CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY

S
Work done by a force: When a constant force F acts on
S
#
W = F s = Fs cos f
S
(6.2), (6.3) F'
S
F W 5 Fis
S
a particle that undergoes a straight-line displacement s , S S 5 (F cos f)s
f = angle between F and s f
the work done by the force on the particle is dened to
S S
be the scalar product of F and s . The unit of work in Fi 5 F cosf
SI units is 1 joule = 1 newton-meter 11 J = 1 N # m2.
Work is a scalar quantity; it can be positive or negative,
but it has no direction in space. (See Examples 6.1
and 6.2.)

Kinetic energy: The kinetic energy K of a particle equals K = 12 mv2 (6.5) m 2m

S S
the amount of work required to accelerate the particle v v
from rest to speed v. It is also equal to the amount of
work the particle can do in the process of being brought Doubling m doubles K.
to rest. Kinetic energy is a scalar that has no direction in
space; it is always positive or zero. Its units are the same
as the units of work: 1 J = 1 N # m = 1 kg # m2>s2.
m m
S S
v 2v

Doubling v quadruples K.

The workenergy theorem: When forces act on a parti- Wtot = K2 - K1 = K (6.6) Wtot 5 Total work done on
m
cle while it undergoes a displacement, the particles v1 particle along path
kinetic energy changes by an amount equal to the total
v2
work done on the particle by all the forces. This rela- m
tionship, called the workenergy theorem, is valid K1 5 1
2
mv12
whether the forces are constant or varying and whether
1
the particle moves along a straight or curved path. It is K2 5 2
mv22 5 K1 1 Wtot
applicable only to bodies that can be treated as particles.
(See Examples 6.36.5.)

x2
Work done by a varying force or on a curved path: When
W = Fx dx (6.7)
a force varies during a straight-line displacement, the Lx1 Area 5 Work done by
Fx
work done by the force is given by an integral, Eq. (6.7). force during dis-
P2 P2
(See Examples 6.6 and 6.7.) When a particleSfollows a placement
W = F cos f dl = F dl
curved path, the work done on it by a force F is given LP1 LP1
by an integral that involves the angle f between the
#
P2 (6.14) x
force and the displacement. This expression is valid S S O x1 x2
= F dl
even if the force magnitude and the angle f vary during LP1
the displacement. (See Example 6.8.)

Power: Power is the time rate of doing work. The aver- W

age power Pav is the amount of work W done in time Pav = (6.15) t55s Work you do on the
t box to lift it in 5 s:
t divided by that time. The instantaneous power is the W dW W 5 100 J
limit of the average power as t goes to zero. When a P = lim = (6.16)
S S t S 0 t dt Your power output:

#
force F acts on a particle moving with velocity v, the W 100 J
S S P5 5
instantaneous power (the rate at
S
which the force does P = F v (6.19) t 5s
S
work) is the scalar product of F and v. Like work and t50 5 20 W
kinetic energy, power is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of
power is 1 watt = 1 joule>second 11 W = 1 J>s2. (See
Examples 6.9 and 6.10.)

196
CHAPTER 7 SUMMARY

Gravitational potential energy and elastic potential Wgrav = mgy1 - mgy2 y

energy: The work done on a particle by a constant = Ugrav,1 - Ugrav,2 Ugrav,1 5 mgy1 1
gravitational force can be represented as a change = - Ugrav (7.1), (7.3) Uel 5 2 kx2

in the gravitational potential energy Ugrav = mgy.

x
This energy is a shared property of the particle and Wel = 12 kx 12 - 12 kx 22 x50 x
the earth. A potential energy is also associated with (7.10)
= Uel, 1 - Uel, 2 = - Uel Ugrav,2 5 mgy2
the elastic force Fx = - kx exerted by an ideal
spring, where x is the amount of stretch or com- O

pression. The work done by this force can be rep-

resented as a change in the elastic potential energy
of the spring, Uel = 12 kx 2.

