Quaternary Research 56, 390400 (2001)
doi:10.1006/qres.2001.2271, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on
Holocene Monsoon Changes Inferred from Lake Sediment Pollen
and Carbonate Records, Northeastern Cambodia
Andrew Lee Maxwell
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), P.O. Box 2467, Phnom Penh 3, Cambodia
E-mail: amaxwell@bigpond.com.kh
Received July 3, 2001; published online October 5, 2001
Major Holocene monsoon changes in continental Southeast Asia
are reconstructed from analysis of 14 C-dated changes in pollen
and organic/inorganic carbon in sediment cores taken from perma-
nent, closed-basin, volcanic lakes in Ratanakiri Province, north-
eastern Cambodia. Analysis focuses on the nature and timing of
monsoon changes, inferred from changes in vegetation and lake
conditions. These data provide the first well-dated palynological
record, covering most of the Holocene and continuous up to the
present, from a terrestrial site in mainland Southeast Asia. The
record from a 15-m core retrieved from Kara Lake, representing the
last 9300 years, shows that the late Glacial conditions ended about
8500 14 C yr B.P., more than 1000 years later than sites in south-
west China. Summer monsoon intensity increased over the period
ca. 84005300 14 C yr B.P., similar to most other sites in the Asian
monsoon region. A subsequent expansion of secondary forests at
the expense of dense semievergreen forests suggest a drier climate
leading to more frequent fire disturbance. After ca. 3500 14 C yr B.P.
disturbance frequency may have increased further with increasing
seasonality. From ca. 2500 14 C yr B.P. to the present, dense forest has
recovered in a mosaic with annually burned dry forest, but climate
may not be the main control on local vegetation dynamics in the late
Holocene. 2001 University of Washington.
C
INTRODUCTION
Proxy records of late Quaternary climate change from the
Asian monsoon region generally show three major events in
post-Glacial monsoon dynamics: 1) a PleistoceneHolocene
transition, involving change from cold, dry late Glacial con-
ditions to warmer, more humid conditions; 2) an early to mid-
Holocene precipitation maximum; and 3) a mid- to late Holocene
transition to drier conditions, usually involving stronger season-
ality (Sun and Chen, 1991; Overpeck et al., 1996; Maxwell and
Liu, in press). Marine records and models suggest that the timing
of this sequence of changes within the region can be attributed to
forcing by changes in Northern Hemisphere solar radiation, re-
lated to Earth orbital (Milankovitch) cycles (Hayes et al., 1976;
Kutzbach and Guetter, 1986), although sea-surface temperatures
and Eurasian snow cover are also significant factors (Clemens
et al., 1991; Overpeck et al., 1996).
0033-5894/01 $35.00
Copyright C 2001 by the University of Washington.
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
However, the few terrestrial records available from South and
Southeast Asia do not reveal a uniform, synchronous response
to summer radiation surpluses in the monsoon region (Maxwell
and Liu, in press). Although almost all records show that precip-
itation was relatively high between 7500 and 5700 14 C yr B.P.,
timing of the strengthening and weakening of the monsoon
varies significantly among sites. Many terrestrial records from
the region have problems with their chronologies, and the ge-
ographical distribution of sites providing good quality data is
limited.
To help address these problems, lake sediments in northeast-
ern Cambodia provide here the first palynological record from
a terrestrial site in continental Southeast Asia to represent most
of the Holocene, continuous up to the present. This record is
also significant for representing a lowland tropical forest setting
in Asia. The research is geographically significant for extend-
ing coverage of the Holocene paleoclimatic database to a new
region, a region essential to the study of monsoon dynamics.
STUDY AREA
Sediment cores came from three volcanically derived lakes
in Ratanakiri Province, northeastern Cambodia (Fig. 1). The
study area occupies a position at the southeastern margins of the
Asian monsoon region, as defined by Ramage (1971; Fig. 2).
Climate is monsoonal. At Stung Treng (the closest station with
long-term records), mean annual precipitation is 1823 mm, 90%
of which falls during the southwesterly monsoon period, from
May to October (Gaussen et al., 1967). The study sites lie in
a regional scale ecotone between more moist highland areas to
the northeast (Koppens Am) and more seasonal lowlands to the
southwest (Aw; Nieuwolt, 1981).
