JOINT AVIATION AUTHORITIES AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT’S LICENCE Theoretical Knowledge Manual NAVIGATION 1 060 061 GENERAL NAVIGATION First Edition, Second Impression. This learning material has been approved as JAA compliant by the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority. APPRO ncrece KA (OXFORD_--- 5s JEPPESEN. AVIATION TRAINING(© Oxford Aviation Services Limited 2001 All Rights Reserved, “Tle test book Tobe und only forte parpone of pate aud by inviduala and may not be reproduced Ta anyform of ecm, opie. stored ina reteval system, lt ire, rented, anemia Or adapted in wel Om part without te prior writen consent of ‘Sitord Aviston Services Linod ‘Gaayighn a GanIane ahd Han ound Winn es sore Saced hao, our al malas whe vprocueed by ek bemsson of he aries and acknowiegped a sich, Delonge excusvl To Oxford Avon Sones Lined ‘Cerin copyright metal i repoduced wh he cession af the interno! Gi Avaton Orgarsstion the United Kingdom Co Aviston ‘Autry a edo aviation Autores GAA. “Ts Ya DK Tas bas wlan a pula a a loronce wk lo ai sudo onled oa a9 aberoed IAA Ar Tranapor PRaT cores (atP4y couse to propare meraaves forte Ina ATPL terete! knowacge examinations. ating inte caren fs bok 10 Be ‘Streetad ae conetaing Inston a acen rating to praca fy ‘iit evry forthe tan ad o ante the accuracy oth ifomutoncetained thn nis beck. naltnar Oxo Aviaton Serves Limited othe poster ges any waranty aot eccurey or ehewisa. Students prepeingfo tha JAA ATP twortea tnowiedge examinations ‘etd he rogedtno book seo sett orto AK ATPL these! Knowing ating avabus pub ne cron eaion ef JAR ECL “TFigh Grow conan (evrtones} (te Syiaous) The Sylabuseonelutes he coe auortatve fon o ih abject mato be suc Inada ATPL tear knowtoepe raring rogammo.. you elect suber othe amendmen service fled witha book plesse note trative wilbewdetay between te rirodueson of cmanges ote Sytabus and yout reat of to rlovantupctae. No etude shove Prepare for ore voy ents enter rset We JAR ATPL taorocal krowladaeenamnatits witout fr beng enaledin (ng ecod wich hasbeen grate agpava by 2 JeAauioraed nto! aviaton auborty to delvar Jak ATPL eaIng Cor uation Sano Line exlues allay fo any bss o damage rcued or sslero a a elt of any rlance on i ox part is ‘Soorences 2 ay aby or deat rperona iy rung fo Onto Aven Sees L's nogigares or any Aer Sain) wien ot epaly b0 aslo. Cover picture by courtesy of the Boeing Company Spine picture by courtesy of Airius Industrie jeppesen GmbH, Frankfurt, Germany Contact Details: Pilot Ground Training Department Sales and Service Department ‘Oxford Aviation Training Jeppesen Gmbti Oxfoed Aigport Frankfurter Strasse 233 Kidlington 63263 Now-lsenburg, Oxford OXS 1RA, Germany England Tel: +444 (0)1865 844290 Tel: ++49 (0)6102 308240 E-mail: ddd@oxfordaviation net E-mail: fra-services(@jeppesen.com For further information on produets and services from Oxford Aviation Training and Jeppesen visit our web sites at: www.oxfordaviation.net and wwwjeppesen.com 1s\FOREWORD Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) pilot licences were first introduced in 1999. By the end of 2002, all 33 JAA member states will have adopted the new, pan-European licensing system. Many other countries world-wide have already expressed interest in aligning their training with the syllabi for the various JAA licences. These syllabi and the regulations governing the award and the renewal of licences are defined bythe JAA’s licensingagency, known as “Joint Aviation Requirements-Flight Crew Licensing”, or JAR- FCL. ‘The introduction of JAA licences is, naturally, accompanied by associated JAR-FCL practical skill tests, (tests of flying ability) and theoretical knowledge examinations corresponding to each level of licence: Private Pilot Licence, Commercial Pilot Licence (CPL), CPL with Instrument Rating and Air Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL). The JAR-FCL skill tests and the ground examinations, though similar in content and scope to those conducted by many national authorities are inevitably different in detail from the tests ‘and examinations set by any individual JAA member state under its own national scheme. Consequently, students who wish to train for JAA licences need access to study material which has been specifically designed to meet the requirements of the new licensing system. ‘As far as the JAA ATPL ground examinations are concerned, the subject matter to be tested is set out in the ATPL training syllabus contained in the JAA publication, ‘JAR-FCL I (Aeroplanes)'. Inevitably, this syllabus represents a compromise between the differing academic contents of the national ATPL. training syllabi it replaces. Thus, it follows that the advent of the new examinations has created a need for completely new reference texts to cover the requirements of the new syllabus. This series of manuals, prepared by Oxford Aviation Training and published by Jeppesen, aims to cover those requirements and to help student pilots prepare for the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations. ‘Oxford Aviation Training (OAT) is one of the world’s leading professional pilot schools. It has been in ‘operation for over thirty years and has trained more than 12, 000 professional pilots for over 80 airlines, world-wide. OAT was the first pilot school in the United Kingdom to be granted approval to train for the JAA ATPL, As one of the most active members of the European Association of Airline Pilot Schools, OAT has been a leading player in the pan-European project to define, in objective terms, the depth and scope of the academic content of JAA ATPL ground training as outlined in “JAR-FCL 1 (Aeroplanes)*. OAT led and coordinated this joint-European effort to produce the JAA ATPL Learning Objectives which are now published by the JAA itselfas a guide to the theoretical knowledge requirements of ATPL, training, In less than two years since beginning JAA ATPL training, and despite the inevitable teething problems that national aviation authorities have experienced in introducing the new examination system, OAT has achieved an unsurpassed success rate in terms of the passes its students have gained in the JAA ATPL examinations. This achievement is the result of OAT’s whole-hearted commitment to the introduction ofthe new JAA licensing system and ofits willingness to invest heavily in the research and development required to make the new system work for its students. OAT has not only been at the forefront of the effort made to document JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge requirements, but it has also produced associated academic notes of the highest quality and created computer-generated and web-based ATPL. lessons which ensure that its students are as well-prepared as possible to succeed in the ground examinations. continued...‘OAT’s experience and expertise in the production of JAA ATPL training material make this series of ‘manuals the best learning material available to students who aspire to hold a JAA ATPL. Jeppesen, established in 1934, is acknowledged as the world’s leading supplier of flight information services, and provides a full range of print and electronic flight information services, including navigation data, computerised flight planning, aviation software products, aviation weather services, maintenance information, and pilot training systems and supplies. Jeppesen counts among its customer base all US airlines and the majority of international airlines world-wide, It also serves the large general and business aviation market ‘The combination of Jeppesen and OAT expertise embodied in these manuals means that students aiming to gaina JAA ATPL now have access to top-quality, up-to-date study material at an affordable cost. Manuals are not, of course, the complete answer to becoming an airline pilot. For instance, they cannot teach you to fly. Neither may you enter for the new JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations as a“self-improver” student. The new regulations specify that all those who wish to obtain a JAA ATPL ‘must be enrolled with a flying training organisation (FTO) which has been granted approval by aJAA- authorised national aviation authority to deliver JAA ATPL training. The formal responsibility to prepare you for both the flying tests (now known as “skill tests”) and the ground examinations lies with your FTO, However, these OAT/Jeppesen manuals represent a solid foundation on which your formal training can rest. For those aspirant airline pilots who are not yet able to begin formal training with an FTO, but intend to do so in the future, this series of manuals will provide high-quality study material to help them prepare themselves thoroughly for their formal training, The manuals also make excellent reading for general aviation pilots or for aviation enthusiasts who wish to further their knowledge of aeronautical subjects to the standard required of airline pilots. At present, the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations are in their infancy. The examinations ‘will inevitably evolve over the coming years. As the system evolves, syllabus or question modifications, as well as OAT’s rapidly growing experience in preparing its students for the examinations, will inevitably lead to the need for changes or updates to the content of the books. The books are supported bya free updating service (available online at veww.oxfordaviation.netshop) which aims to keep pace with changes to the published JAA ATPL Leaming Objectives. The online amendments also reflect the continual feedback that OAT receives from the hundreds ofits students who pass the examinations, every year. OAT’s knowledge of and involvement in JAR-FCL developments are second to none. You will benefit from OAT’s expertise both in your initial purchase of this text book series and in your subscription to the amendment service. OAT and Jeppesen have published what they believe to be the highest quality JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge manuals currently available. The content of these manuals enables ‘you to draw on the vast experience of two world-class organisations, each of which is an acknowledged expert in its field of the provision of pilot training and the publication of pilot training material, respectively. We trust that your study of these manuals will not only be enjoyable but, for those of you undergoing training as airline pilots, will also lead to success in the JAA ATPL ground examinations. Whatever your aviation ambitions, we wish you every success and, above all, happy landings. Oxford, England, January 2002‘Textbook Series 1 Jotoairtaw 2 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 1 | 021 o1 Airframes & Systems 02101 01/04 | Fuselage, wings & Stabilising Surfaces o2ioro7 — | Hydraulics 0210105 | Landing Gear 0210108 | Flight Controls 021 01 08/09 | Air Systems & Air Conditioning 021 01 09/10 J Anti-icing & De-icing 0210400 Emergency Equipment 0210111 | Fuel Systems 3 [020 Aircraft General Knowledge 2 | 021 02 Electrics ~ Electronics 0210201 | Direct Current 0210202 | Alternating Current 0210205 | Basic Radio Propagation. 4 |020 Aircraft General Knowedge 3 | 021 00 Powerplant 0210301 | Piston Engines 0210302 — | Gas Turbines 5 [020 Aircraft General Knowedge4 | 22 Instrumentation. 022 01 Flight Instruments, 022 03 ‘Warning & Recording 022 02 ‘Automatic Flight Contro! 022 04 Power Plant & System Monitoring Instruments 6 | 030 Flight Performance & Planning 1] 031 Mass & Balance 032 Performance 7 030 Flight Performance & Planning 2 | 033 Flight Planning & Monitoring 8 |040 Human Performance & Limitations. 2 1050 meteoroiogy 10 ].050 Navigation 1 061 General Navigation 14 060 Navigation 2 062 Radio Navigation 12 [070 Operational Procedures 13] 080 Principles of Fight 14 [090 Communications 15 _ | Reference MaterialChapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13, (Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Chapter 24 NAVIGATION 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS General Navigation Direction ‘The Computer Part | The Vector Triangle ‘The Computer Part 2 ‘The Computer Part 3 The Computer Part 4 Topographical Maps Pilot Navigation Wind Components Convergency and Conversion Angles Departure Scale Charts Lambert’s Conformal Chart Mereator’s Projection Fuel Calculations Time Relative Velocity (CP) (PNR) (PNA) The Polar Stereographic The Polar Stereographic & Transverse Mercator Gridded Charts PlottingAMENDMENT SERVICE An amendment service to this series is provided free of charge on the Oxford Aviation Training website at http://www.oxfordaviation.net/products/studyaids/amend. htm First Edition : May 2001 Second Impression : October 2001 - incorporating Amendment List 1 to Edition 1Page 1 16 17 18 1.10 Lat Laz Lis Las Lis 116 Lay 11s 119 1.20 121 CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION Contents SOLAR SYSTEM ‘THE EARTH'S ORBIT THE POLES ‘THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH. BASIC DIRECTION ON THE EARTH SEXAGESIMAL SYSTEM / TRUE DIRECTION. POSITION ON THE EARTH -POSITION REFERENCE SYSTEMS, CIRCLES ON THE EARTH LATITUDE. LONGITUDE. POSITIONS IN LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. CHANGE OF LATITUDE / DIFFERENCE OF LATITUDE CHANGE OF LONGITUDE/ DIFFERENCE OF LONGITUDE, CONVERGENCY, RHUMB LINE. GREAT CIRCLE DIRECTION DISTANCE ON THE EARTH. CONVERSION FACTORS GREAT CIRCLE DISTANCES GREAT CIRCLE VERTICES CONSOLIDATION QUESTIONS: 1-16 1-18 1-19 1-21 1-21 1-28 1-31tel Sg [ayn @ EARTH JUPITER NEPTUNE =~ PLUTO, Figure 1.1 Solar SystemNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 12 13 SOLAR SYSTEM A detailed knowledge of the Solar System is not required within the General Navigation syllabus but knowledge ofa few basic facts might be tested in the JAA examinations. The Solar System is depicted in the diagram opposite. ‘The Solar system consists of the Sun, nine major planets ( of which the Earth is one) and about 2000 minor planets and asteroids. The Earth isthe third planet from the Sun and orbits the Sun in an elliptical orbit at an average distance of 93 million statute miles (150 million Kilometres) from the Sun, The orbital path and orbital speed of the Earth around the Sun are governed by Kepler’s laws which will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 18. THE EARTH'S ORBIT As well as orbiting the Sun, the Earth spins on its own axis presenting a continuously changing face to the sun, hence day and night. ‘The Earths axis is inclined (tilted) at an angle of 667° to the orbital plane. (The inclination is sometimes stated as 23!4° to the normal (90°) to the Earths orbital plane ,ie, 90°-66%° ~ 234°). The inclination of the Earth’s axis is the eause of the seasons and of the changing time interval between sunrise and sunset throughout the year. These effects are discussed in more detail in Chapter 18. .83,000000 STATUTE MILES. Figure 1.2 The Earth's Orbit THE POLES ‘The Poles are defined as the extremities of the axis about which the Earth spins. As stated before, the polar axis is inclined to the Earths orbital plane, but for convenience, the polar axis in these notes will normally be drawn upright unless it is necessary to show Earth’s inclination. 4-1 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 14 Ls ‘THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH. The Earth’s shape is commonly described as an oblate spheroid, that is a sphere which is slightly flattened at its poles. This shape developed when the Earth formed from a gas-cloud as the spin of the cloud caused higher centrifugal forces at the equatorial region than in regions nearer the poles. The flattening is called compression and in the case of the Earth is approximately 0.3% ( 1/300th). More simply put, the Earth’s polar diameter is 27 statute miles (43 kms ) less than its equatorial diameter. Recent satellite surveys of the earth have shown it to be slightly pear-shaped with its maximum diameter occurring South of the equator. ‘This southern hemisphere distortion is considerably less than the compression distortion and is, measured in tens of metres rather than kilometres. A number of different agencies have measured and modelled the Earth and there are small differences in the models. For example, France has tended to use the Nouvelle Triangulation de France (NTF) 1970 model, some other European countries use the European Datum 1950 model (EDS0), and the USA uses the World Geodetic System 1984 ( WGS 84 ) which has been adopted by ICAO as the world standard, Inmodern navigation systems, position information is corrected for the distortions of the Earth's shape automatically in the navigation computers. For most practical purposes in these notes, the Earth may be considered to be a true sphere. BASIC DIRECTION ON THE EARTH To start to define directions on the Earth, a datum must be selected and the simplest datum is the direction in which the Earth is spinning which is then defined as East , hence sunrise in the East. West is then defined as the opposite of East. Facing Fast, the pole on the lefts called the North Pole and the direction North is defined as the direction towards the North Pole. The pole diametrically opposite the North Pole is called the South Pole and the direction South is defined as being opposite to North ‘These directions, North, South, East and West are known as Cardinal Points. The midway directions between North(N), East(E), South(S), West(W) and North(N) are North-East (NE), South-East (SE), South-West (SW) , and North-West (NW). These directions are Known as the Quadrantal directions. {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION ‘SOUTH POLE S Figure 1.3 Earth’s Rotation Shown in Figure 1.4 Cardinal and Quadrantal ‘Elevation’ Points To solve navigation problems, the student may occasionally need to consider the Earth when viewed from above either the North Pole or the South Pole. When viewed from above the North Pole, the Earth appears to rotate in an anti-clockwise( counter- clockwise) direction, When viewed from above the South Pole, the Earth appears to rotate in a clockwise direction, Figure 1.5 Earth's Rotation ‘Plan Flowe'1.8 View.” The system of Cardinal and Quadrantal directions was widely used in maritime navigation. Further sub-divisions were made to give more precision but the system is too cumbersome and does not allow for the precise definition of direction required in air navigation. To achieve the required precision, air navigation terminology retains the cardinal points as a reference but uses the Sexagesimal system for measuring directions. 1-3 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 1.6 SEXAGESIMAL SYSTEM / TRUE DIRECTION. ‘The Sexagesimal system utilises the fact that a clockwise rotation of direction from North through East, South and West and back to North is a circle of 360 degrees. If North is defined as 000°, East becomes 090°, South becomes 180° and West becomes 270°, Finally, continuing the rotation back to North makes North 360°. In practice, the use of 000° or 360° for North is a personal choice (but a northerly runway would be labelled *36). Figure 1.7 Direction on the earth is measured in degrees clockwise from North. When the North datum is the direction of the North geographie pole, itis referred to as True direction. The abbreviation (1) is used, thus:- North is referred to as 000°(T) South is referred to as 180°(T) East is referred to as 090°(T) West is referred to as 270°(T) Note that a 3-figure group is always used (e.g. 000°(T), not 0°(T) and 090%T), not 90°T)) The use of 3-figure groups for directions is to avoid any ambiguity, particularly in transmitting messages by R/T or other means, Any direction of less than a 3-figure group should be treated as suspect. For example, 27° could be a corruption of 027° ot 270°, or even 127°, 227°, 327°, 271°, 272%ete. There is one exception to this rule; runway directions are given at 10° intervals (to the nearest 10°), e.g. a RW orientated 273° is called RW 27 and a RW orientated 078° becomes RW 08, (But beware, Runway Directions are normally given with reference to Magnetic North not True North - see Chapter 2 ). Reciprocal directions. In navigation subjects, it is necessary frequently to calculate the reciprocal of a given direction, ie, that direction which is 180° opposite to the direction given Thus, if you are travelling in a direction of 060°(T), the reciprocal direction is 240°(T), ie, 060 +180. Ifa runway has a direction of 353°(T), the reciprocal runway direction is 173°(T) .ie, 353 + 180, (© Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION POSITION ON THE EARTH -POSITION REFERENCE SYSTEMS. Navigation isa fundamental process whereby an aircraft is directed from one position to another; itis therefore necessary to use a Position Reference System which defines position accurately and unambiguously on the Farth’s surface. Ona plane surface (such as graph paper), position can be defined accurately and unambiguously using Cartesian co-ordinates 4x and ty from 2 mutually perpendicular axes, the X and Y axes. ‘Thus in the diagram below, position A is defined by +x,+y and position B is defined by +x':+y! ¥ Figure 1.8 1-5 © Ox\ord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 18 The Cartesian system is frequently used on maps and charts to enable the user to find a position ‘on the chart and examples are: a) UK National Grid System, eg, Ordnance Survey Landranger Maps. b) Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Grid ©) Geographical Reference System (GEOREF) These position reference systems are not included in the JAA/CAA syllabus but (a) and (b) will be mentioned in the study of Transverse Mercator charts at Chapter 22 The Cartesian system works well on a flat surface but must be modified to work on a spherical surface, ie, the Earth, In practice, the linear co-ordinates x and y are replaced by angular co- ordinates known as Longitude and Latitude. The first requirement for this spherical system is to define the 2 mutually perpendicular axes ( the equivalents of the X,Y axes). The definition and use of these axes involves circles on the Earth - Great Circles and Small Circles. CIRC ON THE EARTH Great Circle: A circle on the surface of the earth whose centre and radius are those of the earth itselfis called a Great Circle. It is called “great” because a disc cut through the earth in the plane of the Great Circle would have the largest area that can be achieved. Figure 1.9 Great Circle The shortest distance between two points on the Earth’s surface is the shorter arc of the Great Circle joining the two points. Given two points on the Earth’s surface, there will be only one Great Circle joining them (unless the points are diametrically opposed). 