However, extensive research has been, and is cretes fresh, mechanical, and durability performance with varying
currently being, conducted in many countries on the performance quantities of RCA.
The objective of this study is to analyze the potential of
Recycled Aggregate Concrete (RAC) in structural applications. The
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 905 738 7070. use of RAC has been limited to low-risk applications such as side-
E-mail address: abdurahman.lotfy@lafarge.com (A. Lotfy).
1
walks, residential wall mixes, backll, and as a granular material
Tel.: +1 905 738 7070.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2015.02.009
0958-9465/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Lotfy, M. Al-Fayez / Cement & Concrete Composites 61 (2015) 3643 37
for pavements as designers are hesitant to include RCA into struc- gradations were tested at different replacement levels and were
tural, reinforced concrete mixes. The potential of RAC to be used in compared to the control mix. RCA was replaced volumetrically with
structural high-risk applications was studied by comparing the the virgin aggregate. Coarse RCA replaced only the coarse virgin
performance of the RAC trial mixes to a control. This study used aggregate at levels of 10%, 20%, and 30%, while the granular full gra-
a commercially produced RCA which is subjected to a high level dation was added to replace the same proportion of coarse and ne
of quality control thus permitting the use of RCA into structural aggregates in the control mix at levels of 10% and 20%. The seven
concrete even further. mixes used in this study are: (GU) control mix with Type GU
cement, (GUL) control mix with Type GUL cement, (C10) 10% coarse
RCA, (C20) 20% coarse RCA, (C30) 30% coarse RCA, (G10) 10% gran-
2. Research signicance
ular RCA, and (G20) 20% granular RCA, as listed in Table 1. With
the exception of the Type GU benchmark, all mixes incorporated
Incorporating RCA in structural concrete applications poses a
the use of Contempra Portland Limestone Cement (PLC Type
higher risk factor than the current applications of recycled aggre-
GUL), a product known industry-wide to support sustainable con-
gate materials (i.e. granular base or subbase in roads, granular
struction practices through its reduced Carbon footprint.
backll for retaining walls, etc.). It is therefore important to under-
stand the behavior of a C-1 concrete mix made with coarse and ne
3.1. Materials
aggregates which have been partially substituted with RCA. In
many cities, old buildings are being demolished and new ones
Other than the GU cement control mix, all the mixes used GUL
are being constructed. From an environmental and cost savings
cement equivalent to ASTM Type 1, and GGBF slag. The chemical
standpoint, it is very logical to take waste from one site and re-
composition and physical characteristics of these cementing mate-
use it in a new project. Literature discusses various drawbacks of
rials are presented below in Table 2. Virgin aggregates used in the
using RCA in concrete, such as increased water demand and
mixes were 19 mm nominal size, crushed limestone and concrete
decreased strength. By demonstrating the equivalent performance
sand with specic gravities (SSD) of: 2.57 and 2.68, respectively.
exhibited through replacement of up to 30% RCA (by volume of
Coarse RCA and granular RCA were both derived from commercial
respective aggregate) into a 35 MPa C-1 structural concrete mix
production and tested for performance characteristics as discussed
with a water-to-cementing material (w/cm) ratio of 0.40, this
in Section 3.1.1, and as shown in Table 3. Blends incorporating
study aims to identify the further potential of RCA and reduce
coarse RCA were tested for physical properties, as can be seen in
the stigma of its commercial feasibility and performance.
Table 3. All aggregate gradations are shown in Fig. 1.
Table 1
Mix design composition.
Mix w/ Cement Slag Virgin coarse Virgin ne Coarse RCA Granular RCA Air entraining Mid-range water
ID c type replacement aggregate info aggregate info replacement replacement (%) admixture (l/m3) reducing admix. (l/m3)
(%) (%)
GU 0.4 GU 35 CSA Certied 20 mm CSA Certied 0 0 0.20 0.34
GUL 0.4 GUL 35 Crushed Limestone Concrete Sand 0 0 0.20 0.34
C10 0.4 GUL 35 10 0 0.20 0.34
C20 0.4 GUL 35 20 0 0.20 0.34
C30 0.4 GUL 35 30 0 0.20 0.34
G10 0.4 GUL 35 0 10 0.20 0.34
G20 0.4 GUL 35 0 20 0.20 0.34
Table 2 critical, for the same reason, thus sorptivity tests were also per-
Cementitious compositions of the cements used. formed for each mix according to ASTM C1585. Linear drying
Cementitious properties shrinkage tests were performed according to ASTM C157 on con-
Chemical GU cement GUL cement Slag
crete prisms with a cross section of 75 mm 75 mm (300 300 ).