Northeastern Cambodia and adjacent parts of southern Laos
and Vietnam are covered by a rich diversity of forest and wetland
vegetation types (Fig. 3). Rollet (1962) classified the forests ac-
cording to two broad categories, dense (semievergreen) forests
and dry (deciduous) forests, but with an important intermedi-
ate type called semidense, or mixed deciduous. Denser forest
types are found in areas where terrain encourages higher mean
annual precipitation or where the fertile basaltic soils allow
390
 HOLOCENE MONSOON CHANGES IN CAMBODIA
FIG. 1. Locator maps for places mentioned in the text: a) countries of
continental Southeast Asia; b) eastern Cambodia, with provinces, major towns,
and major rivers.
more even moisture availability throughout the year. There is
a high diversity among dominant trees (Schmid [1974] lists
more than 25 principal species in the canopy) mostly in the
families Dipterocarpaceae, Leguminosae, Meliaceae, Combre-
taceae, and Lythraceae, among others. Dry forests, dominated
by a few species in the Dipterocarpaceae, reflect lowland condi-
tions including a pronounced dry season, poor soil fertility and
drainage, and frequent fires.
Secondary forests mostly reflect recovery of dense or semi-
dense forests. Pioneer succession is of gap-specialist trees, plus
mixed herbaceous and shrub vegetation, which can become
purely herbaceous if the clearing is frequent, e.g., every
23 years. This loss of forest cover is the most serious effect of
shortening the cultivationfallow cycle of swidden agriculture,
a pattern which is increasingly common as population increases
and pressure on the forests becomes more intense than in the past.
Archaeological data to elucidate land-use history are lacking
from the study area. The closest documented sites consist of
temples and inscriptions along the Mekong River, near Stung
391
Treng, Cambodia, and near Pakse, Laos, produced during the
Chenla period, perhaps ca. 600 A.D. (Briggs, 1951, Higham,
1989). Piecing together the land-use history of the study area,
and its impact on vegetation history, is complicated (Maxwell
and Colm, 1997) and will be covered in more detail in a subse-
quent article.
Of the lakes cored for this study, Kara is surrounded by semi-
evergreen forest, but in a larger dry deciduous forest mosaic
(location, 13 330 N, 107 080 E; elevation 150 m above sea level
(asl)). Yeak Laom and Lumkat lakes, whose core tops were
used to analyze surface pollen deposition, represent secondary
forestswidden cultivation and dry deciduous forest, respec-
tively (Yeak Laom, 13 440 N, 107 010 E; elevation, 300 m asl;
Lumkat, 13 320 N, 107 110 E; elevation, 135 m asl).
METHODS
Core BYK2 was retrieved from Kara Lake on March 89,
1996, using a modified Livingstone corer (Wright et al., 1984).
Core sections were shipped to Louisiana State University Bio-
geography and Quaternary Paleoecology Laboratory for pro-
cessing. To establish a chronology for the core, eight samples
were sent to Beta Analytic for 14 C analysis.
Samples for loss-on-ignition (LOI) testing were taken at 6-cm
intervals from throughout the cores. Weight loss was measured
after drying at 105 C (water content), and after combustion at
550 C (organic carbon) and 1000 C (inorganic carbon or car-
bonate; Dean, 1974).
Pollen reference material was prepared using material from
voucher specimens from the Missouri Botanical Garden, the
U.S. National Herbarium, Chiang Mai University Herbaria of
the Biology Department and of the School of Pharmacy, and the
Bailey Hortorium of Cornell University. Additional material was
obtained from Dr. B. K. Maloney of Queens University, Belfast.
Identification also depended on Academia Sinica (1982) and
Huang (1972).
The sediments were treated chemically according to the stan-
dard procedure outlined in Faegri and Iversen (1975). Exotic
spores of Lycopodium sp. were added to allow calculations of
pollen concentration and influx (Stockmarr, 1971). Eighty-five
samples were processed and counted from core BYK2.
Pollen types and charcoal particles in each sample were
counted on a Leica ATC 2000 compound microscope mostly at
400X, except where difficulty in identification required higher
magnification.
At least 300 identifiable pollen grains and pteridophyte spores
were counted in each sample. This total count includes unknown
types (visible and in decent condition but unmatched to any
reference type), and the total count is the basis for percentage
calculations. In some cases where the pollen assemblage was
heavily dominated by one type (Tetrameles), counts totaling at
least 200 other grains were made. Counts were entered into
a spreadsheet and plotted using Tilia and Tilia-Graph (Grimm
1991, 1992).
392 ANDREW LEE MAXWELL
FIG. 2. Present-day southwesterly monsoon flow in mainland Southeast Asia, generalized from July surface winds (adapted from Ramage, 1971; Hastenrath
and Lamb, 1979; Zhang and Lin, 1985).
Charcoal counts, made by the grid/area method (Patterson
et al., 1987) were made of all samples. Those counts are not
reported here because interpretation of the charcoal record refers
frequently to land-use factors, which will be discussed in a sub-
sequent paper.