1-6 © Oxlord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION ‘The properties of Great Circles are discussed in more detail in Paragraph 1. of this Chapter. ‘The Equator: The Great Cirele whose plane is at 90° to the axis of rotation of the earth (the polar axis) is called the Equator. It lies in an Fast-West direction and divides the earth equally into two hemispheres. For the definition of position on the Earth, the Equator is the datum for defining Latitude and is the equivalent of the X axis of the Cartesian system. ‘The Meridians: Meridians are semi-Great circles joining the North and South poles. All meridians indicate True North-South direction. Every Great Circle passing through the poles forms a meridian and its Anti-meridian. The meridians cross the Equator at 90°. ‘The Prime (Or Greenwich) Meridian: The meridian passing through Greenwich is known the Prime Meridian . The Prime Meridian is the datum for defining Longitude and is the equivalent of the ¥ axis of the Cartesian system. Small Circle: A circle on the surface of the earth whose centre and radius are not those of the earth is called a Small Cirle. ‘The main small circles of relevance to position are the Parallels of Latitude, Parallels of Latitude: ‘The parallels of latitude are small circles on the surface of the earth whose planes are parallel to the Equator. They tie in an East-West direction. Their function is to indicate position North or South of the Equator Graticule: The network formed ona map or the surface of a globe by the thePrime Meridian,the meridians, the Equator and the parallels of latitude is called the Gratieule, The graticule is an analogy on the Earth’s surface of the X,Y grid on graph paper. Figure 1.10. A Graticule on a Globe. 1-7 © Oxlord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Using the graticule, the position of any point can be accurately and unambiguously defined. In the diagram below, the position of point A could be defined as being on a meridian x miles east of the Prime (Greenwich) Meridian and on a Parallel of Latitude y miles north of the Equator. Although the use of linear units ( miles) is valid, it is cumbersome, and angular measurements, are preferred in navigation, Thus the position of A is defined by the angle @° north of the Equator and the angle B° east of the Prime Meri This is the foundation of the Latitude! Longitude system. Figure 1.11 ‘Angular Measurements: ‘The fundamental unit of angular measurement is the degree (°) which is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of cirele by an arc equal to the 360th part of the circumference ( hence 360° in a circle). For more accuracy, a degree is sub-divided into 60 minutes of are (° ) A minute ean be further sub-divided into 60 seconds of arc ( *” ). By using seconds of are, position on the Earth can be defined to approximately 0.5 metres accuracy. The above units are used for angular measurement of position but for angular measurement of direction, it is more common to use degrees and decimals of degrees. 1-8 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 19 LATITUDE. The latitude of any point is the arc (angular distance) measured along the meridian through the point from the Equator to the point. It is expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds of are and is annotated North or South according to whether the point lies North or South of the Equator. Thus, in the diagram below, the angular distance between where the meridian of A crosses the Equator point P) and point A is approximately 40° and the latitude of point A is 40°N. (It can also be said that A lies on the Parallel of Latitude of 40°N ). ‘The range of latitude values covers the Equator ( 0°N/S) to the geographic poles , ie, the North Pole is 90°N and the South Pole is 90°S, Figure 1.12 can be simplified by using a sectional diagram of the meridian and and anti-meridian of A ( Great Circle P-A-N-S), as in Figure 1.13. Sectional diagrams of this type will be useful later in the syllabus, in particular for calculating Great Circle distances between 2 points ( see Paragraph 1.19 ) Parallel of Latitude’ Figure 1.12 1-9 © Onfora Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Equator Figure 1.13 The definition of Latitude given above is based on the centre of the Earth, namely it is the smaller angle between the line joining the point to the centre of the Earth and the plane of the Equator. This is Geocentric Latitude. Because the Earth is actually an oblate spheroid, a different definition of Latitude can be used, namely, Geodetic (or Geographic) Latitude. Geodetie(or Geographic) Latitude is the smaller angle between the normal (90° ) to the meridian at the point on the spheroid and the plane of the equator, This normal line does not necessarily pass through the centre of the spheroid as illustrated in the diagram below. Note that the shapes used in the diagram are exaggerated for illustration purposes and the real spheroid is much closer to a sphere than shown. The latitudes plotted on navigation charts are Geodetic Latitudes. The maximum difference between Geocentric and Geodetic Latitudes ‘occurs at approx 45° N/S and is about 11.6 minutes of are. NP. EQUATOR | * EopETC tanrube ceocentmie - tAnTUDE Figure 1.14 1-10 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 1.10 Special cases of Parallels of Latitude: There are several ‘special’ cases of the parallels of latitude (other than the Equator )which will be explained in Chapter 18 in relation to the seasons and the periods of day and night throughout the year. Briefly these are: Aretie Circle - the parallel of 661° N ( note that 66%° is value of the Earth’s tilt) Antaretie Circle the parallel of 6614° § Tropic of Cancer the parallel of 234° N ( the sun is overhead the Tropic of Cancer on mid-summers day in the Norther hemisphere) Tropic of Cap ‘orn = —_ the parallel of 23%° S ( the sun is overhead the Tropic of Capricorn on mid- winters day in the Northern hemisphere) LONGITUDE. ‘The longitude of any point is the shorter distance in the are along the Equator between the Prime Meridian and the meridian through the point. Longitude is measured in degrees and minutes of arc and is annotated East (E) or West (W) depending whether the point lies East or West of the Prime Meridian ( Greenwich). ‘Thus, the meridian of point B in the diagram below crosses the Equator (at point Q) at, say, 40°of are to the East of the Prime Meridian, Point B is said to be at longitude 040°E. s Figure 1.15 Longitude 1-11 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Again, the diagram above can be simplified to show a section cut at the plane of the Equator as below. Longitude can be measured up to 180°E or 180°W of the Prime Meridian. These 2 meridians are coincident and are known as the anti-Prime Meridian (APM), commonly labelled 180°E/W. (The student may find it easiest to consider the APM to be 180°E if dealing with a problem involving easterly longitudes and 180°W if dealing with a problem involving westerly longitudes.) Equator Merigién of 180° Figure 1.16 Longitude To solve some navigation problems, the student may have to draw simple diagrams involving positions at easterly and/or westerly longitudes. It is easy in these diagrams to confuse oneself by drawing meridians in the wrong place, particularly if the meridians are near the 180E/W meridian. The next 2 diagrams illustrate the correct situation. If the Earth is viewed from above the Prime Meridian, Easterly longitudes appear to the right of the diagram and westerly longitudes appear to the left. This is the situation with which most Europeans are familiar. Directions will be as explained in paras 1.5/1.6 and as illustrated. However, if the Earth is viewed from above the APM ( 180°E/W), Easterly longitudes will appear on the left of the diagram and westerly longitudes will appear on the right, But the basic directions do not change. Thus an aircraft travelling from Los Angeles ( approx 120°W) to Manila, Philippines ( approx 120°E) will be travelling in a Westerly direction even though itis, going from a westerly longitude to an easterly longitude, 1-12 (© Oxtora Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Figure 1.18 Figure 1.17 POSITIONS IN LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. The latitude of New York is the arc of the meridian between the Equator and New York ,ie, AISN. The longitude of New York is the shorter are of the Equator between the prime (or Greenwich) meridian and the meridian through New York, ie, 074°W. The position of New York is thus defined unambiguously and is illustrated in the diagram above. NEW YORK Loncfrupe: Figure 1.19. Latitude and Longitude. When giving a position in latitude and longitude, the latitude is always quoted first and the longitude second : thus New York's position is 41°N 074°W. Alternative forms are: 41°00'N 074°00'W, or 4100N 07400W which are used to allow more precision by the inclusion of minutes of are. For example, the Aerodrome Reference Point (ARP) for Oxford Airport is approximately $1°S0' N, 001°19'W or S1S0N 00119W. 1-13 {© Orford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 112 1.13 Even greater precision can be achieved by quoting position in seconds of arc although this is not normally required in these notes. For example, the precise position for the Oxford ARP is 51°5012"N, 001°19'1 I"W or 515012N 001191 1W. (Asa point of interest, the ARP for Oxford is at the midpoint of R/W 02/20) Beware: Although it is most common to use seconds of are for precise definition of position, in some countries you may find decimals of minutes are used. CHANGE OF LATITUDE (CH.LAT ) / DIFFERENCE OF LATITUDE (D.LAT) ‘The angular difference between two latitude angles is called change of latitude (ch. lat) or difference of latitude (d. lat). The two terms are synonymous and interchangeable, but ch.lat will be used in these notes. Sometimes it is important to indicate the sense in which this change happens. This can only be North or South. For instance, the North Pole and the Equator have a ch.lat of 90°. From the North Pole to the Equator, ch lat is 90°S. 1f2 points are in the same hemisphere, the ch. lat between them is equal to the difference in their values. The sense of movement ( N or S) will depend on from which point you are moving. If 2 points are in opposite hemispheres, the ch lat between them is equal to the sum of their values. Again, the sense of movement (N or S) will depend on from which point you are moving. (CHANGE OF LONGITUDE (CH.LONG.)/ DIFFERENCE OF LONGITUDE (D.LONG) ‘The angular difference between two longitude angles is called change of longitude (ch.long) or difference of longitude (d.long). Again, the terms are synonymous and interchangeable but ch.long will be used in these notes. The sense in which the change occurs is either East or West. Thus from the Prime Meridian to the 90°E meridian, the ch long is 90°E, Change of longitude calculations are particularly important in Navigation problems because several formulae used to calculate direction or distance on the Earth use ch.long as one of their terms. Iftwo points have longitudes in the same hemisphere, the ch.long between will be the difference in their values. The sense of movement will depend on which point you are moving from to which. Rememberdecreasing easterly values mean a westerly direction, and decreasing westerly. values mean an easterly direction. ‘The problemis slightly more complex if the two points have longitudes in different hemispheres. Again, the ch.long ean be calculated in this case by adding the values. Thus, the ch.long from 093°E to 074°W is 167° in a westerly direction 1-414 (© Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 1.14 Similarly, the ch.long from Los Angeles (120°W) to Manila, Philippines ( 120°E) could be calculated as 240° in an Easterly direction. But, this solution has taken you more than halfway around the globe. The shorter ch.long would be 120° (360° minus 240°) ina Westerly direction. More simply, you need to travel from 120°W to the APM ( 180°W), ie, 60° in a westerly direction, and then to travel from the APM (180°E) to 120°E, another 60° in a westerly direction giving a total ch.long of 120° in a westerly direction. Refer back to the diagram in Paragraph!.10 to help visualise this situation, CONVERGENCY. From Figure below, it can be seen that the meridians converge towards the poles. This property ofthe meridians can be measured as convergency which means the angle of inclination between the 2 given meridians measured at a stated latitude. Convergency is zero at the Equator ( the meridians are parallel at the Equator) and inereases to a maximum at the poles ( all 360 meridians converge into a point at the Poles). GREAT cine % 1 HUME LINE EQUATOR Figure 1.20 ‘The main effect of convergency is on the direction of a great circle ( for example the dashed line in the diagram). Because the meridians define the direction of True North and because the meridians converge, the direction of the Great Cirele is constantly changing. In the diagram, the Great cirele crosses the Equator in a direction of approximately 010°T and the direction steadily increases until at the end, the Great Circle direction is approximately 070°T. This property of the Great Circle is discussed further inParagraph1.16. Convergency is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 11 1-15 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 1.15 | RHUMBLD Modern navigation systems can direct the aircraft along a Great Circle route and cope with the constantly changing direction of the Great circle, caused by convergency. However, in the early ‘days of air and maritime navigation, compass and navigation equipment was less capable and it was found easier to navigate along lines of constant direction - Rhumb Lines. A Rhumb Line is a regularly curved line on the surface of the Earth which cuts all meridians at the same angle, ie, a line of constant direction. A rhumb line is illustrated by the solid line in the diagram below. EQUATOR Figure 1.21 As with Great Circles, there is only one Rhumb Line that can be drawn between 2 points. Examples of common Rhumb Lines are: a) Parallels of Latitude (because they cut all meridians at 90°) b) Equator (a special case because the Equator is also a Great Circle) ©) Meridians ( are also great circles and the cut angle involved is 0°). The Rhumb Line between 2 points will always nearer to the Equator than the corresponding, Great Circle, Conversely, the Great Circle between the 2 points will always lie nearer the Pole than the Rhumb Line. In some explanations the shape of the Rhumb line may be stated as convex to the Equator or concave to the nearer Pole. Consider the lines joining points C and D and points A and B in the next diagram. 1-16 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Figure 1.22. Great Circles and Rhumb Lines. ‘On the route from C to D, the Great Cirele track (solid line) is the shortest distance between C ‘and D, but its direction relative to True North is constantly changing. ( from approx 060°T at Cto approx 100°T at D). The Rhumb Line track C to D (dashed line), though a longer distance, has the advantage of constant direction ( approx 071°T at all meridians), Note that the Rhumb Line is nearer the Equator than the Great Circle. On the route from A ( 60N 000W) to B ( 60N 180W), the Great Circle Track goes via the pole, as will always be the case when the 2 points are on meridian’ anti meridian. ‘This is a special case and the initial Great Circle is 360° (T), due North to the pole and the final track is 180°(T), ‘due South from the pole. The distance can be calculated as explained in Paragraphl.18 to be 3600 nautical miles ( nm), The Rhumb Line track is along the 60°N parallel of latitude, The direction is a constant 090°(T) , due East, and the distance can be calculated to be $400 nm as will be explained in Chapter 12, Again, note that the Rhumb Line lies nearer the Equator than the Great Circle. Now consider two points on the Equator at, say, 30°W and 40°W. The line joining these two points will be an are of the Equator. It is therefore a Great Cirele track with a constant direction of 270° (T). However, as the direction is constant, ic. cutting all meridians at the same angle, it is also a Rhumb Line track of 270° (T). Remember, the Equator is both a Great Circle and a Rhumb Line. Study the rest of the graticule will show that there are no other lines that are both Great Circles and Rhumb Lines. The parallels of latitude are Rhumb Lines because they cut all meridians at 90°, but they are Small Cireles as they do not have the same radius and centre as the earth, “17 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 1.16 Figure 1.23, Figure 1.24 South Atlantic For consolidation, study Figures 1.23 and 1.24, Note the relationship between the Great Circles and the Rhumb Lines with respect to each other and to the Equator and the Poles. Note also the constantly changing direction of both Great Circle tracks. GREAT CIRCLE DIRECTION The direction of the Great Circle over the Earth’s surface changes because of Earth Convergency (para 1.14). This is illustrated in the diagrams above and the sense of the change of direction ‘can be written in simple rules which can be applied later in the syllabus to solve direction problems. In Diagram, the Great Circle track from Seattle to Hong Kong has a westerly direction at Seattle of approximately 310°T, but at Hong Kong the direction of the Great Circle has decreased to approximately 210°T. Conversely, from Hong Kong to Seattle, the Great Circle starts in an easterly direction of approximately 030°T,,and imereases at Seattle to approximately 130°T. In Diagram, in the southern hemisphere, the westerly direction of the Great Cirele from Cape Town to Santiago is approximately 240°T at Capetown but has increased to approximately 310°T at Santiago. Conversely the easterly direction from Santiago to Capetown has decreased from approximately 130°T at Santiago to approximately 060°t at Capetown. In all the above cases, note that the Great Circle direction always changes towards the Equator. The following rules regarding Great Circle direction may be useful and the complete set of rules can be developed from a single rule by simply applying opposites. In the rules, the term ‘westerly’ means any direction from 180°T(South) to 360°T(North) through 270°T( West); the term ‘easterly’ means any direction from 000°T(North) to 180°T(South) through 090° T(East). -18 © Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION LAT In the Northern Hemisphere The direction of a Westerly Great Circle decreases. The direction of an Easterly Great Circle inereases. In the Southern Hemisphere The direction of a Westerly Great Circle inereases. ‘The direction of an Easterly Great Circle decreases, DISTANCE ON THE EARTH. Although pilots are normally interested in larger units of distance, ic, Kilometres (km) Statute Miles (sm) and Nautical Miles (nm), the JAA/CAA syllabii require the student to be able to use smaller units and to be able fo interconvert metric and Imperial measures. Because many students will not have used the smaller Imperial measures of distance, the conversions below should be remembered. 