SiO2 (%) 19.6 18 38.4
Al2O3 (%) 4.9 4.6 10.64 4. Results and discussion
Fe2O3 (%) 3.1 2.9 0.79
TiO2 (%) 0.71 4.1. Fresh properties
CaO (%) 61.4 60.1 34.2
MgO (%) 3 2.5 6.94
SO3 (%) 3.6 4.1 0.2 In order to best mimic conditions in the eld, slump and air
Alkalis as Na2O (%) 0.7 0.62 0.16 retention were measured at 15 min and again at 45 min to account
LOI (%) 2.3 5.5 3.09 for travel time from the plant to the construction site. Since a w/cm
Blaine (cm2/g) 3870 4880 4500
ratio of 0.4 was adhered to, it was necessary to add a High Range
+45 lm (%) 3 0.4 1
Density (g/cm3) 3.15 3.05 2.93 Water Reducer (HRWR) to each mix to achieve workable results.
The slumps of all seven mixes, including the two benchmark mixes,
were in the range of 105 10 mm, and all nal slump values were
concrete cylinders with a diameter of 100 mm according to ASTM
in the range of 75 5 mm. These results were consistent with those
C39, while exural strength testing was performed on rectangular
of other studies in which the nal slump of the RCA mix with
beams with dimensions as shown in Table 4. The exural strength
HRWR was found to be in the range of 80 10 mm [6]. The air con-
was tested using 3-point loading according to ASTM C78. Split ten-
tent of all seven mixes was in accordance with CSA standards
sile strength was determined using concrete cylinders with a
which ranged from 5% to 7.2%.
diameter of 100 mm, as outlined in ASTM C496. All mechanical
A common challenge in obtaining suitable fresh properties in
properties were determined for 7 and 28 days.
RAC comes from the paste attached to the stones which increases
porosity and water demand. This residual paste is relatively weak,
3.2.3. Durability properties and when it is handled, transported, or mixed, it experiences sig-
Structural concrete in a Canadian climate can be exposed to sev- nicant abrasion. The abraded material is ner and increases the
ere conditions, which included rapid freezing and thawing cycles, water demand of the mix. For this reason, all RCAs were used in
as well as daily chloride exposure. It is thus very important that a Saturated Surface Dry (SSD) condition, as suggested by West
the durability properties are not affected by the addition of RCA. et al. [7]. Fig. 2 summarizes the fresh property results.
The seven mixes were tested for their freezing and thawing resis-
tance, according to ASTM C666, for 200 cycles. Since this C-1 class 4.2. Mechanical properties
mix is steel reinforced according to CSA A23.1, the salt penetration
to the steel reinforcement is critical to the durability of the struc- 4.2.1. Compressive strength
ture. RCP testing was performed at 28 and 56 days, according to The minimum requirement for a C-1 Class mix for compressive
ASTM C1202. The absorption of water into the concrete is also strength is 35 MPa at 28 days according to CSA A23.1. Fig. 3 shows
Table 3
Aggregate properties for: virgin, RCA aggregates as well as the coarse RCA blends.
CSA A23.2-2A test Spec Concrete 19 mm Max virgin RCA granular RCA coarse Blend (RCA coarse
sand limestone (200 mm) (207 mm) aggregate:Virgin
limestone aggregate)
10:90 20:80 30:70
% Micro-Deval abrasion loss 14/17 9.6 7.3 21.1 20.8 9.1 10.2 11
max
% Flat and elongated 20 max 10 1 2 5 3 3
Accelerated mortar bar 0.150 max 0.036 0.051 0.045 0.043 0.048
Magnesium sulfate 12 max 2.8 2.8 3.6 0.6 0.5 1.1
soundness
% Wash loss (80 lm) 2 max 0.9 0.8 4 2.8 0.5 0.6 0.7
Low density particles 0.5/1 1.24 0.01 0.03 0.39
% Absorption 2 max 0.6 0.89 11.57 5.4 1.2 1.54 1.9
Relative density bulk 2.665 2.732 2.047 2.362 2.692 2.661 2.621
Relative density SSD 2.681 2.754 2.284 2.489 2.724 2.72 2.67
Relative density apparent 2.707 2.793 2.683 2.707 2.782 2.775 2.758
A. Lotfy, M. Al-Fayez / Cement & Concrete Composites 61 (2015) 3643 39
Table 4 5
60
Mechanical and durability properties testing protocol.
4
Mechanical and durability testing protocol
40 3
Parameter Specimen Specimens Total # of Dimensions
type per mix specimens (mm) 2
20
Compressive Cylinder 18 90 100 200 1
strength
Flexural Beam 2 10 540 155 155 0 0
strength GU GUL C10 C20 C30 G10 G20
Drying Prism 3 12 285 75 75 15 Minutes Air Content (%) 15 min
shrinkage 45 Minutes Air Content (%) 45 min
Rapid chloride Cylinder 4 20 100 200 Slump Upper Limit Air Content Upper Limit
permeability
Slump Lower Limit Air Content Lower Limit
Freezethaw Prism 3 12 285 75 75
resistance
Fig. 2. Slump retention, and air content of mixes at 15 and 45 min.
40 A. Lotfy, M. Al-Fayez / Cement & Concrete Composites 61 (2015) 3643
40
4.3. Durability properties
Compressive Strength (MPa)
35
4.3.1. Resistance to freezing and thawing
30
The performance of each mix was tested after approximately
25 300 cycles of freezing and thawing. Durability factor results are
shown in Table 5.