RESULTS
Sediment Characteristics and Loss-on-Ignition
Much of core BYK2 is composed of fine-grained sediments
of less than 50% organic content, but some sections are marked
by distinct carbonate laminae. Patterns in sediment texture and
color and in the three LOI variables (Fig. 4) may be broken down
into three general periods as follows.
First, below 1270 cm, the sediments, other than anomalous
laminae at 1380 cm, are consistently dark, fine-grained gyttja
(Munsells color 2.5Y 2.5/1). Water content is relatively low,
averaging ca. 6570%, while organic carbon content hovers at
ca. 1517%, and carbonate is steady at 2.53%. The anomaly at
1380 cm is a foreshadowing of an upcore pattern, discussed be-
low, with distinct, finely alternating carbonateorganic laminae.
Second, a boundary in sediment characteristics at 1270-cm
depth is marked most distinctly by the abrupt introduction of
carbonate laminae, which persist with varying frequency up to
ca. 730 cm. These are horizontal layers of carbonate, 14 mm
thickness, alternating with organic sediments. These laminae
were not subjected to elemental analysis but are considered car-
bonate because of high relative weight loss at 1000 C LOI (6
30%) and because of their strong reaction to 10% HCl. Texture
for these layers is fine grained and chalky; their color 2.5Y 6/4.
Organic layers dispersed through this section of the core are
composed of dark, fine-grained organic matter (color 2.5Y 4/2
and 2.5Y 3/2), only about 1 mm thick at the lower end.
Third, in the uppermost section of the core, from 730 cm to the
top, sediments are visually unremarkable. The color changes to a
slightly greener hue, 5Y 3/2. There are a few sections of slightly
redder hue (10YR 3/2), and these sediments are slightly more
fibrous. The general trends going up the core over this section
are for water content to stay high, organic content to rise with
marked fluctuations, and carbonate to decrease with only a few
minor peaks.
Chronology
Results of radiocarbon age determinations are presented in
Table 1. The carbonate laminae described above appear to affect
age determinations, as indicated by the spuriously old dates for
high-carbonate samples Beta-98723 and Beta-112546, which
were not used in calculating the core chronology. The former
samples measured age is ca. 3000 years older than what is ex-
pected by interpolating between the ages of low-carbonate sam-
ples. The working core chronology described in Fig. 4 uses all
BYK2 ages with carbonate contents of less than 4%, and this
is the chronology used in all subsequent age calculations for
BYK2. There is a possibility that all samples have some old car-
bon contamination, but the correspondence between the acceler-
ator mass spectrometry (AMS) charcoal sample and an adjacent
 HOLOCENE MONSOON CHANGES IN CAMBODIA 393

FIG. 3. Vegetation in the study area. a) Eastern Cambodia (adapted from Rollet, 1962); b) area adjacent to two coring sites, from aerial photographs interpreted
by the author (Yeak Laom lake not shown).
394 ANDREW LEE MAXWELL

sample seems to be distinguished by what it does not contain,

i.e., pollen from the dominant trees in dry deciduous forest.

FIG. 4. Loss-on-ignition and water content, by section, core BYK2.
bulk sample (Beta-112545 and Beta-95638, respectively) sug-
gests that low carbonate sample ages are accurate.
Pollen Stratigraphy
Pollen assemblage changes in core BYK2 are summarized by
percentages for the more abundant taxa in Figs. 6 and 7. Less
abundant types that would not be visible in a percentage display
are represented by their accumulation rates in Fig. 8. Four zones
have been identified by visual inspection, the upper three of
which are further divided into two subzones.
YK-4, 15001280 cm, 93008530 14 C yr B.P.: Highland/sub-
tropical types (Quercus, Lithocarpus/Castanopsis, Pinus) and
Gramineae clearly are more prevalent in zone 4 than in any
other time period since then. Adina, Ficus, Lagerstroemia, and
the small Moraceae/Urticaceae combine to give semievergreen
forest significant representation in this zone where Tetrameles
maintains a low average, below 10%. Several taxa, such as
Lagerstroemia, Ficus, Adina, and Eugenia, show a spiky pat-
tern, oscillating abruptly between near-zero levels and 510%.
Although Cyperaceae are relatively abundant, especially in the
upper part of the zone, other Wetland/riparian indicators are
sparsely represented.
YK-3B, 12801230 cm, 85308240 14 C yr B.P.: This zone
is primarily transitional between YK-4 and YK-3A. Tetrameles
falls to below 5%, and Quercus and Pinus also decline. There is
a minor peak in the small Moraceae/Urticaceae and slightly ele-
vated values for Ficus. It is at this level in the core that carbonate
laminae appear and persist upcore, as discussed above.