1 metre(m) 100 centimetres(cm) = 1000 millimetres (mm) 1 centimetre(cm) 10 millimetres(mm) 1 metre(m) 3.28 feet (ft) 1 foot (ft) 12 inches ( tin’ or " ) 1 inch (*) 2.54 centimetres (em) 1 yard (yd) 3 feet (At) Most of the above conversions can be made with sufficient accuracy using the Navigation Computer,( CRPS or equivalent) ‘The Kilometre (km). The SI definition of the Kilometre (km) is 1000 metres when the metre (m) is defined in terms of the speed of light as the length of path travelled by light in a vacuum, during a time interval of 1/ 299,792,458 th of a second - this is of little use in navigation, ‘The simpler navigation definition of the Kilometre is 1/10,000 th of the average distance on the Earth between the Equator and either Pole. Thus there are 10,000 km between the Equator and either Pole and the circumference of the Earth is 40,000 km. For conversions. between Kilometres and Imperial units: | Kilometre (km) | metre (m) 3280 feet (ft) 3.28 ft ‘The Statute Mile (sm). The Statute Mile (sm) is defined in a Royal Statute of Queen Elizabeth the First (of England) and is 5280 feet. Although the Statute Mile is widely used on the ground (, eg, in the UK and the USA, it has limited application to aviation. Indeed, its most common use is to inform passengers in UK or US aircraft how fast the aircraft is travelling in terms of the same units they use in their cars ,ie, statute miles per hour (mph). ‘The average distance from the Equator to either pole is 6200 sm; the circumference of the Earth is 24,800 sm. 19 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION ‘The Nautical Mile (nm) The nautical mile is the most important large measure of distance used in aviation because it can be related directly to the angular measurements of the Latitude! Longitude graticule of the Earth, Unfortunately, the compression of the Earth results in slightly varying measurements for the nautical mile, The variations are discussed below but, for the purposes of this course, fixed measures would be useful and the following are used: ‘The ICAO definition of the nautical mile is that it is a measure of distance of 1852 metres. ‘The Standard Nautical Mile Is defined as a length of 6080 feet. (You may have noticed that 1852 metres converted to feet at a factor of 3.28 gives a value if 6074.56 fect, not 6080 feet. ‘The explanation below should show how differences in the definitions arise but you should use the values above in JAA/CAA calculations). Variations in the definition of the nautical mile ‘The full definition of the nautical mile is that length of arc of a Great Circle which subtends an angle of one minute at the centre of curvature of the Earth’s surface. Because the Earth is flattened at the Poles, the radius of curvature is increased and a greater arc is required to subtend an angle of one minute at the centre of Curvature, henee a nautical is longest at the poles at about 6108 ft. The curvature of the Earth is greatest at the Equator and the radius of curvature is less than elsewhere on the Earth, Consequently, the length of arc required to generate an angle of one minute at the centre of curvature is less at the Equator than elsewhere: a nautical mile is shortest at the Equator and measures about 6046ft. The average value , 6076.1ft, is known as the Intemational Nautical Mile which equates to approximately 1852 metres. However, as stated before, for navigation calculations in this syllabus, the Standard Nautical Mile of 6080ft will be used. Because they all use Great Cirele ares, the definition of the Nautical mile is similar to the definitions of Latitude and Longitude. Remember the following: ‘One minute of latitude = 1 nautical mile(nm) ‘One degree of latitude = 60 minutes = 60 nm But ‘One minute of Longitude = I nm at the equator only. As there are 90° of Latitude change between the Equator and the Poles, the average distance between the Equator and the Poles is 90 x 60= $400nm ‘The circumference of the Earth at the Equator is 360 x 60 = 21,600nm 1-20 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 11g. 119 CONVERSION FACTORS The method of converting between nautical miles, statute miles and kilometres using a CRPS Navigation computer or equivalent is explained in Chapter 3. The datums used on the CRPS are directly related to average distances on the Earth between the Equator and the poles. Thus, the nautical mile (nm) marker is placed at 54 (5400nm); the Statute mile (sm) marker is at 62 (6200 sm); the kilometre (km) is placed at 100 ( 10000 km). Using an electronic calculator, itis often sufficient to remember the following: Inm = 1.85 km, lnm = 1.15 sm (Ex military personnel, particularly UK military, may remember the following conversions: 66nm = 76 sm 76 km 66 km 41 nm 41 sm ‘These conversions are Iso based on recognisable datums, in this ease the local speed of sound at sea level under ISA conditions. ‘Thus, on military navigation computers, the nautical mile marker is placed at 66 ( 661 kt); the statute mile datum is at 76 ( 761mph) and the kilometre datum is at 122 ( 1224 kph) ) GREAT CIRCLE DISTANCES The Great Circle distance between any 2 points on the Earth can be calculated using a general equation involving spherical geometry -this isnot part of the JAA/CAA syllabus.Consequently, JAA/CAA problemsinvolving the calculation of great circle distances are limited to those where the 2 points lie on the special great circles.ie, on the same meridian, on meridian and anti- ‘meridian, or on the Equator. There are 5 general cases illustrated in the following examples. Inall the examples, consider the direction that is flown - there may be some surprises! The latitudes/longitudes for the named points are chosen to illustrate the example and are only in the approximate geographic “ball-park’ 1-21 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Example 1. Same meridian, same hemisphere. ‘What is the shortest (ie, great circle) distance between (A) London ( 5137N 00012W) and (B) Acera ( 0648N 00012W)? Note that both positions are on the same meridian ( 00012W). Draw a simple sectional diagram of the Earth as below using the Great Circle formed by the 00012W meridian and its anti- meridian (17948E) although the latter is not needed for this example. MERON Emon North Pole A, South P Figure 1.25 The positions of B ( 06°48" north of the Equator measured at the centre of the Earth,C.) and A (51°37' north of the Equator) are shown both on the 00012'W meridian, The angular distance between them ( Change in Latitude or ch.Lat as explained in Paragraph1.12) is 51°37" - 06°48" = 44°49’ South from A to B. To calculate the Great Circle distance from A to B, convert the angular distance into linear distance using the rules given in Paragraph|.17 , ie, multiply the degrees by 60 and add the extra minutes. Thus 44°49'= (44x 60) +49 = 2689 minutes of latitude = 2689 nms. Be prepared to convert this answer to km or sm as required by the question. Always Read The Flipping Question ( RTFQ) because although the basic calculation is done in nm, the Examiner may want the answer in different units. 1-22 ‘© Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Example 2, Same meridian, different hemispheres. What is the shortest distance between (D) Durban ( 2930S 03030E) and (E) Leningrad (5947N 03030E)? Again, note that both positions are on the same meridian but in this case they are in opposite hemispheres. Draw a sectional diagram as below North merioian Figure 1.26 ‘The ch.lat is now 29°30’ plus 59°47" so the angular distance between D and Eis 89°17' north from D. The linear distance is (89x60)+ 17 = 5387 nm (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Example 3. Meridian and anti-meridian, same hemisphere. What is the shortest distance between (F) Rome ( 4155N 01110E ) and G) Honolulu (2117 16850)? Both positions are in the same hemisphere but they are on meridian and anti-meridian - the two longitude values are of opposite sign and add up numerically to 180°, ie, 011°10'E + 168°S0'W = 180°. Draw a sectional diagram as follows: enoian =| oe Figure 1.28 ‘The Great Circle between F (Rome) and G (Honolulu) is over the North Pole - a surprising but important result if you wanted to travel in one stage). By inspection, the simplest way to calculate the angular distance in this case is to add the 2 latitudes and subtract their total from 180°,ie, Angular distance = 180° - (41°55'+ 21°17") = 180° -63°12'= 116°48.. Analternative method is to calculate the ch.lat from F to the Pole ( 90° - 41°55'=48°05') and from the Pole to G90" -21°17'= 68°43!) and add the two to give the total angular distance. (48°05' + 68°43'=116°48)). Both methods are mathematically the same. Angular distance 116° 48! = (116 x 60) + 48 = 7008 nm. ‘The in pole is North and then south from the Pole to G. direction from F to the 1-24 ‘© Osford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Example 4. Meridian and anti-meridian, different hemispheres. ‘What is the shortest distance between (J) Tokyo (3557N 1353SE) and (K) Rio de Janeiro ( 2210S 04425W)? This is the most difficult of the cases discussed. Note again that the longitudes have opposite signs and add up to 180° - another meridian and anti-meridian case but with the latitudes in different hemispheres, Draw the sectional diagram as follows: onmtes ae Se ‘South Pole Figure 1.29 Ifthe angles are drawn reasonably accurately, it is possible by inspection to see that the shortest distance between J and K is again via the North Pole and, therefore, to base the calculation on that route. Travelling to the North Pole from J is an angular distance of 90°- 35°57' = 54°03! north; from the North Pole to the Equator is a further 90° but now South; from the Equator to K is 22°10’ South. Adding these 3 stages together gives a total angular distance of 166° 13° which equates to a linear distance of (166x60)+ 13 = 9973nms. If the initial decision had been to route via the South Pole the values would have been 35°57 south + 90° south + (90°- 22°10' = 67°50’) north = 193°47', Because the angular distance is greater than 180°, this solution is the longer way around the Earth. There is no need to recalculate but simply subtract the longer angular distance from 360° to give the correct answer sie, 360° - 193°47"= 16°13’. Alternatively, continue the wrong calculation to give a linear distance of (193 x60) +47 = 11627 nm and subtract this distance from the cireumference of the Earth, 21,600nm. Thus the correct answer is 21,600 - 11627 = 9973nms. Remember also to change the directions involved. 1-25 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Example $. Two points on the Equator. ‘What is the shortest distance between (L) Dakar ( 0000N 01635W) and (M) Singapore ( 0000N 1035SE)? This example uses the fact that a minute of longitude equals one nautical mile but only at the ‘Equator. The sectional diagram is drawn in the plane of the Equator viewed from above the North Pole and ,for reference, the Prime Meridian (0E/W) and the Anti- Prime Meridian (180E/W) are drawn, s80"1APM se W L oem CE ae Figure 1.30 The change of longitude (ch.long) from L to M is 016°35" in an easterly direction to the Prime Meridian and a further 103°5S' in an easterly direction to M giving a total easterly ch.long of 120°30'. At the Equator only, an angular measurement of 120°30' equals a linear measurement of (120° x60) + 30 = 7230 nm 1-26 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Example 6. A special case! ‘What is the shortest distance between (N) Greenwich (5130N 000006) and (P) Antipodes Island (51308 18000E)? south Figure 1.31 The points N and P are on meridian and anti-meridian and have equal latitudes north and south, of the Equator. They are diametrically opposite each other on the same great circle and are said to be antipodal , hence Captain Cook named the nearest land diametrically opposite London as Antipodes Island. The great circle distance between any point and its antipodes is 180° in angular terms, 10,800nm in linear measure , ie, the semi-circumference of the Earth. 1-27 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 1.20 GREAT CIRCLE VERTICES ‘The northern vertex of a Great Cirele is simply the most northerly point on that Great Circle. Similarly, the southern vertex is the most southerly point on the Great Circle. The vertices are antipodal and the Great Circle distance between them is 10800nm. NORTHERN VERTEX (63N 0108) we POINT (080W) (CROSSING POINT, (109) SOUTHERN VERTEX (635 170) Figure 1.32 ‘The vertices lie on meridian and anti-meridian and have latitude values of equal value but of opposite sign. For example, ifthe southern vertex of a great circle is 6381 70W, its northern vertex will be 63N 010E. vertices, the direction of the Great Cirele will be East ( 090°T)/West Knowing the co-ordinates of either vertex enables calculation of where and at what angle the Great Cirele crosses the Equator, A Great Cirele will cross the Equator at the 2 points whose longitude is 90° removed from either of its vertices. Thus, a Great Circle with a north vertex at SON 030W (and a south vertex at 50S 150E) will eross the Equator in positions! 20W and O60E. A Great circle will cross the Equator at an angle equal to the latitude of its vertices. Thus «Great Circle with vertices at SON/S will cross the equator at an angle of 50°. The direction of the Great Cirele when it crosses the Equator will depend on whether travelling eastbound or westbound. Inthe Example above, travelling eastbound, the great circle first crosses the Equator at 060E in direction 140°T (090 + 50) travelling towards the Southern vertex. 1-28 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Having passed the southern vertex, the Great circle next crosses the Equatorat 120W in direction 040°T ( 090 -50) travelling back to the north vertex. Westbound travel would have the same crossing points but reciprocal directions. Two special cases: A great circle with vertices at 90 N/S (a meridian) crosses the equator at 90° in direction 180°T. (090 + 90) or 000°T (090-90), A great circle with vertices at 0 N/S crosses the Equator at 0°T( It is the Equator) and has direction 090°T or 270°T. 1-29 {© Orford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 1-30 © Oxfors Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 121 1 CONSOLIDATION QUESTIONS What is the Change of Latitude between the following positions:~ a) S2°15'N to 39°35°N bd) —_49°35°N to 60°20°S c) —_74°20'S to 34°30°S d) —_71°20°N to 86°45’N over the north pole. ‘What is the difference in nautical miles and in kilometres from position A (41°25'N) to position B (79°30'N). Both are on the same meridian. ‘What is the Change of Longitude between the following positions:~ a) —_075°40°W to 125°35'W b) —_001°20’E to 004°20'W ©) 180°40°E to 179°30°E d) ——162°36"W to 140°42'E Any Meridian Line is a:- a) Rhumb Line b) Semi Great Circle ¢) __ Rhumb Line and a semi Great Circle 4) None of the above ©) Allofthe above A Graticule is the name given to:- a) _Asseries of lines drawn on a chart b) A series of Latitude and Longitude lines drawn on a chart or map ©) Aselection of small circles as you get nearer to either pole A Rhumb Line cuts all meridians at the same angle. This gives:- a) The shortest distance between two points. b) A line which could never be a great circle track ©) Aline of constant direction Give the Direction and Change of Latitude and Longitude from X to Y in each case:- x Y a) 50°31'N 006°30'W to 52°00'N 008°35'W b) 47°32" 002°46W to 43°56N 001°33'W ©) 61°47'N 003°46~W to 62°13'N 001°36E, 6) 31°27 091°47E to 35°S7N 096°31'E ) — S1°0S'N 177°42E to 51°06'N 167°42W 1-31 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 8. 10. st 12, 13, 14, Give the shortest distance in nautical miles and kilometres between the following positions:~ a) 52°06'N.002°32"E —and_—_—453°36'N 002°32°E. b) 0441'S 163°36'W —and——(03°21'N 163°36'W ©) 62°00'N 093°00E == and 62°00'N 087°00'W 4) 00°00'N 176°00E += and-—_(00°00'N 173°00'W ©) 45°37'N071°37W —and-—_45°37'S 108°23E An aircraft is to fly from position 72°00'N 002°30'E to position 72°00'N 177°30'W on the shortest possible route. a) Give the initial (True) track direction b) Will the track direction remain the same for the whole flight? ©) Give a reason for the answer given in b above. ‘You are at position A at 54°20'N 002°30'W. Given a ch.lat of 16°20'N and a ch.long of 020°30'W to B, what is the position of B? ‘You are at position C at 36°47'S 179°21'E. Given a ch. lat of 46°47'N and a ch, long of 20°30E to D, what is the position of D? ‘What is the position of the Rhumb Line between 2 points relative to the Great Circle between the same points ifthe points are a) In the Northern Hemisphere? b) In the Southern Hemisphere? ‘A great circle has its North vertex at 70N 130E, What is the position of its South vertex? In Question 13, at what longitudes and in what direction would the Great Circle cross the Equator assuming : a). Initial direction is East from the Northern Vertex? b), Initial direction is West from the Norther Vertex? 1-32 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 1.22. ANSWERS TO CONSOLIDATION QUESTIONS 1 a 12° 40'S b 109° 55'S c 39° 50'N d 21°35 2, 2285 nmis 4224 km or 4236 km using a calculator or 4230 km using the CRP-5. Answers in km will vary depending on which conversion factor is used. 3 a 498s) W b 05°40. W. © 28°50 56°42" W (Not 303° 18" - we want the smaller are). 4 oe $8 a0 7 a 01°29'N_ 002° 05" W db 03°36'S 001° 13'E © 00°26'N 005° 22"E ad 67°24'N 004? 44 E © OOP OI'N 014° 36'E & a 90nm 166 km bd 482nm 890 km © 3360.nm 6228 km 4 660m 1220 km e 10800nm —20000km 9 a 360° b No © Route over the North Pole, initial track True North, then once over the Pole, True South. 10. 70°40'N 023° 00'W 11, 10°00'N 160° 09" E 12, a Nearer the Equator (South of the Great Circle) b Nearer the Equator (North of the Great Circle) 13, 708 050W 4 140 W 160° T b 040 200°T 1-33 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 1-34 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedCHAPTER TWO - DIRECTION Contents Page 21 INTRODUCTION ..........006 «Qed 2.2 THE EARTH'S POLES ae2-1 2.3 ANGLE OF DIP. - 7 _ 24 MAGNETIC NORTH dies on ee Ss ec ts etn 2.5 MAGNETIC DIRECTION ......... aoe 2-2 2.6 VARIATION, 2-2 2 ASOGONALS.. io viee. cs do evasves 0 canbe 6 2-3 2.8 VARIATION seated : 2-4 2.9 DEVIATION . b scottmcts ee 2-5 2.10 DEFINITIONS 2-7NAVIGATION DIRECTION 2a ba INTRODUCTION In the section "The Earth’, True Direction was defined as being related to the geographic North and South poles - ie. the two ends if the axis of the Earth's rotation. ‘THE EARTH'S POLES. ‘The Earth has two 'magnetic poles’ which are not co-located with the geographic poles and have a very small annual movement within the Earth. It might be assumed that it would be possible to construct a graticule of ‘meridians’ and ‘parallels! relative to the Magnetic North and South poles which would give the direction of Magnetic North at any point on the graticule. This is not so, firstly because there are under the surface of the Earth many areas of magnetic disturbance which distort the graticuleand secondly because the magnetic poles are not themselves antipodal (they are not exactly ‘opposite each other on the Earth). This is represented diagrammatically in Figure 2.1 Figure 2.1. The Earth's Poles. N & § the Earth's Magnetic North and South poles which are: 23 a) not located with the geographic pole b) not antipodal. The lines S to N represent the direction of the Earth's magnetic field (lines of force) - it will be seen that they do not always coincide with the Earth's horizontal. ANGLE OF DIP. Figure 2.2. shows how the direction of the Earth’s magnetic field (T) at any point may be resolved into its Vertical (Z) and Horizontal (H) components. ‘The angle between H and T is known as the Angle of Dip. 2-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION DIRECTION 24 25 26 Aircraft compasses are designed to sense the TT horizontal component (H) SUSPENDED ‘MAGNET of the Earth's magnetic field. To achieve this the magnetic system is hung pendulously so that the weight of the magnet is used to offset most of the effect of dip. It is this pendulous arrangement that gets disturbed in tums and accelerations and leads to the well known turning and acceleration errors. Figure 2.2. The Angle of Dip. MAGNETIC NORTH Is the (horizontal) direction indicated by a freely suspended magnet influenced only by the Earth's magnetic field; this direction is also referred to as the 'magnetic meridian’ at that point. MAGNETIC DIRECTION Is measured from magnetic North clockwise through 360° and is suffixed by the letter (M), e.g 043(M) and 270(M) ete. VARIATION. The angular difference between True and Magnetic North direetions at any point is called the angle of variation. ‘Variation is the angle between True North and Magnetic North and is measured in degrees East or West from True North, 2-2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION DIRECTION 2.7 ISOGONALS. These are 'pecked' lines on @ map or chart joining places of equal magnetic variation are called isogonals. On most maps and charts the ‘year of origin is shown and some indication of the annual change (due to the movement of the magnetic poles) is given. This may be done by a small arrow showing the direction and distance on the annual change of the position of the isogonal, Figure 2.3a., Figure 2.3a. or by a statement giving the annual change in the variation quoted on the isogonal, Figure 2.3b. ‘Annual change 7 E Figure 2.3b. 2-3 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION 28 VARIATION DIRECTION When Magnetic direction is the same as True direction the variation is nil; otherwise Magnetic North direction may lie either to the West or East of the True North Direction. See Figures 2da.