When total mechanical energy is conserved: K 1 + U1 = K 2 + U2 (7.4), (7.11) y

At y 5 h
The total potential energy U is the sum of the
gravitational and elastic potential energy: h E 5K 1Ugrav
U = Ugrav + Uel . If no forces other than the

zero
At y 5 0
gravitational and elastic forces do work on a x
O E 5K 1Ugrav
particle, the sum of kinetic and potential energy
is conserved. This sum E = K + U is called the
total mechanical energy. (See Examples 7.1, 7.3,
7.4, and 7.7.)

When total mechanical energy is not conserved: K 1 + U1 + Wother = K 2 + U2 (7.14)

At point 1
Point 1 f 5 0
n50
When forces other than the gravitational and elastic w
R

zero
forces do work on a particle, the work Wother done
by these other forces equals the change in total E5K 1Ugrav f n
n
mechanical energy (kinetic energy plus total

zero
w f
At point 2
potential energy). (See Examples 7.2, 7.5, 7.6, Point 2
E 5K 1Ugrav w
7.8, and 7.9.)

Conservative forces, nonconservative forces, and the K + U + Uint = 0 (7.15) v

zero
zero
zero
law of conservation of energy: All forces are either E5K1 Ugrav
conservative or nonconservative. A conservative E5K1Ugrav
v50
force is one for which the workkinetic energy As friction slows block,
mechanical energy is converted
relationship is completely reversible. The work of a to internal energy of block and ramp.
conservative force can always be represented by a
potential-energy function, but the work of a non-
conservative force cannot. The work done by non-
conservative forces manifests itself as changes in
the internal energy of bodies. The sum of kinetic,
potential, and internal energy is always conserved.
(See Examples 7.107.12.)

Determining force from potential energy: For motion dU1x2 U

along a straight line, a conservative force Fx 1x2 is Fx 1x2 = - (7.16) Unstable equilibria
dx
the negative derivative of its associated potential- 0U 0U
energy function U. In three dimensions, the compo- Fx = - Fy = - (7.17)
0x 0y
nents of a conservative force are negative partial
0U
derivatives of U. (See Examples 7.13 and 7.14.) Fz = - x
0z O Stable equilibria

S 0U 0U 0U n
F a n n kb (7.18)
0x 0y 0z

230
CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY

S S S
Momentum of a particle: The momentum p of a particle p mv (8.2) y
S S
is a vector quantity equal to the product of the particles S p 5 mv
S Sdp py
mass m and velocity v. Newtons second law says that gF (8.4)
S
v
the net force on a particle is equal to the rate of change dt
of the particles momentum.
m px
x
O

S S S S
Impulse and momentum: If a constant net force g F acts J gF1t 2 - t 12 gF t (8.5) Fx
on a particle for a time interval t from t 1 to t 2 , the t2
Jx 5 (Fav)x(t2 2 t1)
S S S
impulse J of the net force isSthe product of the net force J gF dt (8.7)
S
and the time interval. If g F varies with time, J is the Lt1
S
(Fav)x
integral of the net force over the time interval. In any S S
J p2 p1 (8.6)
case, the change in a particles momentum during a time
interval equals the impulse of the net force that acted on t
O t1 t2
the particle during that interval. The momentum of a par-
ticle equals the impulse that accelerated it from rest to its
present speed. (See Examples 8.18.3.)

Conservation of momentum: An internal force is a force S S

P pA pB
S

exerted by one part of a system on another. An external
force is a force exerted on any part of a system by some-
S
m A vA m B vB
S
(8.14) A B
thing outside the system. If the net external force on a S S
S If gF 0, then P constant.
system is zero, the total momentum of the system P (the
vector sum of the momenta of the individual particles S y y S
that make up the system) is constant, or conserved. Each FB on A FA on B
component of total momentum is separately conserved. x x
S S S
(See Examples 8.48.6.) P 5 pA 1 pB 5 constant

Collisions: In collisions of all kinds, the initial and nal total momenta are equal. In an elastic colli- S
vA1
S
vB1
sion between two bodies, the initial and nal total kinetic energies are also equal, and the initial and A B
nal relative velocities have the same magnitude. In an inelastic two-body collision, the total A B
kinetic energy is less after the collision than before. If the two bodies have the same nal velocity, A B
S S
the collision is completely inelastic. (See Examples 8.78.12.) vA2 vB2