YK-3A, 1230730 cm, 82405440 14 C yr B.P.: Tetrameles
increases from the base of the zone, culminating in peaks at
1000 cm and 730 cm. Two dipterocarps important in the canopy
vegetation, Hopea and Anisoptera, show highest influx values
for the core in this zone, and the forest tree Carallia also is
abundant. Other forest indicators are steady but show slight de-

Surface Samples
TABLE 1
Core top samples from three lakes (Kara, Yeak Laom, and Radiocarbon Age Determinations, Core BYK2, Kara Lake,
Lumkat) represent a spectrum of vegetation types from the study Ratanakiri, Cambodia
area (Fig. 5). Semievergreen and riparian forests around Kara Beta
(core BYK2) are represented by abundant Tetrameles and Myr- Depth 14 CAge analytic, Carbonate
taceae. Other types common in that surface sample include (cm) (yr B.P.) lab number (%) Method, material
Ficus and other Moraceae, Elaeocarpus, Stenochlaena, and 62 440 80 95637 2.74 Standard, bulk, 240 g wet
small Combretaceae/Melastomataceae. 357 2820 80 110329 2.61 Standard, bulk, 200 g wet
Mixed semievergreen and riparian forest, secondary forest 611 4770 90 98722 3.93 Standard, bulk, 160 g wet
and scrub, and swidden agriculture around Yeak Laom (BYL6) 1030 10, 350 170 98723 8.11 Standard, bulk, 160 g wet
are represented most abundantly by Gramineae and Trema. The 1255 21, 560 350 112546 24.91 Standard, untreated
sediment, bulk, 45 g wet
only types more frequent in BYL6 than in the other two samples 1255 8350 70 112545 0 AMS, charcoal, 6 mg
are Hopea, Trema, Macaranga, and a small number of Pinus 1276 8510 110 95638 2.26 Standard, ext. counting,
grains. bulk, 140 g wet
Dry deciduous dipterocarp forest around Lumkat (BLK) con- 1496 9300 50 92736 2.46 AMS, bulk, 12 g wet
tributes mostly Gramineae, Myrtaceae, Adina, and some
Note. All dates reported are corrected for 13 C, but the 13 C/12 C ratio was
Tetrameles. This surface sample suggests that Adina may be actually measured only in sample numbers 92736, 112545, and 112546, while
a useful indicator of dry deciduous forest, although it is a dom- in the remaining samples the ratio of 25.0% was estimated.
inant tree in semievergreen forests (Schmid, 1974). The BLK AMS = accelerator mass spectrometry.
 HOLOCENE MONSOON CHANGES IN CAMBODIA 395

FIG. 5. Core-top samples, selected pollen percentages.

creases in influx values in the upper portion of the zone, e.g.
Lagerstroemia, Adina comp., and Ficus. Eugenia decreases both
in the lower and upper portions of this zone.
Forest understory taxa, including the subcanopy climbing
palm Calamus and other Palmae types, peak at ca. 1100 cm, drop
off, then rebound to relatively high levels at ca. 850700 cm.
Gramineae remain at low levels. Algae, especially Pediastrum,
peak abruptly at the 1220 cm level, then maintain low but steady
numbers through the remainder of the zone. Highland/sub-
tropical taxa are relatively lower but steady through this pe-
riod. The wetland taxa lose in Cyperaceae, while gaining in
Stenochlaena and Blyxa. This zone is also marked by strong
fluctuations in the carbonate content of the core, with a mean
value over 15%.
YK-2B, 730590 cm, 54404600 14 C yr B.P.: Above the high
peak for Tetrameles marking the lower boundary of this zone,
disturbance indicators predominate. Trema rises to a peak of
over 20%, after a mostly insignificant presence in the lower
zones. Mallotus, Macaranga, and Phyllanthus also increase.
Compositae, which may be Chromolaena, show significant pres-
ence at a few levels. The small Combretaceae/Melastomataceae,
which could represent the pioneer vine Memecylon, peaks at
ca. 700 cm. Gramineae rebound slightly in this zone. Forest
understory taxa and Highland/subtropical types decrease. Total
pollen influx is relatively high. After an intial peak at ca. 700 cm
the carbonate proportion in the sediments declines to about 5%.
YK-2A, 590280 cm, 46002180 14 C yr B.P.: This zone is
most distinctly characterized by dominance of Eugenia and

FIG. 6. Selected pollen percentages, core BYK2.

396 ANDREW LEE MAXWELL

FIG. 7. Grouped taxa percentages, loss-on-ignition and charcoal, core BYK2.