& 2.4b. TRUE NORTH k MAGNETIC NORTH i | Figure 2.4a. Westerly Variation. Figure 2.4a, Westerly Variation ‘The direction of the aircraft relative to True North is 105° . ‘The direction of the aircraft relative to Magnetic North is 122° Magnetic North is to the West of True North. VARIATION IS 17° W Figure 2.4b. Easterly Variation. Figure 2.4b. Easterly Variation ‘The direction of the aircraft relative to True North is 105°. The direction of the aircraft relative to Magnetic North is 088°, ‘Magnetic North is to the East of True North. VARIATION IS 17° E The direction in which the fore and aft axis of the aircraft is pointing is known as the aircraft's heading, (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION DIRECTION 29 We are thus able to complete the following tables:~ From Figure 24a, From Figure 4(b) Heading } Variation | Heading Heading } Variation | Heading True Magnetic True Magnetic 105° ITew. 122° 105° ITE 088° and from this we deduce the follo\ ig rule which must be remembers VARIATION WEST MAGNETIC BEST VARIATION EAST MAGNETIC LEAST DEVIATION Any ferromagnetic material (iron or steel) or electrical circuits in an aircraft may well have a magnetic field which will affect the compass, so that the direction indicated by the compass needle will not be Magnetic North. Non-ferromagnetic material, e.g, brass, aluminium, will not have a magnetic field and so will not affect the compass. The angle between Magnetic North and the direction indicated by a compass needle is called the angle of deviation, Deviation is the angle between Magnetic North and Compass North measured in degrees East or West from Magnetic North, Figures 2.Sa, & 2.5b. illustrate this. ‘COMPASS NORTH ‘COMPASS NORTH fo ’ VARIATION 25° W HEADING 125° (¢) HEADING 125° () HEADING 116" (C) ji HEADING 125° HEADING 100° (7) HEADING 100° (7) peviation 10° Figure 2.5a. Westerly Deviation. Fipure 2383 Csterly thesilion 2-5 ‘© Osford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION DIRECTION Figure 2.5a. Westerly Deviation Figure 2.5b. Easterly Deviation The direction of the aircraft The direction of the aireraft relative to True North is 100°. relative to True North is 100° The direction of the aircraft ‘The direction of the aircraft relative to Magnetic North is relative to Magnetic North 125°. is 125° The direction of the airoraft ‘The direction of the aircraft indicated by the Compass indicated by the Compass is 135° is 115°. and we are able to complete the following tables:- From Figure2.5a, Heading Variation Heediak Deviation eae: True Magnetic Compass 125° Loew. 135° 100° 25°W. From Figure 5(b) Head Heading Variation Heaaing Deviation cae True Magnetic Compass og 25°W 125° 10°E. 115° and from this we deduce the following rule which must be remembered:- DEVIATION EAST - COMPASS LEAST DEVIATION WEST - COMPASS BEST ‘The signs for plus and minus are sometimes used as a prefix instead of the suffixes East or West, in which ease you will see that the rule is to apply the deviation (as stated) to the Compass Heading to obtain the Magnetic Heading and conversely apply the deviation (with the sign changed) to Magnetic Heading to obtain Compass Heading. For example:- Deviation 3°E Hdg 263(M) deviation 3°E Hag 260(C) deviation 3°E Deviation East Compass Least Deviation East Compass Least Hg 260(C) Hag 263(M) 2-6 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION DIRECTION 2.10 Alternatively Deviation +3° Hdg263(M) deviation +3 toconvertfrom Hag 260(C) +3 to convert from Compass to Magnetic to Compass. Change the sign Magnetic. and apply to Hdg(M); Apply deviation to Hdg(C) Hag 263 - 3 = Hdg 260(C) These rules apply to variation Hdg 260(C) + 3 = Hdg 263(M) - 10 = Hdg equally; Hdg 260(C) deviation 3° E variation 10°W Another rule, equivalent to the one stated above, is also used:- From Compass to True the signs are true (ie. E is +, W is -). DEFINITIONS Below are defined some terms associated with direction on the Earth. a) Headings the direction in which the fore and aft axis of the aircraft is pointings it may be measured from True, Magnetic, or Compass North. b) Variation is the angle measured at a point between True North direction and the direction indicated by a freely suspended compass needle influenced only by the Earth’s magnetic field, It is termed East or West according to whether Magnetic North lies to the ast or West of True North ©) Deviation isthe angle measured ata point between the direction indicated by a compass needle and the direction of Magnetic North. It is termed East or West according to whether the Compass North lies to the East or West of Magnetic North, 4) Esogonals are pecked lines on a map or chart joining places of equal magnetic variation, ©) Agonie Line is the name given to isogonals joining places of zero variation. f) The Angle of Dip is the angle in the vertical plane between the horizontal and the Earth's magnetic field at a point. 2) Isoclinals are lines on a map or chart joining places of equal magnetic dip. h) —__Aclinie Lines is the name given to isoclinals joining places of zero dip. Note:- Isoclinals and Aclinic lines do not appear on Navigation charts. 2-7 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION Fill in the blank spaces in the table below DIRECTION DIRECTION TRUE VARN. MAG. DEVN. COMP. 260 291 3E 10W 1E 070 7™w 001 2E 17W 0 020 306 10 1W 036 031 033 5E 025 023 359 3w 2 23 2w 224 312 322 319 002 3w 1w 260 291 3 5E 1 070 3w 001 +2 022 10W 3w. 035) 2-8 ‘©Oxford Aviation CollegeNAVIGATION Fill in the blank spaces in the table below. DIRECTION TRUE VARN, MAG. DEVN. COMP 260 31w 291 3e 288 061 10W 071 1e 070 354 7™w 001 2 359 003 17W 020 0 020 306 10E 296 Ww 297 036 5E 031 2w 033 030 SE 025 2 023 359 3w 002 2 000 242 23E 219 2w 221 312 40w 322 3E 319 002 3w 005 1w 006 260 31W 291 3 294 076 5E 071 1 070 358 3w 001 42 359 o22 10.W 032 aw 035 2-9 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION DIRECTION 2-10 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited3 32 33 38 39 CHAPTER THREE - THE COMPUTER, PART ON! Contents USE OF THE CIRCULAR SLIDE RULE. ...... MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION. «0.226.525.2555 TIME, SPEED AND DISTANCE CALCULATIONS. ...- CONVERSION OF UNITS. MILES AND KILOMETRES. GALLONS, IMPERIAL AND U.S. «0.0022 METRES, YARDS AND FEET. VOLUME TO WEIGHT. COMPUTATION OF TAS, TRUE ALTITUDE, DENSITY ALTITUDE. NAVIGATIONAL GENERAL QUESTIONS (© Oxford Aviation Services Limited© Oxlord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 1 3a 32 USE OF THE CIRCULAR SLIDE RULE. ‘The student usually slots into one of three categories.:- a) He knows all about slide rules - in which case paragraph 2 below is redundant! b) He knows (or claims to know) nothing about logarithms or slide rules in which case the first part of paragraph 2 may make heavy going and should not be taken too seriously. ©) He can remember the principles of logarithms - through a bit ‘rusty’ on the subject - in which case we recommend him to read on. MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION. The figures on the two scales of the circular slide rule are spaced at a distance proportional to the (mantissa of the) logarithm of the natural numbers. Multiplication and division can thus be carried out by adding or subtracting the logarithms of the numbers, but the characteristic of the logarithm will not be apparent and consequently the position of the decimal point will have to be determined by mental arithmetic. Please refer to your computer slide rule and find 1 (usually shown as 10, but used as 1, 10, 100, etc.) on the outer scale, Move your eye round the outer scale until you reach 2 (usually shown as 20); the angular distance you have covered is equal to log 2 (.30103) times 360°, which works out to be about 120°. Opposite 2 (ie. 20) on look for 3 (shown as 30) onthe inner scale, and opposite it read off (ie. 60) on the outer scale. Angular distance 1 to 3 on the inner scale is log 3 (.47712) times 360°, which is just less than 180°. What you have done is work out that 2 X 3 = 6 by using the formula 2 X 3 = antilog (log 2 + log. 3). Remember that the decimal point is not apparent and the slide rule will produce the same answer for.2.X 3 ast will for 200 X 300; you have to make a rough calculation to decide where to place the decimal point. Figure 8.1 3-1 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 1 Example 1. Multiply 11.5 by 2.54. It makes little difference which you do first - the computer work, o the rough mental calculation needed to place the decimal point. Let us choose the computer work first. ‘Turn the whole instrument until 11.5 on the outer scale is at the top (and facing you). Now, keeping the 11.5 where it is, rotate the dise until the 10 of the inner scale comes round to the top and is exactly opposite (ie. against) the 11.5 on the outer scale. Do make sure that you are using the 10 index of the inner scale and not the even more prominent 60 index. Neat, taking care that you do not disturb the | 1.5/10 setting, tun the whole instrument the shortest way (clockwise in this example) to bring 2.54 (shown as 25.4) of the inner scale to the top of the instrument. The answer (appearing as 29.2) can shown be easily read off the outer scale against the 2.54 (or 25.4) on the inner scale. To summarise, set 11.5 on the outer against 10 on the inner; then against 25.4 on the inner read off the answer 29.2 on the outer. But is 29.2 the answer? We still have to check on the position of the decimal point, Look back at the original problem and round up the figures:- 1s call it 10 2.54. call it 2.5 So instead of 11.5 X 2.54, think of 10 X 2.5 which - easily - in your head -is 25. So we know the answer is somewhere near 25 and NOT 2.5 and NOT 250. ‘We are now in a position to say definitely that the answer is 29.2 (and NOT 2.92 and NOT 292 ete.) Example 2. Divide 3050 by 3.28. ‘As might be expected, the procedure for division by computer is the reverse of that for ‘multiplication, In this example, turn the computer until the 3050 (shown as 30,5) on the outer scale is facing you at the top. Holding the computer in this position, rotate the disc until the 3.28 (shown as 32.8) of the inner scale is exactly opposite the 30.5 on the outer scale. 3-2 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION THE COMPUTER, PART 1 (Be careful to line up the 32.8 with 30.5 and NOT 25.0; itis all too easy to make such a mistake). Now, taking eare not to disturb the setting, turn the whole instrument round until the 10 of the inner scale is facing you at the top. Opposite this 10 read off the answer digits 93 from the outer scale. Now the rough mental calculation, Is the answer 93 or 930 or 93 million or what? Look back to the problem and round up the figures:- 3050 call it 3000 3.28. . call it3 ‘Then, 3000 divided by 3 gives 1000, so our accurate answer must be near that figure ‘Thus it is NOT93, NOR 9.3, NOR 93 million! ‘The answer is 930. Example3. The average rate of climb of a particular aircraft is given as 700 feet per minute. How long will it take to elimb from 3000 to 20 000 feet? The aircraft is to climb through 17 000 feet at 700 feet per minute. Straightforward division of 17 000 by 700 will determine the number of minutes for the climb. Hold the computer with the 17 000 (shown as 17) of the outer scale atthe top. Rotate the disc to bring the 700 (shown as 7) of the inner scale immediately opposite the outer scale 17, ‘Tum the instrument the shortest way (clock scale to the top, in this case) to bring 10 of the inner Opposite this 10" read off from the outer scale the answer digits 243. Now the usual type of mental calculation is necessary to pos ‘Your line of thought might be like this:- ion the decimal point. 700 feet in one minute so. 7 000 feet in ten minutes, and.nmmnneees 14 000 feet in twentyminutes; therefore. 17 000 feet in a few more minutes than twenty. which leads us to a firm answer of 24.3 minutes. 3-3 © Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 1 You may prefer a slightly different approach to this type of problem, solving in terms of proportion rather than division. Restating the problem we have:~ Aircraft climbs 700 feet in one minute It will climb 17 000 feet in 't minutes (where''t is the answer we wish to discover) ‘This can be written as:~ 700 _ 17000 A t Now if you arrange this equation on your circular slide rule with the numerators 700 and 17 000 on the outer scale set respectively above the denominators 1 and 't’ on the inner scale, the problem is solved. Figure 8.2 As shown in Figure 8.2., set the 700 (shown as 70) of the outer scale exactly over (meaning ‘opposite or against) the | (shown as 10) on the inner scale. This sets up the left hand side of the equation. ‘Tum the instrument clockwise and look for the right hand side of the equation. Look for 17 000 (shown as 17) on the outer scale. Immediately under it, read off 24.3 from the inner scale. This is the same answer that we had before. If you solve the problem in this manner you still have to perform a rough mental calculation, as before, to position the decimal point correctly. 3-4 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 1 33 TIME, SPEED AND DISTANCE CALCULATIONS. You will notice that 60 on the inner scale is very prominently marked; this helps to speed up time/speed/distance calculations. The rule with these is:~ ALWAYS set time on the inner scale and distance or speed on the outer scale. Example 4, How far do you go in 48 minutes at 120 knots? On the Computer, set what you know:- TIME 60 minutes (1 hour) on the inner scale, against SPEED 120 knots (12) on the outer scale. ‘Now against TIME 48 minutes on the inner scale, read off; DISTANCE 96 miles on the outer seale. Example 5. In 30 minutes you have covered 90 miles over the ground. What is your ground speed? ‘Set what you know on the Computer:- DISTANCE o0 MILES ON THE uTER SCALE AGA TE 30 MINUTES ON THE NER SCALE Tien AGANST TE: Soe Figure 8.3. 3-5 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION THE COMPUTER, PART 1 34 35 ‘The computer has given you figures only - you then have to decide whether the answer is 1.8, 18, 180, 1800 or what. Now you would know the sort of speed to expect in your own aircraft but in an examination @ swift mental calculation is required. In this case it would be very easy: 90 miles in halfan hour, so .. 180 miles in a whole hour, ie speed 180 mph. Practice questions on these and other types of slide rule operations are included in the course papers. CONVERSION OF UNITS. There are also some usefull marks on the outer scale which enable you to convert from one set of units to another. You will remember that the distance from the pole to the equator is 90 X 60 ~ $400 nautical miles, and that the same distance is 10 000 kilometres. If you look on the outer scale at the KM-M-LTR index (also marked 10) and then move around to the left until you reach Naut M you will see that there is an index beside it at 54, Allowing for the inability of the computer to give you the correct decimal place, you will appreciate that the computer is in fact saying that 10 000 kilometres is 5400 nautical miles. ‘You will see that there is also a Stat M index, near the figure 62. MILES AND KILOMETRES. Example 6 How many nautical and statute miles are there in 148 km? Set what you know on the computer:~ 14.8 kilometres on the inner scale opposite the KM (10) index on the outer scale. Now read off opposite 'Naut M' on the outer scale the answer 8 on the inner scale, and opposite ‘Stat M’ on the outer scale, the answer 9.2 on the inner scale. By reasoning:- 148 km = 80 nm=92 sm You can see that the approximate relationship between the three units needs to be known and ‘bome in mind. (It's quite a help to remember that there are, very roughly, 2 km to 1 nm). 3-6 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION THE COMPUTER, PART 1 3.6 37 Example 7. How many statute miles and kilometres in 100 nautical miles? Set what you know on the computer:~ 100 (shown as 10) on the inner scale opposite the 'Naut M' index on the outer scale. ‘Now read off opposite 'Stat M' on the outer the answer;- 11.5 on the inner, and opposite 'KM' on the outer, the answer 18.5 on the inner. By reasoning:- 100 nm = 115 sm= 185 km. ‘There are other conversion scales on the computer:~ GALLONS, IMPERIAL AND U.S. Example 8. Convert 136 litres to imperial and US gallons. Set on what you know: Opposite the LTR mark (10) on the outer scale, set 13.6 on the inner scale Then read off opposite IMP GAL on the outer scale the answer 30 on the inner. By reasoning:~ 136 litres = 30 imperial gallons = 36 US gallons. (It helps to remember that | imp gal is, very roughly, 4 litres. Accurate figures are printed on the separate conversion factors card). METRES, YARDS AND FEET. Example 9. Convert 256 metres to yards and feet. ‘Set on what you know:: Opposite the M (metres and 10) index on the outer s ‘Then read off opposite yards on the outer scale the answer 28 on the inner. Against FEET on the outer scale, read off 8.4 on the inner By reasoning: 256 metres = 280 yards = 840 feet. le, set 25.6 on the inner scale. Here again, it helps to know that a metre is just a bit longer than a yard and there are three feet toa yard. 3-7 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 1 38 3.9 VOLUME TO WEIGHT. ‘There is also a facility on the computer for converting volume in gallons to weight in pounds, and volume in litres to weight in kilograms, ifthe specific gravity is known. These indices have been so spaced that you can begin with an argument in one set of units and read off the answer in the other units. Example 10 Convert 300 US gallons to imperial gallons and litres and to weight in pounds and kilograms at a specific gravity of 0,80 Set on what you know: Opposite the 'US gallons’ mark on the outer scale, set 300 (marked as30_on the inner seale) ‘Then read off opposite IMP GAL on the outer scale, 25 on the inner. Opposite 'LTR’ on the outer scale, 11.35 on the inner, opposite 'WEIGHT IN POUNDS, Sp. G 80 on the outer scale. 20 (approx) on the inner. Opposite ‘WEIGHT IN KGS’, Sp.G 80 on the outer seale, 9.08 on the inner. Thus 300 US gal =250 imp gal = 1135 litres and at SG 0.80 they weigh 2000 Ib or 908 kg. It is obvious that one needs to know that 1 imp gal of fuel at SG 0.80 weighs 81b. (This derives from the fact that 1 imp gal of water at SG 1.00 weighs almost exactly 10 Ib). Similarly, with a specific gravity of 0.80, 10 litres of fuel weigh 8 kg (0 litres of water at SG 1.00 weighing 10 kg, COMPUTATION OF TAS, TRUE ALTITUDE, DENSITY ALTITUDE. ‘There are three ‘windows’ in the inner scale, Select the window marked ‘AIRSPEED! and opposite zero 'PRESS ALT 1000 FT’, ie, sea level, set a temperature of +15°C. This scale is for converting RAS (Rectified Air Speed) to TAS. You will notice that the inner and the outer slide rule scales now coincide, which is what you would expect because the ASI is calibrated to read correctly at +15°C at mean sea level, and the computer is now telling you that the RAS (inner scale) is the same as the TAS (outer scale). ‘You will also notice that in the altitude window, altitude zero appears under temperature +15°C and again this is the basic argument for the calibration of the altimeter so that indicated height zeroon the inner scale gives true height zero on the outer scale; furthermore the density altitude reads zero in the appropriate window. 