20
All specimens displayed adequate durability throughout the
15 cycles, and the C30 mix (with 30% coarse RCA) outperformed even
10 the two benchmark mixes. Similar performance has been observed
in other research where coarse RCA was used as a replacement to
5
natural coarse aggregate and improved its freeze thaw resistance,
0 outperforming the control mixture due to the air-entrained mortar
GU GUL C10 C20 C30 G10 G20 in the RCA [19,20]. However, a signicant decline in performance
7 Days 28 Days CSA Standard and durability was observed after only 90 cycles for the concrete
for 28 Days mixes with RCA in which the attached mortar was not air
entrained [19]. This suggests that in climates which undergo freez-
Fig. 3. Compressive strength results at 7 and 28 days.
ing and thawing, the RCA in a C-1 mix should contain residual mor-
tar which has been air-entrained. This is a challenge that concrete
becomes coarser, surface area is decreased, and less ITZ area is pre- producers will face due to the uncertainty of the parent concrete
sent. Since the ITZ is the controlling factor, in other words, the material, but may be mitigated with adequate quality control of
weakest component of the concrete matrix, having less ITZ will air admixture dosages during production. Also, in a country such
produce higher strength compared to a concrete with evidently as Canada, a signicant amount of the concrete placed is typically
more ITZ. This is why Meddah et al. [17] found that increasing air entrained. Even if it is hard to distinguish between the sources
maximum aggregate size, in turn increases strength. Hence ner of the RCA, it will be likely that a signicant portion of the RCA
gradations produced weaker strength in normal strength concrete. would have come from air-entrained concrete. Overall, all of the
This principle applies in the trial mixes which displayed inferior mixes exhibited adequate performance and resistance to freezing
performance for the granular RCA relative to coarse RCA. and thawing cycles, as shown in Table 5.
In addition to the increased presence of nes in the granular
RCA mixes, the reduction in strength is also attributed to the 4.3.2. Linear drying shrinkage
reduced quality of the nes replaced. Coarse RCA contains rem- Fig. 6 displays the drying shrinkage results for all seven trial
nants of virgin aggregate and residual paste. In general, the resid- mixes. The drying shrinkage experienced in all the mixes is rela-
ual paste on the RCA particle is weak [18] (washout concrete; tively similar with all the results at 28 days within 0.015% of the
weaker initial concrete), thus the coarser particles have a higher control mix. It was expected that linear drying shrinkage would
strength because the two components (residual paste and aggre- be higher for the RCA mixes, as seen in previous unpublished trials
gate) experience a better bond. West et al. [4] suggested that the by the authors conducted in controlled laboratory trials, given the
maximum mortar content of RCA should be less than 50%. Finer higher porosity of the attached mortar phase, and thus overall
RCA particles are more likely to be composed of residual paste. higher paste content. However, the difference was not observed
As the RCA is processed and handled, it is very easy for the nes in this study. The coarse RCA displayed equivalent performance
to wear off (abrade), as residual paste has a reduced hardness. to the control mixture, while the granular RCA mixes resulted in
This trend is observed in Fig. 5. Even with higher coarse RCA an overall higher drying shrinkage. This trend is similar to previous
replacement, splitting tensile strength is still higher than a smaller studies with RCA [21], and stated that the inclusion of HRWR sig-
replacement level of granular RCA. The combination of the increase nicantly reduced drying shrinkage in RAC. This trend is similar to
in nes, as well as the quality of the nes, in the granular RCA the trends found in the mechanical properties testing, and can be
5
9
4.5
8
4
Split Tensile Strength (MPa)
Modulus of Rupture (MPa)
7 3.5
6 3
5 2.5
4 2
3 1.5
2 1
1 0.5
0 0
GU GUL C10 C20 C30 G10 G20 GU GUL C10 C20 C30 G10 G20
7 Day 28 Day 7 Day 28 Day
Fig. 4. Flexural strength results at 7 and 28 days. Fig. 5. Splitting tensile results at 7 and 28 days.
A. Lotfy, M. Al-Fayez / Cement & Concrete Composites 61 (2015) 3643 41
Table 5 1800
Resistance of the specimens to freezing and thawing cycles.
1600
200
0
attributed to the increased nes, as well as the reduced quality of
GU GUL C10 C20 C30 G10 G20
the ne RCA, compared to virgin concrete aggregate. 28 Days 56 Days CSA Standard
4.3.3. Rapid chloride permeability Fig. 7. Rapid chloride permeability of specimens at 28 and 56 days.
All of the mixes in this study exhibited relatively low chloride
ion penetrability at 28 days, as per ASTM C1202, in the range of
0.016
10002000 C. CSA species that a maximum passing charge of
1500 C must be met by 56 days, and as is shown in Fig. 7, one of 0.014
Berndt [23] found that incorporating slag in a concrete mix signif- 0.002
icantly decreased the permeability, as the SCM particles take up 0
pore space and also help counteract the increase of permeability GU GUL C10 C20 C30 G10 G20
from the addition of RCA. In addition, a lower w/cm ratio decreases INITIAL SECONDARY
5. Conclusions
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