further decrease of Tetrameles. Although Trema diminishes in
importance, it maintains a steady and significant signal through
this zone. This zone contains relatively high values for Adina,
a forest tree found in formations transitional to dry forests;
Careya, a dry forest tree; and Grewia, a pioneer and secondary
forest small tree. Gramineae also increase, particularly in the
upper part of the zone. Wetland/riparian taxa also gain some-
what, but not specifically Cyperaceae. Secondary/disturbance
taxa follow Trema, diminishing from the peak in YK-2B but
remaining high throughout zone YK-2. Pteridophytes drop out
almost completely, except for the top samples.
YK-1B, 28080 cm, 2180580 14 C yr B.P.: The zone bound-
ary is marked by a resurgence of the Tetrameles to values over
30%. However, certain other forest trees, e.g., Hopea, Anisoptera

FIG. 8. Pollen accumulation rates (influx), selected types and groupings, core BYK2.
 HOLOCENE MONSOON CHANGES IN CAMBODIA
and Carallia, do not follow suit. Eugenia declines slightly in the
upper part of the zone, a pattern echoed by Trema and Grewia.
Among grouped taxa, Forest understory types increase. High-
land/subtropical types rebound somewhat, probably due to rises
in Celtis and Holoptelea, rather than the types dominant in zone
YK-4 (Pinus and Quercus). Dry forest types and Gramineae
decrease slightly.
YK-1A, 80 cmcore top, 580 14 C yr B.P.present: Trends
beginning in YK-1B mostly continue, but changing lake and lo-
cal riparian conditions are the probable triggers for increases in
Wetland/riparian types, e.g., the large Myrtaceae type (proba-
bly a swamp Syzygium sp.), and the swamp tree Elaeocarpus.
Secondary/disturbance types decline slightly.
In summary, Zone YK-4 shows relative importance for
Gramineae and Highland/subtropical types. YK-3B is transi-
tional. YK-3A is dominated by dense forest types, both canopy
and understory. YK-2B marks a shift in relative importance to
secondary forest pioneers, and YK-2A to more Gramineae, dis-
turbance indicators, and relatively drier forest types. YK-1B
represents a shift back to denser forest types, and YK-1A is
similar to YK-1B but shows increases for aquatic and riparian
types.
DISCUSSION
Pleistocene-Holocene Transition
For at least 1000 years before 8400 14 C yr B.P., the study area
was cooler and drier than present. During that period, the ele-
vational range of submontane Fagaceae and Pinus types was
probably lower, and the elevational shift could have translated
into an expansion of range, locating them closer to Kara Lake.
Although these taxa do occur and may be frequent in forests
as low as 50 m elevation (Rollet, 1972), all are more abundant
in higher elevation forests (Vidal, 1960; Rollet, 1972; Schmid,
1974). Pinus merkusii is known to be abundant in the central
highlands of Vietnam (Schmid, 1974) but is listed from only
one location in eastern Cambodia (Rollet, 1972). Fagaceae are
common in submontane forests in adjacent parts of Vietnam and
Laos (Vidal, 1960; Schmid, 1974).
In addition to the Highland/subtropical pollen types, however,
tropical types also are common in zone YK-4. Adina, Carallia,
Lagerstroemia, Ficus and the small Moraceae/Urticaceae, and
Hopea all occur in relatively high numbers, and all are distinctly
tropical. Of these, Adina and Lagerstroemia can be taken as in-
dicators of drier subtypes of forest, the semidense forest (Rollet,
1962, 1972; Schmid, 1974). The occurrence of these taxa sug-
gest that forest around the lake was at least partly semievergreen,
but of a drier type than present.
Grasses were important in the vegetation. Influx values for
Gramineae are comparable to those in the modern sediments
from Lumkat Lake, suggesting that open forest grew right up
to the edge of Kara before 8400 14 C yr B.P. and that the trop-
ical semievergreen elements grew only in part of the riparian
397
fringe. The near absence of palms, pteridophytes, and the re-
duced semievergreen forest elements all point toward a climate
significantly drier than present.
Almost all of the conditions described in the preceding para-
graphs changed beginning at ca. 8400 14 C yr B.P. Grasses proba-
bly ceased to dominate lakeside vegetation. Highland/subtropical
elements declined, although the Fagaceae had already begun to
decline by ca. 8800 14 C yr B.P. Of the tropical forest pollen
types, Adina drops off, but Lagerstroemia, Ficus, Carallia, and
Hopea all maintain abundances that suggest that the semiever-
green forest lost no ground at the 8400 14 C yr B.P. threshold. The
gradual decline in Cyperaceae pollen is taken as indicating that
lake edge habitat diminished from the former period, probably
due to a rise in lake level.