3-8 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 1 Example 11 Pressure altitude 5000 fi. Air temperature 0°C, What is the TAS for an RAS of 90 knots? Set on what you know: In the ‘Air Speed’ window, temperature 0°C opposite 5000 ft pressure altitude, Now against RAS 90 knots on the inner scale, read off the answer TAS 96 (approx) on the outer. Example 12 Indicated altitude 10 000 ft. Temperature -10°C. What is the true altitude? Set on what you know: In the ‘Altitude’ window, temperature -10°C opposite 10 000 ft (indicated) altitude. ‘Now opposite the indicated altitude 10 000 ft on the inner scale, read off the answer ‘9800ft true altitude on the outer. Example 13 Pressure altitude 20 000 ft. Temperature -10°C. What is the density altitude? This is the only illogical one; you have to set up your pressute altitude and temperature in the ‘Airspeed’ window in order that the computer can calculate the density altitude. Don't worry about this - itis the way the computer is designed, Set on what you know:- In the ‘Air Speed! window, pressure altitude 20 000 ft opposite temperature -10°C. Now read off opposite the density altitude index in the density altitude window, the density altitude as 21,900 feet. 3-9 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 1 Please use the space provided for your answers. DIVIDE: Giving your answer to three significant figures. 1 35+7= 6 275+45= 2. 210+7 = 7. 2705 +4.5= 3. 324+8= 7 8. 72960+12= 4. 325+5= 9 755+0.8= 5. 39=60= sioniniwitwiienies 10, 20.2422 MULTIPLY: Again giving your answer to three significant figures. 1 9xB= 6. 275 x4: 2. 11x 30= seneeiia nis 7. 121.5x14 = 3. 11x 12= 8. 12x 12x12= 4. 202x2.1= - 9. 237x7x0.5= 5. 315x0.3= 10, 12x15x13= SOLVE: 64150 _ 4g, 1930x1006 _ 80 12340 185x92_ 4 365x12 140 - 31 3-10 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 1 ANSWERS 1 50 6. 275+45= 6.11 30.0 2 2705545= 60nd 3 4.00 8. 72960+12= 6080 4. 65.0 9. 755+ 0.8= 944 5. 0.65 10. 20.2+22 = 0.917 a. 9x8= 72.0 6. 275x45= 12735 2. 11x 30= 330 7. LS x14 = 1700 3. 1x 12= 1332 8. 12x 12x12= 1728, 4. 202x2.1= 424.2 4. 237x7x 0. 830 5. 31Sx0.3= 944 10. 12x 15x 13= 2340 1030x1006 ra = “0 5 1234 2 Rs 4 EAB as 3-11 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION Complete the tabulations:~ ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 1 RAS kt Pressure Temp °C TAS kt. Altitude f 140 10000 -10 175 8000 +5 20 15000 =22 300 30000 -40 180 12500 =25 165 9000 +7 163 11000 10 295 31000 -33 160 12000 -10 260 35000 45 Groundspeed (kt) Distance (nm) Time (min) 230 33 175 234 182 510 145 15 260 1 200 31 46.5 16.5 21 7 156 4B 320 35 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION THE COMPUTER, PART 1 Pressure Altitude f 140 10000 =10 162 175 8000 +5 200 220 15000 =22 273 300 30000 -40 4n 180 12500 -25 212 16s 9000 47 193 163 11000 10 199 295 31000 253 465 160 12000 -10 192 260 35000 45 450 Groundspeed (kt) Distance (nm) Time (min) 230 33 85 175 234 80 182 510 168 las 36 Is 260 334 1 200 170 51 169 46.5 16.5 143 21 7 218 156 43 320 185 35 3-13 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION Complete the following conversions:- THE COMPUTER, PART 1 Nautical Mile Statute Mile Kilometre 88, 27 87 141 147 310 10000 433 1003 706 Metres Feet 1000 29 120 356 3560 520 3020 12.000 1760 1845 3-14 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 1 IE: Nautical Mile Statute Mile Kilometre 1 88 101 163 L 2. 23.4 27 43.5 3 47 54 87 : 4 141 162 261.5 : 5. 127.7 147 237 i 6. ; 167 192 310 : 7. 5400 6210 10.000 i 8. 433, 499 805, : 9. 870 1003 1615 : 2 10. 381 438 706 Metres Feet i 1 1000 3280 8.8 29 Ll 120 393 356 1166 | 5. 1080, 3560 L 6. 158.5 520 7. 3020 9900 | 8. 3660 12.000 537 1760 i 10. 1845, 6060 3-15 © Onors Aviation Sees LimitedNAVIGATION THE COMPUTER, PART 1 3-16 © Osfors Aviation Services Limited41 42 43 44 45 46 CHAPTER FOUR - THE VECTOR TRIANGLE Contents INTRODUCTION. ..... WECTORS:. 503 0 vic ‘THE THREE VELOCITY VECTORS. . SYMBOLS. ‘THE SIX ELEMENTS OF THE TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES. SUMMARY (© Orford Aviation Serv(© Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION THE VECTOR TRIANGLE 4, 42 INTRODUCTION. This lecture material employs a form of ‘Programmed Learning! The intention is that you should move a piece of paper down the page to the first horizontal line, read everything above the line, and then work out the answer to the question printed just above the line. ‘Then move your piece of paper down to the next horizontal line. This action will reveal ‘our’ answer - use it to check 'your' answer. If your answer was wrong, go back over the work until you understand why you were wrong - and also why the ‘official’ answer is right. Then continue with the programme - you will find that this is a very effective learning method. VECTORS. ‘You will see that this Chapter is headed "The Vector Triangle’. It could have also have been entitled "The Triangle of Velocities’. However, before dealing with the triangle, let us sort out our ideas on velocities and veetors. A velocity has two elements, direction and speed. Itcan be represented on paper by a line drawn, in the direction of the velocity and having a length proportional to the speed. Sucha line is known as a vector. For example, suppose we wish to portray on paper the velocity ofa vehicle travelling due East (in a straight line) ata speed of 50 knots. In Figure 4.1. we could choose any convenient point on the paper (call it point A) and put in a North arrow pointing up the page as it is the usual custom. Then from A, at 90° to the North arrow, we draw N a line extending out to the right with a little arrow on it to show that the vehicle is travelling towards the East. We represent the speed of 50 knots by making the line 50 units long. Any convenient units will do. In our diagram we have made it 50 millimetres (that is, 5 centimetres), but 5 inches ‘would have done just as well. The right-hand end | | gge of the line has been labelled B and the line AB is VELOCITY a vector. In this example we have drawn a LA. VECTOR “B velocity vector, that is to say, a line representing speed and direction. Figure 4.1. Vectors, (Vectors can be used to represent other quantities, such as forces, but we are not concerned with these in elementary Navigation.) 4-1 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION THE VECTOR TRIANGLE 43 THE THREE VELOCITY VECTORS. ‘The navigational vector triangle in which we are interested always comprises the following three velocity veetors a) The Air Vector. As previously stated, the word velocity implies speed and direction. ‘The two elements which produce the 'Air Vector’ are True Air Speed (TAS) and True Heading (which is the True direction towards which the nose is pointing). True Air Speed is the actual speed of the aircraft relative to the air through which it is ying; this TAS is usually greater than the indicated speed (IAS) shown on the Air Speed Indicator. (Computer conversion of IAS to TAS is described elsewhere in these Navigation notes.) Summarising then, when considering the Air Vector you must always associate True Heading with True Air Speed (TAS). In conditions of no wind the aircraft will proceed over the ground in the direction determined by the fore and aft axis of the aircraft and its speed over the ground will be equal to the True Air Speed. b) The Wind Vector, We must now consider an aircraft flying in air that is moving over the ground (which means that there is 'a wind blowing’). When we speak of wind navigationally, we must again think of its speed and direction so we refer to wind velocity (WV). Thus the Wind Vector in our navigational triangle comprises wind direction and wind speed. By convention the wind direction is the direction FROM which the wind is blowing. A WV of 090°/20 knots means that the wind is blowing from due East at a speed of 20 knots. Wind directions are True (unless otherwise stated. It is worth mentioning as exception - the aerodrome surface wind direction is passed in degrees Magnetic to the aircraft by Air Traffic Control.) Wind speeds and aircraft speeds are usually in knots (nautical miles per hour.) ©) The Ground Vector. The third side of the navigational vector triangle, the Ground Vector, represents the speed and direction of the aircraft over the ground, in other words the aireratt's Ground Speed (GS), and Track direction (Tr) (in degrees True if Heading and Wind Direction are also True). The Ground Vector is the ‘resultant of the Air Vector and the Wind Vector. In the no-wind case mentioned earlier, Track equals Heading and Ground Speed equals True Air Speed but when there is a wind blowing there will be differences between Track and Heading and/or TAS and GS. Now before we start drawing triangles, here is the first problem in the ‘programmed learning! sequence. Question 1) ‘The wind is blowing towards the North at a speed of 30 nautical miles per hour. ‘What is the WV? Answer: 180°/30 knots (or just 180/30) (The wind is coming FROM 180°, ie. FROM the South) 4-2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION 44 Question 2) Answer: Question 3) Answer: SYMBOLS. ‘THE VECTOR TRIANGLE Now suppose you are airborne and have set heading 000° (T) at TAS 120 knots. What is your track and ground speed if the wind velocity is 180°/30 knots? Track 000%(T) GS 150 kt (You have a ‘ail’ wind, You add the wind speed to TAS to give GS in this case because the two vectors are in the same direction; aireraft going North from South, wind also coming from South towards North.) Hag(T) 000° TAS 120 kt WY 000/30 What will be the track and the ground speed? Track 000° (T) GS 90 kt (This time the wind is from the North whereas the aircraft is going towards the North. There is a ‘head’ wind. Wind Vector is opposed to Air Vector, so you subtraet wind speed from TAS to give GS.) By convention the following signs are used:- Question 4) Answer: HEADING HEADING (ONE ARROWHEAD ) INDICATING DIRECTION TO WHICH THE AIRCRAFT IS POINTING TRACK TRACK (TWO ARROWHEADS) INDICATING DIRECTION IN WHICH THE AIRCRAFT IS MOVING WITH RESPECT ‘TO THE GROUND ——_—>—_WIND WIND (THREE ARROWHEADS) INDICATING THE DIRECTION ‘OF THE WIND (Le, SHOWING WHICH WAY THE AIR IS MOVING OVER THE GROUND) Figure 4.2. Symbols. Now consider an aireraft heading 000°0 (T) with TAS 120 knots and a wind blowing at 30 knots from the West. Write down the WV. 270/30 (Remember: the direction 270° is that from which the wind is blowing). 4-3 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE VECTOR TRIANGLE Question 5) It will be apparent that whilst the aircraft is proceeding on its North-pointing heading vector at TAS 120 knots, the air through which it is flying will be moving in an easterly direction (from the West) because of the wind which is blowing. From the ground the aircraft would appear to be ‘crabbing’ sideways. This resultant flight path relative to the ground can be represented by means of ‘a vector triangle in which the two vectors applied to the aircraft (air vector and wind vector) produce a third, resultant, vector. Can you state the two elements represented by this resultant vector? Answer: ‘Track and ground speed. (This resultant vector is the ‘ground vector’ discussed earlier.) Figure 4.3. shows the vector triangle for the previous problem. The Air Vector PQ is drawn vertically, with the heading arrow pointing up the page (because the heading is due North in this case). Length PQ represents 120 knots (the TAS) - you can check it, using the scale on the right. The wind vector (QR) always follows the Air Vector (PQ) ‘round the triangle’, the arrowheads on QR indicating wind blowing FROM the West in this case. Length of QR is (to scale) 30 knots, which is the wind speed. (Check it please.) With PQand QR drawn in, we can then join P to R giving the resultant Ground Vector(PR), Figure 4.3. with a double arrowhead showing the direction of track. = knots Note that this double arrowhead points in the opposite direction round the triangle to the arrowheads on the other two vectors. Question 6) Using your protractor and dividers, measure the track and ground speed from the triangle shown in Figure 4.3. Answer: Track 014° True GS 123 knots ‘The angle between heading and track is drift, and is termed Port (or Left) drift ifthe track lies to the left of heading. If the track lies to the right of heading, the drift is termed Starboard (or Right) drift. In the previous problem, with heading 000° and track 014°, the drift was 14° Starboard (or Right) ~ the aircraft was ‘crabbing’ to starboard (i.e. to the right). 4-4 © Onord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE VECTOR TRIANGLE 4.5 THE SIX ELEMENTS OF THE TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES. ‘The triangle of velocities has six elements:~ 1) Heading. 2) TAS. 3) \d Direction, 4) d Speed. 5) Track. 6) Ground Speed. Ifany four of these six are known, the other two can be determined graphically or by computer. In the last problem we were given heading, TAS, wind direction and speed (wind velocity) and from these elements we determined graphically the resultant track and ground speed. ‘The computer method of solving similar problems is detailed in later notes. N 30 120 Lotiitiiiit, ‘Scale : knots Figure 4.4. Question 7) With regard to Figure 4.4., where the vectors are drawn to scale for a one-hour flight, use your dividers and protractor to complete the table below. Hag wy Drift | Track | TAS Gs 360 Answer: Hdg wy Drift | Track | TAS Gs 360 | 033/48 | 19P 341 120k | _83kt 4-5 ‘© Osford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE VECTOR TRIANGLE ae 30 120 Leitiatiitiits Scale : knots Figure 4.5. Question 8) With regard to Figure 4.5. where again the vectors are drawn for a one-hour flight, insert the missing arrowheads. Then use your dividers and protractor to complete the following table. Hdg wy Drift | Track | TAS cs 090 Answer: Hdg wy Drift | Track | TAS Gs 104 | 1603ske_ | 14P 090) 136kt_| 120k 4-6 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION 4.6 SUMMARY THE VECTOR TRIANGLE Please work through this revision programme. Question 1) Answer: Question 2) Answer: Question 3) Answer: Question 4) Answer: Question 5) Answer: Question 6) Answer: Question 7) Answer: Question 8) Answer: What is a heading? The direction of the fore and aft axis of the aircraft. (It may be referred to as ‘True, Magnetic, or Compass) What is TAS? ‘True Air Speed. The true speed of the aireraft through the air. ‘The two elements of the Air Vector of an aircraft are? Heading and True Air Speed. Track The dit ch an aircraft moves over the ground. (It may be referred to as True, or Magnetic) fon in whi GSis? Ground speed. ‘The speed of the aircraft relative to the earth. ‘The elements of the Ground Vector of an aircraft are? ‘Track and Ground Speed. ‘The two words missing from the following statement: ‘In this branch of navigation, the term wind velocity expresses the direction........ which the wind is blowing and the speed of the air relative to the. are ‘from! ‘earth Drift is? ‘The angle between heading and track, (It is referred to as Port or Starboard according to whether the track lies to the left or right of heading.) 4-7 © Orford Aviation Services LimtedNAVIGATION ‘THE VECTOR TRIANGLE 4-8 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedCHAPTER FIVE - THE COMPUTER, PART TWO Contents Page SL INTRODUCTION. «0.0.0.0 cecce cece estes ceeeeeeeeeees sodeotean=d 5.2 USE OF THE COMPUTER TO DETERMINE TRACK AND GROUND SPEED. 53NAVIGATION Sa L {ODUCTION. Let us try to work out just how the navigational computer cansolve problems involvingttriangles of velocities. Figure 5.1 shows a vector triangle representing the following navigational situation:- Heading/TAS..000°T/120 kt Track/G6.......015°T/124 kt WV on 270°T/32 kt The ‘internal’ angles of the triangle, (between the three vectors) Heading/Wind Direction 90° Heading /Track (i.e. Drift) 15° ‘Track/ Wind Direction 1° ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 2 NT) Figure 5.1 ‘The shape of the triangle is governed by these internal’ angles. Provided they do not change, the shape will be unchanged even though the triangle's orientation with respect to North varies. For instance, the triangle could be re-orientated clockwise successively at 90° intervalsin accordance with the figures below - with no change whatever to the shape of the triangle:~ ‘Table 5.1 Hdg TAS Tr Gs. wy 000 120 01s 124 270/32 090 120 105 124 000/32 180 120 195 124 090/32 270 120 285 124 180/32 Itis possible to construct a basic graticule on which to superimpose these vector triangles. Such a graticule appears in Figure 5.2, with concentric circles providing a speed seale from 0 - 130 knots, and drift lines at 5° intervals. © Oxlord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 2 N(T) Figure 5.2. Youcan see that the fourdifferent orientations of the triangle previously discussed have been superimposed on the graticule. In each case the drift can be seen to be 15° Starboard and the ground speed 124 knots ‘As the four triangles are identical, let us concentrate on just one of them, the ‘top’ one, ie. the cone orientated towards North (with heading 000°). We will mark in a small index on the heading line, If a moveable circular scale is now positioned around the basic graticule, all four cases can be solved by setting against the index, ‘where 000° at present appears, the figures 090, 180, and 270 successively: in each case the drift ‘would appear as 15° Starboard and the ground speed as 124 knots. ‘The basic graticule has now, very nearly, become a navigation computer. Itis now possible to cut down the size of the basic graticule because on the circular scale we can set any heading on the end of the heading line. So the slide of your navigation computer appears roughly as in Figure 5.3. (although the drift lines may appear at every 1° or 2°, depending on speed). 5-2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 2 52 Figure 6.3, If you now look at your own computer you will find that the fixed index (usually labelled True Heading) is, for convenience, positioned above the circular rotatable direction scale. The scale is graduated from 0-360° so that any desired heading can be set against the index. Unless otherwise stated we shall be considering only True directions, that is to say, True heading, True track and True wind direction. By virtue of the sliding card and different speed scales, problems involving a wide range of speed can be solved. The appropriate TAS us set on the computer by sliding the card until the required TAS lies under the centre dot on the see-through plastic face of the instrument. Speeds will be in knots unless otherwise stated. USE OF THE COMPUTER TO DETERMINE TRACK AND GROUND SPEED. If we are supplied with details of the aircraft's Air and Wind Vectors, we can compute the Ground Vector. In other words, knowing the Heading and TAS and given a forecast wind direction and wind speed, we can compute the expected track over the ground the ground speed along that track. To leam the procedure it is best to use a worked example, Please follow the working and put the appropriate settings on your own computeras the problem, is analysed and solved. 