Center of mass: The position vector of the center of S

S S
m1 r1 m2 r2 m3 r3
S
Shell explodes
S r cm cm
mass of a system of particles, r cm , is a weighted aver-
S S m1 + m2 + m3 + cm
age of the positions r 1 , r 2 , of the individual parti- S cm
S
cles. The total momentum P of a system equals its total g im i r i
(8.29)
mass M multiplied by the velocity of its center of mass, g im i
S
vcm . The center of mass moves as though all the mass S S S
P m 1 v1 m 2 v2 m 3 v3
S

M were concentrated at that point. If the net external
S
force on the system is zero, the center-of-mass velocity M vcm (8.32)
S
vcm is constant. If the net external force is not zero, the S S
gFext M a cm (8.34)
center of mass accelerates as though it were a particle
of mass M being acted on by the same net external
force. (See Examples 8.13 and 8.14.)

Rocket propulsion: In rocket propulsion, the mass of a rocket changes as the fuel is used up 1x-direction
and ejected from the rocket. Analysis of the motion of the rocket must include the momentum vfuel 5 v 2 vex v 1 dv
carried away by the spent fuel as well as the momentum of the rocket itself. (See Examples 8.15
and 8.16.) 2dm m 1 dm

266
CHAPTER 9 SUMMARY

Rotational kinematics: When a rigid body rotates about u du du y dvz

vz = limS = (9.3) vz 5 az 5
a stationary axis (usually called the z-axis), its position t 0t dt dt dt
is described by an angular coordinate u. The angular vz dvz d 2u
At t2 At t1
velocity vz is the time derivative of u, and the angular az = limS = = 2 Du
t 0 t dt dt u2
acceleration az is the time derivative of vz or the second u1
(9.5), (9.6)
derivative of u. (See Examples 9.1 and 9.2.) If the angu- O
x
lar acceleration is constant, then u, vz , and az are related
by simple kinematic equations analogous to those for u = u0 + v0z t + 12 az t 2 (9.11)
straight-line motion with constant linear acceleration. (constant az only)
(See Example 9.3.)
u - u0 = 12 1v0z + vz2t (9.10)

(constant az only)
vz = v0z + az t (9.7)
(constant az only)
vz2 = v0z2 + 2az 1u - u02 (9.12)
(constant az only)

Relating linear and angular kinematics: The angular v = rv (9.13) y atan 5 ra

speed v of a rigid body is the magnitude of its angular v
dv dv v 5 rv
velocity. The rate of change of v is a = dv>dt. For a atan = = r = ra (9.14) S
a
dt dt Linear P
particle in the body a distance r from the rotation axis, v2 acceleration arad 5 v2r
S
the speed v and the components of the acceleration a arad = = v 2r (9.15) of point P r s
r u
are related to v and a. (See Examples 9.4 and 9.5.)
x
O

Moment of inertia and rotational kinetic energy: The I = m 1 r 12 + m 2 r 22 + Axis of

v
moment of inertia I of a body about a given axis is a rotation m2
measure of its rotational inertia: The greater the value = a m ir i 2
(9.16) r2
I 5 S miri2
i
of I, the more difcult it is to change the state of the m1
1
bodys rotation. The moment of inertia can be expressed K = 2 Iv
2
(9.17) r1
i
1
as a sum over the particles m i that make up the body, K 5 2 Iv2
each of which is at its own perpendicular distance ri r3 m3
from the axis. The rotational kinetic energy of a rigid
body rotating about a xed axis depends on the angular
speed v and the moment of inertia I for that rotation
axis. (See Examples 9.69.8.)

Calculating the moment of inertia: The parallel-axis IP = Icm + Md 2 (9.19)

theorem relates the moments of inertia of a rigid body d
of mass M about two parallel axes: an axis through the cm
center of mass (moment of inertia Icm) and a parallel Mass M P
Icm
axis a distance d from the rst axis (moment of inertia
IP). (See Example 9.9.) If the body has a continuous IP 5 Icm 1 Md 2
mass distribution, the moment of inertia can be calcu-
lated by integration. (See Examples 9.10 and 9.11.)

297