The initiation of carbonate precipitation during the period
of pollen zone YK-3B reflects an abrupt environmental change
from the previous period. Supersaturation, leading to carbonate
precipitation, can result from a rise in water temperature, which
decreases solubility of calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ), and/or by
an increase in biological productivity, when increased photo-
synthesis by submerged aquatic plants and algae removes CO2
from the water. The conditions which influence either satura-
tion or precipitation of calcite are complicated (Kelts and Hsu,
1978; Tucker and Wright, 1990; Aravena et al., 1992), and fac-
tors other than temperature and productivity may be involved in
the lake chemistry of Kara, but the interpretation followed here
is that lake productivity and/or temperature increased beginning
ca. 8400 14 C yr B.P. The extreme algae bloom at 1215 cm depth
supports that suggestion. It is unlikely that the carbonate lami-
nae represent sediment transport from outside the lake because
no surface carbonates are mapped in the region, and none were
observed during fieldwork.
This abrupt transition to a warmer, more humid climate at the
boundary of zones YK-4 and YK-3B resembles a pattern already
described for Sichuan and, possibly, Yunnan Provinces in south-
west China (Sun et al., 1986; Li and Liu, 1988; Jarvis, 1993),
which has been attributed to an increase in monsoon strength
closing the cool late Glacial phase. The transition indicated
for Cambodia, however, occurred later than similar changes at
other sites in the region. At Lake Shayema in Sichuan, cool-
climate taxa began to decline in abundance at 10,000 14 C yr B.P.,
and, except for a brief surge in Abies/Picea, there was a grad-
ual shift to tropical, more seasonal vegetation over 6000 years,
with evergreen monsoonal tree types reaching peak abundance
by 4000 14 C yr B.P. (Jarvis, 1993). At Dianchi Lake, Yunnan,
changes reflected in the main core DZ-18 begin about the same
time as in Sichuan (Sun et al., 1986). However, Dianchi core
DZ-13, with more straightforward stratigraphy and simpler
chronology (i.e., probably less sediment mixing) than DZ-18,
shows a distinct rise in warm humid evergreen taxa and declines
in Pinus and Gramineae only after 8700 14 C yr B.P. (Sun et al.,
1986).
Regarding the late change in Cambodia, northeast Thailand
may have been subject to a dry climate and loess deposition
398 ANDREW LEE MAXWELL
as late as 8200 14 C yr B.P. (Udomchoke, 1989; Boonsener,
1991). Although that does not jibe with the findings of increas-
ing forest cover at 8500 14 C yr B.P. by Kealhofer and Penny
(1998), some uncertainties in the chronologies of each of the
studies leave open the possibility that a dry late Glacial pe-
riod lasted longer in the Indochina peninsula than in southwest
China.
To explain the lag in climatic transition for Indochina, con-
sider the source area for monsoon precipitation. With summer
monsoon winds coming from the southwest, the Gulf of Thai-
land may be a major source of moisture for precipitation falling
in the southern Indochina region. During the last glacial maxi-
mum (LGM), when sea level fell as much as 120 m in the South
China Sea, the entire Gulf of Thailand was dry, with only a
major river flowing out of the Chao Phraya Valley into a large
embayment north of Borneo, what is now the South China Sea.
Although sea level recovered quickly, by 11,00010,000 14 C yr
B.P, it was still significantly lower than present, i.e., 66 m be-
low present level at 11,000 14 C yr B.P. (Biswas, 1973), 40 m
below present at 10,000 14 C yr B.P. (Zhao et al., 1979; Yan and
Hong, 1988), and more than 20 m below present at 8000 14 C
yr B.P. (Geyh et al., 1979). These observations indicate that the
majority of the shallow Gulf of Thailand was still dry at the time
when vegetation farther north in China was beginning to reflect
the intensified monsoon.
In addition, slow post-Glacial forest recovery may have de-
layed the ability of terrestrial vegetation to recycle moisture
to downstream monsoon winds. This inability of the terrestrial
vegetation to reinforce monsoon moisture would have been ex-
aggerated over savannas which are now extensive floodplains
around the Tonle Sap and Mekong Delta. Around 10,000 years
ago these rivers would have been narrower, more deeply incised,
and without the extensive floodplain wetlands found in the area
today.
Finally, the lag in climate warming could be due to effects of
ocean circulation. The sea-level drop associated with the LGM
caused the South China Sea region to be cut off from the equa-
torial oceanic circulation influencing maritime climates in the
region today. The gradual recovery of sea level in the late Glacial
period should have translated into a gradual recovery of the mar-
itime nature of regional climates, specifically in areas such as
southwestern and southern China dependent on oceanic waters
to feed monsoon moisture.