5-3 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 2 Here is a typical problem. Example 1. Weare given:- Heading 000°(T) TAS 120 kt WY 270°/32 kt We are required to compute the resulting track and ground speed along that track Sequence. We shall first mark in the Wind Vector. Next step up the Air Vector. We shall then be in the position to read off the elements (Tr and GS) of the resultant Ground Vector. Marking in the Wind Vector. Look through the clear plastic disc and check that the TAS of 120 knots appears on the speed scale. (ifnot, it means that, with most computers, the high speed seale is facing you and you must reverse the card so that 120 knots is visible through the disc) Rotate the disc until the wind direction 270° is against the TRUE HEADING index at the top of the computer. From the centre dot draw a pencil line straight down the central drift line making its length 32 speed units (the wind speed being 32 knots). To do this, you can slide the card until the speed fare 122 is under the centre dot: then draw in the wind straight down to the 90 speed are. (You ‘could equally well draw the line between any two corresponding speeds having a difference of 32, eg. between 132/and 100. Alternatively you can move the card until the top line of its squared section lies under the centre dot on the plastic disc. Draw a straight line running from the centre dot down the centre line to the point 32 speed units - knots in this problem - below the centre). Put three arrowheads pointing downwards on this line and that’s the wind vector drawn in running in a direction from 270° with a length representing 32 knots - as in Figure 5.4. Setting on the Air Vector. The two clements of the Air Veetor are Heading and TAS, Rotate the disc until the heading 000° is, against the TRUE HEADING index at the top of the computer and slide the card until the TAS 120 appears under the centre dot. Figure 5.4 5-4 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 2 Draw a line from the bottom of the disc up the centre line to the centre dot, giving it one arrowhead pointing upwards. You can now see that the heading vector is set at the correct angle to the wind vector, and that the wind vector is following the heading vector round the triangle. This is a good time to offer some advice. We strongly recommend that you should always ha ‘True Heading against the TRUE HEADING index, and TAS under the centre dot. This emphasis is necessary because standardised computer procedures are absolutely vital. You ‘may have other procedures recommended to you - we don't like them so much. What is certain is that if you start mixing your methods you will sooner or later feed false information to your computer - which will then produce the wrong answer Now, back to the problem, Reading off the Ground Vector. Check that 000” is still set against the TRUE HEADING index and that the card has not slipped (120 still beneath the centre dot) You can see that the third side of the vector triangle lies along the 15° drift line to the right of centre. Peneil in a line running along this drift line from the base of the disc up to the end of the wind vector and give it two arrowheads, pointing upwards. Your computer should closely resemble the drawing in Figure 5.5. This Ground Vector gives the track and ground speed that we are looking for. Figure 5.5 First check again that the card has not slipped (TAS 120 still under the centre dot) and that Heading 000° is still against the top index. Then read off the ground speed at the intersection of the Wind Vector and Ground Vector. It should be 124 knots (give or take a knot or two, because computer accuracy varies). 5-5 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 2 Now the track; it lies along the 15° starboard drift line, ie. track isto the right of heading. Track is heading plus starboard drift, so in this case Hdg(T) 000° + Drift 15°S = Tr(T) 015°. (Alternatively you can use the drift scale at the top of the computer. Look for 15° Drift Stbd to the right of the TRUE HEADING index. Against this 15° you can read the track 015°(T) on the inner scale). ‘Thus the answers to this problem are:~ ‘Track 015° GS 124 knots Now moisten a finger or use an eraser to remove the pencilled heading and track lines but leave on the wind of 270(T)/32 kt and use it in the solution of the next problem. Example 2, Compute track and ground speed, giver Hag(T) 314 TAS 180 kt WY 270(T 32 kt Follow much the same procedure as before but don't bother to draw in the heating and tack lines - try to visualise the triangle in your 'minds eye' instead. When you have set 314 against the TRUE HEADING index and 180 under the centre dot you should read off a GS of 159 and drift 8°Stbd. By reference to the DRIFT STBD scale at the top of the computer 8°S drift produces a track of 322 So this time the answers are:~ Track 322°(T) GS 159 kt It would now be good practice for you to solve the other triangles given in Table 8.1 in the first Paragraph of this Chapter, computing track and ground speed in each case and checking that your results agree with those in the table within one degree for the track and two knots for the ground speed. Ifyou disagree with any answer, check your settings again, and make sure that the card has not slipped nor the dise rotated inadvertently. Note that itis not necessary to draw in the complete wind veetor for each computation. It saves time if instead, you make a small pencilled cross at the point where the wind vector would end if you drew it in. This little pencilled cross is commonly called the ‘wind point. 5-6 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedCHAPTER SIX - THE COMPUTER PART THREE Contents 6.1 INTRODUCTION. 6.2 COMPUTATION OF WIND VELOCITY ........00000000085 ss 6-1 {© Oxford Aviation Services Limited© Oxlord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION THE COMPUTER, PART 3 61 62 INTRODUCTION. In Chapter $ you learned how to compute track and ground speed when given heading, TAS, and wind velocity. A programmed learning sequence now follows, introducing other vector triangle problems. (The way this type of programmed learning sequence operates was explained in Chapter 4. COMPUTATION OF WIND VELOCITY During flight itis often possible to determine the aircraft’ true track and ground speed. The true heading can be calculated from the compass heading, while TAS can be computed from the RAS. Thus we may know true heading, true track and GS, that is to say, four elements out of the six in a triangle of velocities. Knowing these four elements mentioned above, whatare the other two elements which we can compute? Answer: Wind speed and true wind direction (in other words, wind velocity). Question 2) We wish to compute wind velocity from the following information:~ Hdg(T) 080 TAS 150 kt Tr(T) 085 GS 134 kt In setting up your computer, where do you set the heading and TAS? Answer: Heading 080 against the TRUE HEADING index TAS 150 under the centre dot. (please set these on your computer now) Question 4) You have set up the Air Vector (heading and TAS). This leaves track and ground speed to be set on, Which vector of the triangle do these two elements define? Answer: ‘The ground Vector (track and ground speed), Question 5) We do not set up the track directly, but calculate the drift and set that on instead. What is the drift in this case? (You must state amount and direction) Answer: Drift is 5° starboard, (Because the track 085° is 5° greater than the heading 080°. Any time the track is greater than the heading, the drift is to starboard). 6-1 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 3 Question 6) Now see if you can decide how you will set the two elements a) drift $°S, and b) GS 134 on your computer. Answer: Drift ~ use the 5°S drift line marked on the card, GS = use the 134 knot speed are on the card. The intersection of the drift line and the ground speed are defines the end of the Ground Vector. Now please draw in these two lines as follows:- a) First check that 080 is still against the TRUE HEADING index and that TAS 150 is still under the centre dot. b) —_Onthe face of the computer, pencil in 1 line along the 5°S drift line marked on the card. This sets up the drift. ©) Pencil in a short section of the 134 kknot speed are so that it intersects the , 5° line that you have just drawn. i Your computer should now resemble the poeta | diagram in Figure 6.1. eens Note Cs a jote that we have: See ay; Hag (1) 150 kt beneath centre dot; 5° drift line intersecting EBEEE 134 knot speed are, Figure 6.1 ‘You have set up the Airand Ground Vectors. The elements of the Wind Vector (wind direction and speed) can now easily be read off. 6-2 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION THE COMPUTER, PART 3 Question 7) Try it for yourself - in other words, what is the wind velocity? Answer: WV 045/20 Here again itis important to standardise procedures. The direction of the wind is the direction FROM which is blows. To determine this, rotate the disc until the $°S/134 knot intersection, the ‘wind point" in this case, lies over the zero drift line (centre line) below the centre dot. (Below it, never above it). You then read off the wind direction (045°) against the TRUE HEADING index at the top of the computer. The speed scale on the card is used to measure the wind speed (the vector length between the centre dot and the 'wind point’, 20 knots in this ease). If you prefer it, slide the card until the top line of the squared section lies under the centre dote and read off the wind speed on the central scale. Practice makes perfect, they say. Here is a similar problem. We are required to compute wind, velocity given the following information:~ Hag¢T) 094 THT) 080 TAS 90 kt GS 100 kt Question 8) What is the drift? Answer: 14° Port. (Because the track 080° is [4° less than the heading 094°. Any time the track is less than the heading, the drift is to port). Question 9) Using the information given in Question 8), what figure should you set against the TRUE HEADING index? Answer: 094°, (the true heading) Question 10) Once again using the information given in Question 8), what goes beneath the centre dot? Answer: 90 knots, (The TAS) 6-3 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 3 Question 11) After those reminders, please go ahead and compute the wind velocity, What do you make it? Answer: WV 200/25. ‘Your answer should be within 5° and 2 knots. If itis outside these limits, check that the card had not slipped before you pencilled in the 14°P drift line intersecting the 100 knot speed are. Check also that before reading off the wind direction against the top true heading index you rotated the disc to bring your pencilled wind point around to the centre line below the centre dot. 6-4 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedCHAPTER SEVEN - THE COMPUTER, PART FOUR Contents 7.1 COMPUTING HEADING AND GROUND SPEED. .. NAVIGATION GENERAL QUESTIONS ........ NAVIGATION GENERAL QUESTIONS ..... NAVIGATION GENERAL QUESTIONS ......... a: NAVIGATION GENERAL QUESTIONS ....NAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 4 TA COMPUTING HEADING AND GROUND SPEED. We now come to the most difficult type of computer problem - which happens also to be the type most frequently encountered, usually atthe flight planningstage. The planned (or desired) track is known and so is the planned TAS. A forecast wind velocity is available. The task is to compute: 4) The heading which should be steered to fly along the desired track. b) The ground speed (that is to say, the speed at which the aircraft will progress along the desired track - and which, therefore, can be used to calculate the estimated time of arrival - ETA - at the destination). Here are some figures: Desired track 040° Planned TAS 146 kt Forecast WV 315(T)/20 kt The task is to compute heading to steer and resultant ground speed. We shall consider two ‘methods and it will be up to you to decide which you prefer; you may well change your mind as time goes on and you become more proficient with the computer. The first thing to do - as in all computer problems - is to clean up the face of the computer. Remove all old ‘wind points’ and lines. Now set on the wind velocity, using the squared section of the card for this first method, Remember to rotate the disc until the wind direction 315 is against the TRUE HEADING index. Slide the card until the top line of the squared section lies under the centre dot, Mark in the wind point (a pencilled cross on the central line 20 speed units below the centre dot). Question 1) The wind point defines the meeting place of the Wind Vector and what else? Answer: The Ground Vector In the triangle that you are setting up, you can now get the wind/track angle right by putting 040° (the desired track) against the TRUE HEADING index and then carefully drawing in a straight line vertically through the wind point. (The verticals of the squared section will act as your guide, and the straight edge of a protractor is useful to keep the line straight) So far we have set up the Wind Vector and track direction and we must now orientate these with respect to the Air Vector. Move the card until the TAS of 146 lies beneath the centre dot. This leaves the desired track 040° against the TRUE HEADING index, and the track line running vertically up the computer. Fa © Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 4 This is WRONG because when the triangle is properly orientated we must have true heading against the TRUE HEADING index, and the track line must be co-incident with a drift line. The remedy is simple. Rotate the disc (clockwise in this example) until the track does lie co- incident with a drift line, being careful not to disturb the correct setting of the TAS (146 knots, beneath the centre dot). Read off the heading against the TRUE HEADING index and GS under the wind point, Question 2) What do you make the heading and ground speed? Answer: Heading 032°(T) Ground speed 143 knots ‘You may have slightly different answers, but note that the drift indicated by the track line must be the same as the difference between heading and track. Thus, if your track line is co-incident with the 8°S drift line then the heading must be 040° - 8° = 032° and that value must be against the TRUE HEADING index when you read off the ground speed under the wind point. Before erasing the 040° track line and 315/20 wind point, please work through two more problems. Question 3) Compute heading and ground speed given:- Desired track 040° = WV 315/20 TAS 230 Answer: Heading 035°Ground speed 227 ‘You have to be careful with the drift - itis only 5° at this TAS. Question 4) Solve the triangle fora TAS of 165 Answer: Heading 033° Ground speed 163, This time the drift is 7°S. Note that in each case you have to carry out a quick check to ensure that the drift as read on the see-through plastic disc is the same as the difference between heading and track shown by the drift scale at the top of the computer. This leads to the second method of solving this type of problem, With practice itis quicker than the first method and no lines have to be drawn on (and, subsequently erased from) the face of the computer. A worked example follows. Please follow it through on your own computer. Example 1. Compute heading to steer and resulting ground speed, given:- Desired track 230°(T) TAS 76 kt WV L10cTy/40 kt 2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 4 Mark in the wind point (110° against the TRUE HEADING index, and pencil in the little cross 40 speed units below the centre dot). Set TAS (76 speed are beneath the centre dot). Remember that we must finish up with true heading against the TRUE HEADING index, but as we dont yet know that the true heading will be, let us set desired track 230° against the index to get an idea of the approximate drift. ‘What do you make it? Answer: 20° starboard (Check you settings of WV, TAS and desired track if your answer is different by more than a degree or two). Thus if we steer a heading of 230°, the aircraft will track along 230 + 20 = 250°. This is not good - because the track that we want is 230°, so we must obviously point our nose to the left of our track by about 20°. In other words, we should consider steering a heading of 210° which - if the drift stayed at 20° starboard - would give us a track of 210 = 20 = 230°, which would be fine. Let us try it. Tur the disc clockwise 20° so that 210° is against the TRUE HEADING INDEX. Is 210° to be our heading? Check the drift. What is it? Answer: A glance at the wind point shows the drift to have increased to 25°S. (if you disagree by more than a degree, check your settings.) This means that steering a heading of 210° will cause the aircraft to make good a track of 210 +25 = 235°, But we want 230°, Accordingly we must point the nose at least another 5° to the left. Therefore rotate the disc 5° clockwise to bring 205° against the TRUE HEADING index. Now what its the drift? Answer: The drift has increased again, by 2°, 10 27°S (which, with a heading of 205°, would produce a track of 232°) Once again, rotate the dise clockwise, by 2° this time, until 203° is against the TRUE HEADING. index. Note that the drift remains at 27°S and we have at last stabilised the computation! The heading to steer is 203°. The track resulting will be just what we want (203° + 27°S = 230°). Check that TAS 76 is still under the centre dot -read off the GS - it should be 88. A final check for correctness; all is well because:~ ‘True heading is against the TRUE HEADING index. 7-3 ‘© Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 4 TAS is under the centre dot. Drift on the face is the same as the difference between heading and track. The last problem was a particularly ‘tricky’ one, involvingaas it did three ‘twists’ of the computer, this procedure is sometimes known as "balancing the drift’. If you found the method impossibly difficult to operate, try the slightly different procedure which follows Set on the WV 110/40 and TAS 76 as before and start with desired track 230° against the TRUE HEADING index. Observe that the drift under the wind point is 20°S and rotate the dise 20° ‘clockwise to bring the desired track 230° against 20°on the top DRIFT STBD scale, Look at the wind point - the drift has increased to 25°S, so rotate the disc 5* clockwise to bring track 230° against 25° on the DRIFT STBD scale. Check the drift again. It is now 27°. Rotate the dise scale. Check the wind point again - the drift is still 27°S. Check TAS 76 is still exactly beneath the centre dot. Read offtrue heading 203 against the TRUE HEADING index and GS 88 from under the wind point - the same answers as before. Some of us prefer this procedure to that previously described. further 2° clockwise so that track 230° is against 27° on the DRIFT STBD To help you to decide which you prefer, only practice can be recommended. 7-4 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION To calculate track and groundspeed: I Set wind direction under true heading index. 2. Mark in wind dot on centre line of computor BELOW centre dot at a distance equal to wind speed scale to scale. Set true heading at true heading index. Set TAS under centre dot, ae THE COMPUTER, PART 4 TRACK AND GS ‘THE COMPUTER IS NOW SET UP CORRECTLY WITH HEADING AT THE TRUE HEADING INDEX S0: DO NOT DISTURB THE SETTINGS. 5 Read off drift under wind dot. Read off track on circular scale beneath drift on drift scale. 7. Read off groundspeed beneath wind dot, HDG’. wiv TRACK*T TAS Gs. 273 230/40 150 181 150/30 90. 034 350/28 88 084 255/58 210 141 280/35 190 274 030/40 150. 213 060/35 150 029 090/40 170 305 350/16 100 187 270/60 10 310 045/45 320 7-5 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 4 HDG?eT wy TRACK°T TAS cs 138 125/50 390 253 130/70 45 131 210/40 485 100 315/55 480 270 315/58 110. 200 125/50 210 180 210/40 135 140 180/70 170 093 045/45 210 103 060/35 240 237 270/60 205 343 030/40 350, 030 350/16 390 315 280/35 315 145 090/40 420 290 255/55 490 191 150/30 480 257 350/28 475 157 230/140 460 7-6 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION THE COMPUTER, PART 4 TRACK AND GS. To calculate track and groundspeed: Set wind direction under true heading index. 2. Mark in wind dot on centre line of computor BELOW centre dot at a distance equal to wind speed scale to scale, 3. Set true heading at true heading index. Set TAS under centre dot ‘THE COMPUTER IS NOW SET UP CORRECTLY WITH HEADING AT THE TRUE, HEADING INDEX S0: DO NOT DISTURB THE SETTINGS. 5. Read off drift under wind dot Read off track on circular scale beneath drift on drift scale. 7. Read off groundspeed beneath wind dot HDG?T wy TRACKeT | _TAS Gs 23 230/40 286 150 124 181 150/30 194 90 66 054 350/28 073 ss | 80 084 255155 082 210 264 141 280/35 135 190 27 274 030/40 262 150 171 213 060/35 218 150 181 029, 090/40 016 170 155 305 350/16 297 100 89, 187 270/60 157 110 19 310 o4s/as 302 320 327 g-7 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 4 HDG'T, wy TRACK°T TAS GS. 138 125/50 140 390 340 253, 180/70 263 415 400 131 210/40 126 485 480 100 315/58 104 480 525 270 315/58 242 110 81 200 125/50 214 210 204 180 210/40 168 135 102 140 130/70 119 170 125 093 045/45 103 210 182 103 060/35 109 240 215 237 270/60 225 205 158 343 030/40 338 350 322 030 330/16 032 390 379 315 280/35 38 315 346 145 090/40 150 420 400 290 255/55 294 490 445 191 150/30 193 480 459 257 350/28 234 415 480 157 230/140 139 460 440 7-8 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 4 HEADING AND GS To calculate heading and groundspeed (Note this is the one which is normally required) Mark in wind dot. Set true track at true heading index. Set TAS under centre dot. THE COMPUTER IS NOW SET UP INCORRECTLY, TRACK IS SET AT THE HEADING INDEX. THE COMPUTER NEEDS RE-SETTING. 4. Read off drift indicated beneath the wind dot. Move the track reading on the circular scale to coincide with the drift read off at 4 above oon the drift scale 6. Repeat 4 and 5 above until drift indicated under wind dot agrees with drift indicated on the drift scale. ‘THE COMPUTER IS NOW CORRECTLY SET UP. TRUE HEADING IS AT THE. TRUE HEADING INDEX AND TAS IS BENEATH THE CENTRE DOT, THE. DRIFT HAS BEEN BALANCED. Read off true heading at the true heading index 8. Read off groundspeed under the wind dot. HDG? wiv TRACK*T | TAS GS 40/40 158 140 280/27 226 94 320/14 198 136 190/52 284 260 270/83 132 544 310/105 262 sn 300/60 355 620 270/75 113 570 240/80 301 435 210/55 313 54s 7-9 © Oxford Aviation CollegeNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 4 HDG°T wn TRACK*T TAS Gs 335/75 220 553 040/20 005, Ho. 125/35 045, 196 170/23, 113. 