Without data from earlier than 9300 14 C yr B.P., it is im-
possible to say for sure that the drier, cooler conditions repre-
sented in sediments at the bottom of BYK2 were continuous
with the end of the Glacial era. But the pattern of change across
the YK4/YK3B pollen zone boundary is strongly suggestive of
the PleistoceneHolocene transition. Because the transition was
usually a two-step event at most sites (Overpeck et al., 1996),
the changes at the top of zone YK-4 probably represent the last
stage in the regional PleistoceneHolocene transition. It does
appear to have occurred later than analogous change at sites in
China, except possibly at central Yunnan.
Holocene Monsoon Maximum
The relatively abrupt PleistoceneHolocene transition was
followed by a period of strong summer monsoons. Indicators
include sediment lithology, discussed above, plus the presence
of ostracoda in the sediments younger than 8400 14 C yr B.P., both
of which point to a higher lake level during the period 8400
5300 14 C yr B.P.
Pollen taxa indicate expansion of dense semievergreen for-
est through zone YK-3A. Tetrameles occurs as an emergent in
semievergreen forest, and it is through this pollen zone that it
builds to as much as 50% of the total pollen sum. Hopea and
Anisoptera would have been frequent emergents in the forest,
and Carallia also reflects dense forests or riparian settings, al-
though its pollen is relatively rare. Palmae types, which all build
to peak values in zone YK-3A, probably reflect a gradually richer
evergreen understory in the forest.
The trend reflected by these types is one of increasing forest
density ca. 84005300 14 C yr B.P. Taxa such as Adina, Lager-
stroemia, and perhaps Crypteronia suggest that the forest was
initially slightly drier. The upper half of the zone shows increased
importance for representatives of a more evergreen forest type,
Hopea, Anisoptera, and the palms. As Tetrameles is deciduous,
it is interesting that it shows a decrease in importance at the point
in the record, 67005700 14 C yr B.P., when Hopea, Calamus,
and small Moraceae/Urticaceae (probably a type of Ficus) show
relative peaks. This can be taken as the peak period of moisture
availability.
The question naturally arises as to whether the increase in
moisture availability after 8400 14 C yr B.P. represents a stronger
summer monsoon or whether it could be indicating a perhumid
climate resulting from weaker seasonal controls on the rainfall
distribution. Several of the most abundant and consistent taxa
in the whole Kara record are found, in the present day, in tropi-
cal lowland monsoonal forests. In particular, Lagerstroemia and
Adina are clear indicators of this forest type, both common in
India and neither common in Malaysia nor subtropical China.
Tetrameles also is most important in strongly monsoonal set-
tings, although its range extends throughout the SundaSahul
region. These taxa wax and wane in importance in core BYK2,
but they never completely disappear from the pollen assemblage,
which shows that the climate of the study area was probably
monsoonal throughout the last 9300 yr.
Seasonality is also strongly implied by the sediment lam-
inations, which are most distinct during initial stages of the
monsoon strengthening, 84008000 14 C yr B.P. The lamina-
tions are best explained as reflecting strong seasonal differences
in lake productivity, in turn reflecting the monsoonal precipita-
tion regime. Since the deciduous tree indicator species and the
sediment laminations, taken together, show the prevailing mon-
soonal climate, indicators of relatively moist conditions during
the period 84005300 14 C yr B.P. clearly support the inference
of a strong summer monsoon for that period. It is not clear,
however, whether that monsoon was stronger than present.
 HOLOCENE MONSOON CHANGES IN CAMBODIA
Mid-Holocene to Late Holocene Changes
Changes in pollen at the beginning of zone YK-2B,
ca. 5300 14 C yr B.P., indicate a climatic shift to drier conditions.
Increased abundances of disturbance taxa, especially Trema and
Gramineae, are accompanied by declines in Tetrameles, Ficus,
and Palmae. The disturbance taxa can be seen as reflecting an
increase in fire activity that expanded the total area of the forest
in early successional phase. Charcoal abundance in the sedi-
ments, to be discussed in a subsequent article, increased during
this period (Maxwell, 1999). Presumably, the fire activity in-
creased as the monsoon weakened, the dry season became more
pronounced, and late dry-season thunderstorms caused more fre-
quent forest fires.
Further changes at ca. 4700 14 C yr B.P. imply continued
frequent disturbances, but with succession after disturbance to
a generally drier forest type. Trema declines from a peak at
ca. 5000 14 C yr B.P. but continues at a comparatively high level.
The succession trend is indicated by the rise in Adina types,
the large Combretaceae/Melastomataceae type, Eugenia, and a
very slight rise in Lagerstroemia. The fact that these types repre-
sent forest assemblages, and not just pioneer herbaceous succes-
sion or cultivation, may support the idea that the mid-Holocene
change is attributable to a drying trend in climate rather than to
an increase in anthropogenic burning.
Beginning about 3500 14 C yr B.P. a more subtle change finds
increasing abundance of Gramineae accompanied by the few
significant values for Careya, an unambiguous indicator of dry
deciduous forest. Other indicators of dry conditions continue at
relatively high levels up to ca. 2500 14 C yr B.P.
Beginning at ca. 2500 14 C yr B.P., a suite of changes in the re-
cord implies a final late Holocene recovery of monsoon strength.
Decreases in some Wetland/riparian taxa may reflect an increase
in lake level at that time. The abrupt recovery of Tetrameles
to high values, gradual recovery of Palmae and Ficus, and de-
clines in Gramineae, Trema, Adina, and small Combretaceae/
Melastomataceae, all suggest an increase in available moisture.
The eventual decline in Eugenia pollen at ca. 1500 14 C yr B.P.
reinforces the suggestion, if that taxon is taken as an indicator
of a drier forest.
After ca. 600 14 C yr B.P. further declines in Trema and
Gramineae amplify the impression of reduced forest disturbance.
The prominent rise in large Myrtaceae and Elaeocarpus pollen
may be due to expanding swamp habitat, but it is difficult to
conclude whether their recovery is due to a regional climatic
trend supporting an increase in available moisture or is just a
local expansion of the lakes littoral and riparian zones.
There are some confounding factors in the inference of mon-
soon strengthening at 2500 14 C yr B.P. Other than a very subtle
and intermittent rise in Ficus, Tetrameles is the only forest taxon
showing a recovery at that time. With Tetrameles excluded from
the pollen sum (not shown), the increase in importance of dense
forest at the zone boundary is practically imperceptible. It is
possible that the forest recovered to a type dominated by a few
399
Dipterocarps and a variety of Leguminosae, taxa which con-
tribute practically nothing to the pollen rain. Such a vegetation
assemblage is plausible, and Tetrameles may serve as a good
indicator for that forest type, but it is a weak argument to base
the inference of climate change on sparse or absent pollen types.
Declines in the disturbance and dry forest indicators mentioned
above do suggest a reduction in the extent of secondary forests
and savanna, but a reduction in the frequency of forest distur-
bance does not necessarily reflect climatic change. By the late
Holocene, the regional disturbance regime was probably signif-
icantly affected by human activity.
CONCLUSION
The proxy record from Cambodian lake sediments shows a
relatively late final transition from cool, dry late Glacial con-
ditions at ca. 8400 14 C yr B.P. Monsoon strength increased in
the period 84005300 14 C yr B.P. Subsequent conditions were
drier, and perhaps warmer, than present. The local environment
changed significantly again at 2500 14 C yr B.P., but this record
does not show whether that last change is primarily attributable
to climate.
Taken together with records from southwest China and
throughout the monsoon region, these data suggest that sub-
regional controls on climate and vegetation may be important in
modulating the effects of orbital changes and associated radia-
tion shifts, as they force changes in the monsoon regime.
The study area described here has a rich potential for provid-
ing further detailed paleoecological records. Subsequent work
should seek to lengthen the record and to clarify when and how
nonclimatic factors, e.g., human land-use, affected the regional
environment, particularly in the late Holocene.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Primary funding for this research came from the U.S. National Science Foun-
dation (Grant No. SBR-9506344). Additional funding came from the Geological
Society of America, the Louisiana State University Department of Geography
and Anthropologys R.C. West Fund, Sigma Xi, and the Association of Ameri-
can Geographers (AAG) Dissertation Research Grant, Biogeography Specialty
Group, and Anne U. White Fund.
I thank my advisor, Professor Kam-biu Liu, for his guidance and support in
this project. I also thank Professor Peter Kershaw and acknowledge the generous
help of the late Dr. Bernard Maloney. Material for pollen reference material was
provided by the Missouri Botanical Garden and by Dr. James Maxwell of Chiang
Mai University.
The project would not have been possible without assistance from the Royal
Government of Cambodia, in particular from the Minister of Environment,
Dr. Mok Mareth, and from the Department of Nature Conservation staff Yem
Sokhan. In Banlung, I am especially grateful for help and hard work from Provin-
cial Environment Department Deputy Chief Koy Sokha and staff member Kham
SuLot. Others who provided valuable help include Sara Colm, Seng Kunming,
Gerbe Spoorenberg, Connell Foley, David Ashwell, and Joki VanBrink.
I am very grateful for the support and hospitality given this project by
Seda commune chief, the late Khaem Kham, by Chrey village chief Lu Ay,
and by the people of Samut Kraom and Chrey villages.
This article is dedicated to the memory of Dr. Bernard Maloney, one of
the foremost experts on Southeast Asian palaeoecology, who passed away in
400 ANDREW LEE MAXWELL
October 2000. His dedication, generosity, and valuable insights will be
missed.
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