210 145/20 021 80, 170/30 287 220 300/30 200 137, 180/40 130 190 280/24 116 199 262/90 234 605 210/80 o71 620 190/80 339) 523 305/30 038 585 295/60 395 515 340/85 091 588 235/66 032, 485 055/35 197 176 255/15 ois 180 090/15 147 4 020/25 140 99. 7-10 © Oxford Aviation CollegeNAVIGATION THE COMPUTER, PART 4 HEADING AND GS To calculate heading and groundspeed (Note this is the one which is normally required): 1 Mark in wind dot. Set true track at true heading index. Set TAS under centre dot. THE COMPUTER IS NOW SET UP INCORRECTLY, TRACK IS SET AT THE HEADING INDEX. THE COMPUTER NEEDS RE-SETTING. Read off drift indicated beneath the wind dot. Move the track reading on the circular scale to coincide with the drift read off at 4 above on the drift scale, Repeat 4 and 5 above until drift indicated under wind dot agrees with drift indicated on the drift scale. ‘THE COMPUTER IS NOW CORRECTLY SET UP. TRUE HEADING IS AT THE. TRUE HEADING INDEX AND TAS IS BENEATH THE CENTRE DOT. THE. DRIFT HAS BEEN BALANCED. Read off true heading at the true heading index. Read off groundspeed under the wind dot. HDG?T. wiv TRACKT TAS Gs. 140 040/40 155 140 152 239 280/27 226 4 15 203 320/14 198, 136 142 22 190/52 284 260 258 138 270/83 132 544 600 270 310/105 262 5722 496 380 300/60 355 620 585 116 270/75 113. 570 637 292 240/80 301 455 413 307 210/55 313 545 555 7-11 © Oxford Aviation CollegeNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 4 HDG’ Ww TRACK°T TAS GS 227 335/75 220 553 582 ou 040/20 005 110 92 055 125/35 045 196 187 118 170/23 113 210 198, 033 145/20 021 80 89 280 170/30 287 220 232 212 300/30 200 137 140 139 130/40 130 190 161 118 280/24 116 199 221 238 262/90 234 605 526 076 210/80 o71 620 675 334 190/80 339) 523 592 035 305/30 038 585 585 349 295/60 355) 515 480 083 340/85 091 588 610 029 235/66 032 485 545 190 055/35 197 176 202 o14 255/15 018 180 188 137 090/15 147 4 65 127 020/25 140 99, 108 7-12 © Oxford Aviation CollegeNAVIGATION To calculate the wind velocity: Set true heading at the heading index Set TAS under the centre dot. THE COMPUTER, PART 4 WIND VELOCITY Read off drift on drift scale opposite track on circular scale. Mark in wind dot at intersection of groundspeed and drift line. Rotate face until wind dot lies on centre line BELOW centre dot Read off wind direction at true heading index and wind speed to scale. HDG wv TRACK*T TAS cs 209 219 150 134 270 266 180 202 223 224 206 246 069 079 138 124 299 293 125 120 167 162. 202 190 213 231 85 80 o14 005 200 218 330 348, 90 90. 179 168 196 226 098 100 310 338 o91 080 440 435 050 055 398 ais 351 340 393 405 288 292 434 462 276 281 335 316 280 278 430 435 291 292 330 360 097 095 343 322 7-13 © Oxford Aviation CollegeNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 4 fp HDG°T wy TRACK°T TAS Gs 056 055 287 320 108 109 480 530 176 171 428 438 270 265 335 308 248 243 406 332 247 252 380 352 200 202 435 403 198 202 340 325 215 275 435 395 274 275 290 270 321 326 338, 280 04s 061 285 305 196 205 210 245 31 295 482 435 ou 358 198 21 355 008 248, 270 ui 15 120 14 28 245 460 505, 175 168, 121 14 7-14 (© Oxford Aviation CollegeNAVIGATION To calculate the wind velocity: Set true heading at the heading index. Set TAS under the centre dot. THE COMPUTER, PART 4 WIND VELOCITY Read off drift on drift scale opposite track on circular scale Mark in wind dot at intersection of groundspeed and drift line. Rotate face until wind dot lies on centre line BELOW centre dot Read off wind direction at true heading index and wind speed to scale. HDG*T wi TRACK°T TAS Gs 209 155/30 219, 150 134 270 035/25 266 180 202 223, 050/40 224 206 246 069 014/26 079, 138 124 299 02/14 293 125 120 167 217/22 162 202 190 213 144/26 231 85 80. o14 129/38 005 200 218 330 250/28 348 90 90. 179 300/50 168, 196 226 098 300/30 100 310 338, 091 174/68 080 440 435 050 298/40 055 398 415 351 085/75, 340 393 40s 288 155/41 292 434 462 276 224/38 281 335 316 280 014/40 215 430 435 291 125/30 292 330 360 097, 124/25 095 343 322 7-18 © Oxford Aviation CollegeNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 4 HDG’T wiv TRACK°T TAS Gs 056 327/32 055, 287 320 108, 298/50 109 480 530 176 277/40 1 428 438 270 312/40 265 335) 308 248 270/80 243 406 332 247 200/41 252 380 352 200 172/32 202 435 403 198 143/25 202 340 325, 275 275/40 275 435 395 274 245/22 275 290 270 321 298/60 326 338 280 04s 308/85 061 285 305 196 065/50 205 210 245 31 011/138 295 482 435 ou 110/50 358, 198, 2u1 355) 262162 008 248, 270 ut 060/10 us 120 14 228 130/148 245 460 505 175 233/16 168 121 14 7-16 (© Oxtord Aviation CollegeNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 4 tr | w | Hag | var | Hag | Dev | Hag | RAS | Height | TAS | Gs | Dist | Time v [ot M c Temp 315 | ovs aw 2k 190 | 3000 88 3 +15 324 oe iw | 320 | 205 | 9000 ios | 30 +10 030 lw iw | on | 142 | 14000 80 55 +5 300 | 190 se 3E 132 | 4000 332 25 “10 019 ow 2E | o14 | 130 | 3500 110 | 54 “17 382 | 130 3E IW 160 | 7500 26 40 0 262 | o1or 3ME aw 180 | 9500 145 38 0 o2t 16w aw | 032 | 159 | 7000 12 | 3s 45 310) Ww 2e | 028 | 202 | 22500 10 50 30 162 | 2107 aw 3 194 | 28000 1312 20 55 228 | 280" low 2E 148 | 2000 84 20 +4 060 Rw aw | 017 | 123 | 3000 95 30 +16 043 9B iw | 050 000 | 175 | 161 23 5 120/ 4E 1E | on 2500 120 | 49 30 0 162 | 1400 ow Ww 96 | 3500 130 40 8 220 HE iw [320 | ar | 4000 2 30 c 7-17 © Oxford Aviation CollegeNAVIGATION ‘THE COMPUTER, PART 4 tr | w | nag | var | Hag | Dev | Hdg | RAS | Height | TAS | GS | Dist ] Time v|t M c Temp 31s | oasi | 328 | 7w | 332 | 2e | 330 | 190 | 3000 | 200 | 197 | 88 | 27 3 +15 324 | 338 | 325 | oe | 319 | 1w | 320 | 205 | 9000 | 230 | 210 | 10s | 30 a -10 o7t | 0307 | os9 | srw | 07 | rw | o71 | 142 | 14000 | 182 | 137 | 80 | 35 38 +5 300 | 190/ | 290 | se | 282 | 36 | 279 | 132 | 4000 | 13s | 141 | 332 | 141 25 -10 o19 | 300 | 007 | ow | ors | 2e } ora | 130 | 3500 | 132 | 122 | 110 | se 28 +17 342 | 1307 | 349 | 3 | 346 | iw | 347 | 160 | 7500 | 179 | 211 | 92 | 26 40 0 262 | o10 | 272 | 34e | 238 | 2w | 240 | 180 | 9500 | 208 | 217 | 145 | 40 38 0 o2t | 26s | o12 | 16w | 28 | aw | 32 | 159 | tooo | 180 | 192 | 112 | 35 2 +15 033 | 310° | 023 | 7w | 030 | 26 | 028 | 202 | 22500 | 284 | 274 | 46 | 10 50 30 162 | 210 | 165 | 14w | 179 | 3E | 176 | 194 | 28000 | 291 | 279 | 1312 | 281 20 35 228 | 2so/ | 234 | 1ow | 244 | 26 | 242 | 14s | 2000 | 150 | 137 | 84 | 37 20 “4 3s1 | ooo | 003 | 12w | ors | 2w | 017 | 123 | 3000 | 130 | 116 | 95 | 49 30. +16 043 | 1237 | 058 | 9: | 049 | iw } 050 | 166 | sooo | 17s | 161 | 62 | 23 46 3 032 | 120/ | 046 | 4e | 042 | te | os1 | 123 | 2500 | 124 | 120 | 49 | 25 30 0 162 | 147] 153 | ow | 162 | aw | 163 | 96 | 3500 | 101 | 63 | 130 | 124 40 +8 343 | 220 | 330 | vie | s19 | rw | 320 | 1m | 4000 | us | 129 | 82 | 38 30 5 7-18 © Oxford Aviation College7 € aot | SIE ooe T elt ‘0001 |Z €1 o1o | az oso | ssi st | coos | 9 07 O81 MN 760 | ace oor Pst 0009 | s Sse ZI M9) ist out | zc | oooz | r 0€ 061 ort dol Mel ver | ost ooor | € 8 aot jot | cz ost | ot |e z os Mol MoS LUOEE 001 ov | ot | ooo | 1 sNtW | WN Do Wo de do ux] ux] 3. La awit | .sia pan | aga | oan | ava | oan | oa | yovan | svi] sva | awan| tiv TVaINID NOLLVDIAVN,1 oie | SIE & we | ace 7] ste | ccist oe | Ooc |] ect] & | Oooo |Z 9 €1 ze | oo | ac | co | Moe | 490 | shi oso | sst | osr | si- | ooos | 9 0 09 081 660 | Mol | coo | a | 960 | sLOce 001 io | rst [| €- | 0009 | sse | sar | zr | amoz | om | m9 | psx | ZiOlr ist | cer | oct | ct | oooz | ¢ 86 oe ost | ort Aol wr | moe | ser | civ ver | ost | sar ooor | € 8€ au | cer | see | act | sez | aoe | ofc | o1ooe zzz | ost | o2t oor | z 81 os. oat | ror | Mot | oor | Aros LIv0ge oor | 6st oi | ooo | 1 su] WN | Ly De de dm | dM | do awit | isia | so | an | aga aA AIM | Sova | svi | sva | diva resino9, siomsuy WEN WH3N39 NOILVDIAVNtr Hoe | sie | Lb06l occ | Par ool Jz €1 oo | dec SPIO oso | 907 s | 0006 | 9 07 081 Mol | Z6l ‘dob oor | 961 | tet ooos | 68 zi Mod Ogio 991 ser] zt | oose | + us ir | ove Mob ore | oor zt | 0009 | € a Act Mee | oct | ose ost | ont | & z 98 dol MoS [_ scose 040 oL1 + | ooos | 1 suuw | WN | 1M De Wo Lo de In| im]. La aL so | oaH | aga | oan | ava | dan | AM | Noval | svi] sva | awa | wiv MOTT AGT AY UY SHOTS HUTT Sy STATO ‘IWUANAD NOLLVDIAVNose ] oe | c | cre | dee | sit | croor | vee | occ] vary Wr | ooo] c ost | ono | ac | zo | mon] s90 | sro | oso | o0c | os | s | 0000 | 9 07 o | or | cor | mar | cor | a | 961 | genre | oor | 901 | ter | zc | 000s | s oe os | ot | co | ace | sor | moo | ost | ocr | 99 | cor] ser] c+ | oose | + oz is t | ov | aa | we | ma | coz | cer | ove | oo | rer | c | 0009 iz m | sr | vez | acc | cee | mc | ore | ocoiz | vez | ost | ocr | z | oso st 98 ooz [ zo | aot | azo [ mos | exo | seoez eat [ oui | st L ooos | 1 ssw] WN [ um | 0 We do de faxfaun] o | aa aw | asia | so | oan | aaa | oan | uva | oan | av | xovas | sve | sva | aan] wiv sosano3 oun ‘TWWUdNdD NOLLVDIAVN81 82 8.6 8.7 88 89 CHAPTER EIGHT - TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS. Contents INTRODUCTION RELIEF ( TERRAIN) OTHER FEATURES SCALE MAP READING VISUAL CHECK POINTS SELECTING VISUAL CHECK POINTS SOME TYPICAL VISUAL CHECKPOINTS. ... SOME VISUAL NAVIGATION HAZARDS. NAVIGATION TECHNIQUES LOST PROCEDURE CHART SYMBOLS (© Oxford Aviation Services Limited(© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 8 82 INTRODUCTION Modern aircraft navigation systems tend to be very reliable and accurate. However they do Fail occasionally or suffer degraded accuracy. Moreover, many light aircraft are not equipped with sophisticated navigation systems. There is therefore a need for pilots to develop and maintain visual navigation skills using the basic aids of map/compass’stopwatch/eye, and brain, It is essential that pilots can interpret the conventional symbols (the legend) of all the aeronautical charts they use. A set of legend decodes is included at the end of this chapter. Tt is particularly important for visual navigation that pilots are able to interpret the symbols on topographical charts, eg, ICAO Topographical 1:500,000. RELIEF (TERRAIN) Ifan aircraft is to be navigated safely in poor weather, great care must be taken to avoid high ground, either by flying round it or over it at a safe altitude. However, terrain features can make excellent visual references in good weather. Pilots should therefore understand how these features are depicted. Information concerning the location and height of high ground is given on maps in various ways. Contours Lines are drawn joining all places which are at the same elevation above mean sea level are called contours and the intervals at which they are drawn can be read from the chart. Always check whether the contours are depicted in feet or metres. Contours which are close together indicate steeply sloping ground whereas widely spaced contours indicate gently sloping ground. Layer Tinting ( Colour Gradient) A different colour is used for ground in different height bands. Forexample, land between mean sea level and 250 feet may be coloured white, between 250 feet and 500 feet light yellow, and soon. A key to colour code is given in the margin of the map. Spot Elevations The elevations of prominent peaks are shown in figures. For easy recognition the highest spot height is printed on a white rectangle which has a black perimeter, and its position is given in the margin. Examples of contours, layer tinting and spot elevations can be found on the ICAO 1-500 000 topographical series of maps. Maximum Elevation Figure (MEF) Maximum Elevation Figures are shown in the quadrangles bounded by the graticule lines for every half degree of latitude and longitude. MEFSare represented in thousands (large figure) and hundreds (small figure) of feet above mean sea level. Each MEF is based on information available concerning the highest known feature in each quadrangle, including terrain and obstacles and allowing for unknown features (100M)(3281)THE MEF IS NOT A SAFETY ALTITUDE. 8-1 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 83 84 OTHER FEATURES Water. Whether sea, lake or river, the colour used is blue ‘Woods. Shown in green. Roads. Shown as red lines. Railways. Shown as black lines. ‘An exercise to consolidate knowledge of chart symbols is given at the end of this Chapter. In addition to understanding chart symbols, the pilot will need to measure distances on the chart. In many cases, the use of an appropriate navigation ruler will suffice but the pilot should be sure in this case that the chart being used is constant scale ( the ICAO 1:500,000 topographical chart is constant scale). In any event, the pilot should know the various ways that chart scale is depicted. SCALE Scale is the relationship between the length of a line drawn between two positions on a chart and the distance on the earth between the same points. ‘Three methods of expressing scale are common: ‘Statement in words. This is self explanatory. The statement "One inch to ten nautical miles" ‘means that a line one inch long on the chart represents a line ten nautical miles long on the earth. Representative Fraction. This is a statement in words put into mathematical form and is calculated from the equation: Seale = Chart Length Earth Distance By convention, the chart length is always 1 and the dimensions above and below the line are the same and thus cancel each other to make the fraction dimensionless , i, representative. Thus ‘on the ICAO 1:500,000 topo, lem on the chart represents 500,000 cms on the earth and I inch ‘on the chart represents 500,000 inches on the earth. ‘One inch to ten nautical miles’ becomes a representative fraction of 1 : 729 600 or om a 729600 Graduated Scale Line. Graduated scale lines are normally depicted at the bottom of the chart as in Figure 8.1. and may be in nautical miles, statute miles or kilometre. Since one degree of latitude is equal to 60 nautical miles, the provision of a latitude scale in effect provides a graduated scale line as is shown in Figure 8.2. &-2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS Figure 8.1 q EACH SMALL ox DIVISION, o REPRESENTS Figure 8.2. Latitude Scale. MAP READING Map reading can be defined as visualizing the physical features of the ground as represented on the map by symbols and forming a mental picture of the ground by relating the features one to another. This is known as reading map-to-ground. This is the basic technique used when confident that you are near track and near on-time. ‘There is a reverse process used when less certain of position called reading ground-to-map which involves seeing, an arrangement of features on the ground and being able to find those features on the map and. thus locate oneself. Visual navigation using map reading is a skill which needs practice and which will develop with, experience. A number of factors can make the task easier and the most important of these factors are thorough flight planning and pre-flight route study. tis also important in flight to try to remain on track and time and ,if off track, to regain track as soon as possible, But do not concentrate too much on navigation alone. It is equally important to keep a good look-out to reduce collision risks, to be aware of any potential weather problems, and to manage the aircraft systems. 8-3 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 86 8.7 VISUAL CHECK POINTS In the planning stage, the pilot will study the route and select visual check points normally occurring at about 5 to 10 minute intervals. A visual check point will be a significant ground feature which can be overflown or used as a reference to fly an appropriate distance away from. Ideally, the check point should be recognisable from some distance away to allow for timely alterations of heading. Visual checkpoints do not need to be exactly on track; a good feature close to track is better than a poor feature on track. SELECTING VISUAL CHECK POINTS. The ideal visual checkpoint will be recognisable from some distance away and have the following features: a) Large. A large feature will be recognisable from some distance but may be too large to use for precise navigation. A good principle is to use part of a large feature as the checkpoint, eg, if using Birmingham as a checkpoint, you will see Birmingham from some distance but choose a Motorway junction(Spaghetti Junction MS/M6) as your accurate checkpoint. b) Unique, Be sure that the checkpoint chosen could not be mistaken for a similar checkpoint in the same area. For example, disused airfields make good checkpoints but in East Anglia there are so many disused airfields ( from WW2 USAF operations) that it is easy to make mistakes. c) Vertical Extent. Features which have significant vertical extent eg, masts, mountains, should always be identified for safety reasons, but they do make good visual checkpoints particularly because they can be identified , in good visibility, at some distance. Thus, if you can see a radio mast 20 miles away and you know you need to fly 1 mile to the right of the mast and you're flying at 120kts, you have solved the navigation problem for the next 10 minutes and can spend your time checking aircraft systems, keeping. a good lookout and enjoying your flight. But, the value of features with good vertical extent alone may diminish if you fly higher — at S000ft agl , you may not easily see a 400’ high mast. d) Contrast. A. visual checkpoint should contrast in colour or texture with its surroundings. Contrast changes with the seasons and with geographic location i, the contrast between features may be entirely different in winter and summer or in polar or desert regions. Remember also that you may have to map-read at night when the rules of contrast are significantly different. Then, unless there is a good level of moonlight, the checkpoints must be lit, Finally, serious flight safety risks occur meteorological / geographic conditions of poor visual contrast leading to the possibility of visual illusions. These are summarised in para 8.8. 8-4 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS Itis rare fora visual checkpoint to have all the attributes mentioned above and your selection of checkpoints for a flight will probably be a compromise. Much will depend on the altitude you intend to fly, the seasonal/ meteorological conditions and the nature of the terrain over which you will be navigating. In the next section, the relative merits of various types of visual checkpoint are discussed, but the section cannot provide a comprehensive guide — you, the pilot, ‘must weigh your own selections against the ideal criteria, 8.8 SOME TYPICAL VISUAL CHECKPOINTS. a) Coastlines. Coastlines generally provide excellent daytime visual checkpoints and, given reasonable moonlight, can be so also be used at night. Coastlines are rarely uniform for any great distance and precise navigation can normally be achieved by reference to estuaries, headlands, ports or lighthouses. b) Water Features, Lakes, large rivers and canals normally show up well even taking into account seasonal variations such as floods and droughts. However, water features tend to occur in the lowest ground in a particular area and, when flying at low level, small water features may be hidden from view by surrounding high ground, Small rivers are often tree -lined which can help by providing contrast but can hinder the identification of a particular feature of the river. ©) Mountains/Hills. Mountains and hills can make excellent visual navigation features, but flight in hilly/ mountainous terrain must only be undertaken after due consideration has been given to safety aspects. In general, terrain features with good vertical extent are more useful for navigation at low altitudes (and also more dangerous!). Isolated hills provide the best features whereas terrain which undulates fairly uniformly is difficult touse unless additional features are available, Valleys tend to be good visual navigation features as they can normally be identified from their orientation and the presence of other cultural features , eg, roads, railways, towns , offers the opportunity of many precise checkpoints. 4) Towns/Villages. Never overfly built-up areas below 1500ftagl or below a height from which you could glide clear of the built-up area in the event of an engine failure. That said, towns and villages are useful as general indicators of position and may be used to locate more precise visual checkpoints. Towns are useful features at night because they are normally well-lit but the same is not true of villages e) Roads. Motorways (and major A roads) can provide excellent check features by day and night. Even ifthere is no discernible checkpoint available on the feature, the feature itself is a line feature and can be used for a track check or a timing /ground speed check. Generally, precise checkpoints can be found at regular intervals along these features ,eg, crossroads, motorway junctions , service stations. 8-5 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS Minor roads make less reliable check features but can still be significant in areas of ‘open country and barren mountainous terrain. A good general guideline is, the bigger the road , the better for navigation. 1) Railways. When flying near large towns or industrial areas it can be difficult to identify particular railway lines but ,in more open areas, railway lines are excellent visual line features and can provide precise checkpoints at junctions, stations or where there are conspicuous bridges. Railway lines are not normally visible at night. 2) Woods. The usefulness of woods as visual check features is variable. In general, the rule remains ’ the bigger, the better’, Large woods often have distinctive shapes if flying above say, 1000ftagl, but theirshapes are often difficult to recognise from lower levels particularly in hilly terrain, Also, woods change shape due to felling and planting programmes and this particularly applies to coniferous plantations( fir forests). Finally, ‘woods are susceptible to scasonal contrast changes. Snow-covered trees do not contrast ‘with snow-covered fields ( but, on the other hand, snow melts first on the trees and when this happens, shape and contrast are enhanced). Briefly, asin golf, use woods with care, h) Other Features. Many other features can provide excellent precise visual checkpoints: Powerstations or isolated factories can often be seen at great range and often emit steam ‘or smoke which aids identification and also facilitates estimation of surface wind velocity. If you make use of this, remember that the wind veers and increases with height above the surface. Also remember that power stations are often located along, rivers and there may be several power stations along a particular stretch of river. Airfields stand out well by day from heights above 1000ft agl but always be aware whether the airfield is active or not. Airfield identification beacons are readily visible at night. Quarries stand out particularly well but cheek NOTAMS for blasting activity. Monuments, follies and chalk cuttings are precise features but rarely lt. Lighthouses are excellent features by day or night but they are not unique unless identified in relation to coastal features by day of by their correet light transmission characteristics by night. 8.9 SOME VISUAL NAVIGATION HAZARDS, Some meteorological or geographic circumstances when a flight is being flown or navigated visually can lead to increased flight safety risks through the possible occurrence of visual illusions. These circumstances are dealt with in more detail in the Human Performance syllabus but are summarised here below: 8-6 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 8.10 In high latitudes, map reading is more difficult than in lower latitudes because the nature of the terrain is drastically different, charts are less detailed and less precise, and scasonal changes may alter the terrain appearance or hide it completely from view. In areas of snow and ice from horizon to horizon and where the sky consists of @ uniform layer of clouds so that no shadows are cast, the horizon disappears causing carth and sky to blend. In this situation , and in ‘White-outs’ caused by blowing snow, distance and height above ground are virtually impossible to assess visually. In conditions of poor contrast and particularly over snow covered ground, itis possible to focus on high ground well ahead of the aireraft and to fly the aircraft to cross that ‘ground with the appropriate clearance. The poor contrast may mask intervening high ground over which your clearance may be considerably less than planned. This situation is known as * the hill in front of the hill’ and is particularly dangerous when flying at lower altitudes. Flying over a smooth water surface, snow ora smooth desert surface makes it extremely difficult to judge height. The difficulty can be exacerbated in the overland situation if there are no features with vertical extent, eg trees. In a desert or tundra landscape, it is easy to see bushes and scrub trees and imagine they are full-size trees when they may actually be only a few metres high. ‘At night when flying over dark areas of sea or land where there are scattered pinpoints of light (ships, oil rigs, small settlements orisolated buildings) itis possible to become disorientated and to confuse the scattered lights below with the scattered stars above, This situation may be exacerbated after or during aircraft manoeuvres. NAVIGATION TECHNIQUES, Pilot navigation techniques and chart preparation requirements appropriate to visual navigation (including the 1:60 rule) are discussed in Chapter 9 and in relevant flight exercise briefings. A disciplined approach is always the most successful. When setting heading from a start point or when altering heading ata turing point, always check that you are flying the correct heading, and that the compass is synchronized. Always check that you have the appropriate altimeter setting and are flying at a safe altitude. Always check that you have started/restarted your stopwatch, or you know how much you are running early/late on planned time. Even the best navigators become occasionally ° uncertain of position ‘. It is very tempting in this situation to carry on regardless. DON’T! Start immediately to try to resolve any uncertainties using all aids available. This is a critical phase of your flight and it is very common for pilots in this situation to over-concentrate on navigation and to forget to check fuel/aireraft systems. Check your fuel/aireraft systems and then followa “lost” procedure. Ifyou are still uncertain when you are due at a turing point, turn on time(ETA), and obey the rules above. 8-7 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 811 LOST PROCEDURE a) Check compass/ASI to ensure you are flying planned headings’speeds, b) _ If meteorological/airspace restrictions do not apply, climb to increase your visual/radio horizon ©) Fixyourposition using all aids available, eg, VOR/DME , VDF, Radar fix, or visual fix. jeduced 4) Ifrestricted to visual (map reading ) methods, calculate a DR position. (DR reckoning’, commonly known as ‘dead reckoning’ ) ©) The DR position should be deduced using the position/time of the last known accurate fix and the track / groundspeed / time flown since that fix. £) Then, draw a ‘circle of uncertainty” around the DR position. (The circle is normally drawn with a radius of 10% of the distance flown since the last fix.) Remember, that the DR position continues to move along track and the ‘circle of uncertainty” gets, larger with time.) Now map-read from ground-to-map. Try to identify a large visual feature and locate the aircraft on the map with reference to this feature, On most ‘occasions the aireraft position should lie within the circle of uncertainty. 8) __Ifstill in difficulty, consider tuming towards a good visual line feature outside the circle of uncertainty ,eg, coastline, motorway, main railway. On reaching this line feature, turn and follow it until you find a definite visual checkpoint from which proper navigation can be resumed. But be careful that you do not fly towards high ground in poor weather below safety altitude or that you do not fly into controlled airspace without clearance. Always keep good lookout, monitor your fuel and aireraft systems and remember that you can use the Emergeney Fixing Service on 121.SMHz( PAN call or raining Fix). If you do have to penetrate controlled airspace without clearance or are in another real emergency , squawk 7700. 8-8 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 8.12 CHART SYMBOLS Using your up to date Southern England and Wales 1:500,000 Chart, answer the following uestions relating to a flight from Bristol Airport (51°23'N 002°43'W) via Tarrant Rushton (S0°S1'N 002°0S'W) and Plymouth (50°25'N 004°07W), finally returning to Bristol. In accordance with the quadrantal flight rules the three legs are to be flown at FL’s 55, 60, and 50 respectively. Before answering the questions, draw in the required tracks, a) Whatis the Validity date of your chart? b) With regard to Bristol Airport:- i) What type of Airfield is it? ii) Whatis its Elevation? iii) What is the VDF and LARS Frequency useful for direction finding? iv) What type of Airspace surrounds this airfield and what are the vertical limits? ©) Both Bristol and Plymouth airports have their names located in a pecked line box. What does this mean? d) In What Altimeter Setting Region are Bristol, Tarrant Rushton, and Plymouth? ©) Just to the right of the first track, approximately 10 miles from Bristol, is an important symbol located at $1°14'N 002°37'W. What does it represent, and list all the relevant details? f) At position 50°48N 002°39'W. there is a similar feature. Why is this symbol different and what is its height? , What does the additional circle mean? 8) What type of aerial activity might you find some ten nautical miles south of Q6 hy Onthe first leg you pass through an AIAA. What does that mean, and what frequency would you use to contact the controlling authority? i) What type of Airfield in found at:- i) Compton Abbas (50°58'N 002°09'W)? ii) —_Yeovilton (51°00'N 002°38'W)? List all the information found at this site and give the dimensions of the special type of airspace which surrounds it. Tarrant Rushton? i) Why does the Controlled airspace just to the north of Compton Abbas stop so abruptly? k) On the first leg you will have flown in the Boscombe Down ARA. Explain what t this area represents? 8-9 © Oxlord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 1 Onthe second leg of the flight you are flying below controlled airspace for most of the distance, List the different bases of this airspace starting overhead Tarrant Rushton? m) On the second leg, your track passes through an area listed as D012. Is it possible to fly through this area and what are the upper limits of the arca? n) What special feature may be seen approximately 6 nautical miles north of Portland Military Heliport? ©) If a commercial airliner was flying along Airway A25 from Berry Head (50°24'N (003°29'W) to Brecon what would be the Minimum FL and Altitude acceptable? p) Assuming your company operations manual required you to fly at a minimum safe altitude at least 1000 feet above the MEF listed in each half degree rectangle, what ‘would be the required altitude between Bridport (50°43'N 002°45'W) and Teignmouth, north of Berry Head? 4) What is the highest elevation within 20 nautical miles of Plymouth Airport and what does the blue stripped marker going towards the south east mean? 1) On leaving Plymouth to return to Bristol, what FIR would you be flying in and what frequency would you use to contact the Flight Information Service (FIS)? s) Assuming you are flying in good visual conditions, what is the most noticeable land feature on your flight from Plymouth to Bristol? 1) All Areas on the chart covered by a very light brown colour are between and... . Metres in Altitude above mean sea level? u) On the entire chart what is the maximum known elevation and what is its Latitude/Longitude? v) What does the symbol at 50°59'N 003°05'W show? 8.13 ANSWERS a This will depend on when you do this worksheet. The Charts are updated with effect from March each year. From April onwards, you should have the chart for that year until next March The validity date is shown on the bottom left of the chart. Never fly with an out-of-date chart. bed Civil Airport ii 62 feet ams iii 128.55 MHz iv Control Zone, class D airspace, Surface to FL 65. Outside this there is a Control Area, class D airspace, 1500’ ams! - FL 65. 8-10 © Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS e d Customs Airfields with regular promulgated hours. Cotswold, Portland, and Wessex. Prominent mast, 1995! amsl, 1009 agl, lit. Less prominent unlit multiple obstruction 345 ag! with radio interference hazard up to 2500" ams. Bird Sanctuary up to 4000" amsl. Area of Intense Aerial Activity. Contact Yeovilton on 127.35 MHz. i Civil with limited facilities ii Military, gliding, 75' amsl, MATZ to 3500" agl, radius 5 nm, plus extensions iii Disused airfield ‘The base rises from FL 195 (which is shown on this chart) to FL 245 or above (ie, Class B ‘irspace. Upper airspace is not shown on this chart). ‘Area where test flying may take place. FL 135, FI 155, FL 195 on airway R8, then F1 65 on A25. Yes. Crossing service available, Upper limit 18000' occasional 25000’, Horse and rider engraved in chalk hillside. FL 65 but a minimum absolute altitude of $500" ams 2600" ams1; 1000’ above MEF given in second half degree rectangle. 2038' ams| and instrument approach possible outside regulated airspace. London FIR with a contact frequency of 124.75 MHz. Motorway 152m 305 m 3650’ ams! at 530407 N 0040432 W (see bottom right hand legend, above the ‘Relief Portrayal” key), Dual carriageway with service area. 8-11 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION 2 pouoate cts 3 Beta yc 4 oat acca 5 ator 6 Siete 7 sree 19 Se ie ated 29 See aie) 2 2 Cal we legs 2 Lim ie tpemea 2 Seal poem) ‘teen 25 ars) 7 tants om TOPOGRAPHY "aoa abet 2 (ae (nit) 28 Satiae 3 Saas (oat 3 Same 1 Aiea rena Song war wen mere 8-12 TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS £ sa Mieg ines = 17486 18 Sot ton 7 mentee | mn) 2 ae i coos vs fe 16 es “ot rie 1 at 0 meer 99 yet 0 me 1 Se 4 aces a xcs g Dae ise oe ‘oor et) aes te we < 8 hea mm, * ‘orgy ees (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS cuvrure aucrup ances warns Avo 040s sceisaneovs te jones oN — = 5 RE payne acme zi 9 veoe ° © Tt aaa + 30 Banos (61 Rows bg a) eer 2 ae cS ein ask 2 et one no 2 Slieate l asceu.ancous eS $2 roca mos vc) mae 102 A tne pt re alee cere | ame Tet 1 54 Rabat ee et | | is mes s = A : afc ee) nee ‘ tm tet el lalicy fawn * AERODROMES 8 ow ve oO (87 etc and wary Lan oO 90, Steir anchorage = woe mw mamennemimy om EER ieee ces ° en iy wo ® 2 meet @ o" Egeerecence 8-13 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS AERODROMES (Cont) AERODROME DATA IN ABBREVIATED FORM WHICH MAY BE Inv ASSOCIATION WITH AERODROME SYMBOLS (Roterene: 169.22 ona 179.22 | iain halaman Lang gt ray hn tn “Sin re he “cereus ore Re a “a i te cay ttn may a wae ‘AEROOROME SYMBOLS FOR APPROACH CHARTS o SERRE Fos OK MEE & RADIO NAVIGATION AIDS* Sane ae roe a 9 I a ee 2 tte nb = a 2 thc wt bac vo | gp “| @@ on re it wetmtnaanem | 6 Son lois Seige Coen = crave venereal Ses eer mun, ‘cn ‘Sette cena we) ies a ot — 22 OME dn rat om — co aga 13 VOR ma ln og ia a % alte ns woteand Ue | vom a Sa eT eg oll a 1c toromentantingsem ts yea a a ac hemarnes Oot ta ne 8-14 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 1s [AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES eee cea a anes eat LE Co oe a ht ee omen 8 ote 3 imi || aes om or ag "rae sya ro snp erate ae cme © aa bia|sianctaowit oar} omen ere te Specs — ~BEF OO seve omy |B) Mani) *) ey ; Rea ver > AIRSPACE RESTRICTIONS seve rit eon) SESS] nee ah mtn cr cont su ac it ope oasractes once A. | |e re ae ott) A ipo x sc bn — aoe 1 Sak re se face ht of 30% a ncn | a omeatnmeen“f Statie Ret ssce..ancous ouqmenrnrnnes |e! || momen |—re—| fos mma | gl sua Atos gt T= tn sean ean ie as ss ston . Sze ta cr cae nore med coed | 1 Lowy es 8-15 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS: ‘SYMBOLS FOR AERODROME/HELIPORT CHARTS 19% Hat sue rma | Ee 7 Uyeda 1s {omen : jr sci ct + 198 Tx an paingas | teh antigen indicate ign iT eggs iol @. eee te en Ne 149 Stop bar - 1 tenor teen net He ae me ‘ ttn er) f= |) neo pa Raa vce tara | D>) a agin he po 9 SYMBOLS FOR AERODROME OBSTACLE CHARTS — TYPE A, B AND C fm | tie || in| Pai (as | T Sees 19) tone 5 erste eS) an 182 Fl iow: atm «eee re, — 1s eame a 153) Building lage structure _ + 4 ‘138) Stay SY 1 aa Meta | 15 Tension ne 9 ote cae 8-16 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedTOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS NAVIGATION TOPOGRAPHY Le Depression area shel Dike Sand dunes °117 Spot elevation above MSL in feet 0453 Highest elevation on chart 44736 Mountain pass Wy Glaciers and ice caps Map Symbols Sheet 7 8-17 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS: GENERAL 27 =2700fMsL ‘Maximum Elevation Figure Hightest Spot Elevation N.47°02'04" E 011°06'07" 11484 ft Glider Sectors within Airspace C/D Stuttgart Automatic Termnal Information Service (ATIS) Friedrichshafen Friedrichshafen ATIS 129.600 Grenchen Grenchen ATIS 421.100 ‘Stuttgart ‘Stuttgart ATIS 126.125 Zarich Zurich ATIS 128.525 Meteorological Broadcasts (VOLMET) Frankfurt 1 VOLMET 127.600 Frankfurt 2 VOLMET 135.775 Frankfurt Frankfurt Brosset KolnvBonn ‘Amsterdam Dusseldort Zarich Stuttgart Geneve Numberg Bale-Mulhouse Manchen Wien Hamburg Praha Berlin-Tempeihof ParisiCh. de Gaulle Berlin-Tegel Map Symbols Sheet 8 (© Oxford Aviation Services Limited9. 92 93 94 95 96 97 O8 99 CHAPTER NINE - PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE Contents INTRODUCTION sat at BASIC 1:60 RULE 1:60 RULE - MATHEMATICAL APPROACH ‘TRACKING PROBLEMS USING 1: RULE. aves sa : OPTION | -ALTER HEADING ( A/H) DIRECT TO TURNING POINT. OPTION 2 -DOUBLE TRACK ERROR METHOD OTHER APPLICATIONS OF THE 1:60 RULE. 9.7.1 Height on a Glide slope 9.7.2 Rate of Descent(ROD) 9.7.2.1 Change of speed on a glideslope 9.7.3 Slopes 9.7.4 VOR/DME Problems USE OF THE CRPS FOR 1:60 PROBLEMS ‘THE CLOSING ANGLE METHOD. 2 REVISION OF ESTIMATED TIME OF ARRIVAL (ETA). . QUESTIONS ANSWERS Page ol o4 90-5 9-6 99, 9-13 9-14 9-16 917 9-19 9-20 = 9-21 9.24 9-27 -931 9.35NAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1: on 92 INTRODUCTION Note: This chapter contains some information which is not examined in JAA exams. For JAA. exam purposes, students need to know the material contained up to para 9.8. In the notes, the derivation of formulae is given; but students need only to remember the formulae, Modern aircraft use digital computers to solve “navigation” problems and display solutions on “pilot-friendly” digital displays. However, pilots should still be able to estimate the appropriate solutions. The technique of estimating solutions to “navigation” problems is known as Pilot Navigation, Pilot Navigation techniques can be used to estimate solutions for many problems including (for JAA exams): Distance off track. Range from a known point, e.g. a radio beacon, Corrections of heading to proceed to a way point Corrections of heading to regain track. Calculating appropriate height on a glide slope. Calculating rate of descent (ROD) to maintain a glide slope. Calculating slopes, e.g. climb, descent, runway. Distance off track when using VOR/DME. These estimations mainly use the ‘One in Sixty” rule. ‘There are two forms of the 1:60 rule: a. Basie 1:60 rule b. Mathematical form of 1:60 rule. Both forms of the 1:60 rule are useful, depending on the type of question. BASIC 1:60 RULE Simply stated, the basic 1:60 rule is: at a range of 60 units, an angle of 1° subtends an are (distance) of 1 unit. ‘This is based on the circle. A circle of radius, R units, has a circumference of 2nR units. The circle contains 360°. Therefore, 1° will subtend an arc on the circumference of 22R units 360 But 2x is approximately equal to 6. (2 x 3.142) 9-1 ‘© Osford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE When R=60, are 2nR= 6x 60=1 unit. 360 360 ‘The rule uses ‘units’ but these units can be kilometres, statute miles or nautical miles (or, indeed, any other measurement of length), For the rest ofthis chapter, nautical miles (nm) and feet (ft) will be the units used. Using nautical miles, the 1:60 rule can be stated as Ata range of 60nm, an angle of 1° subtends an are of Inm. ee eee = 60nm 120 nm 180 nm Fig 9.1(a) - Basic 1:60 Rule 1 re nm 60 nm 2nm 60 nm 3° 60 nm Fig 9.1(b) 9-2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE Figures 9.1 (a and b) illustrate the 1:60 rule. The rule can be extended to ranges different from 60nms and to angles different from 1°, Thus: 1° at 60nm = Inm it 120nm = 2nms (120 = 2 x 60) 1° at 180nm = 3nms (180 = 3 x 60) Also: 1° at 60nm 2° at 60nm_ 3° at 60nm = 3nm, And: x° at 60=*x" nm x? at 120= 2x’ nm x® at 180=3'x’ nm These variations can be summat sed in the equation. Distance = Angle x Range 60 Example 1 An aircraft is 4° off track at a range of 90nms from a turning point (waypoint), What is the distance off track in nm? Distance = Angle x Range 60 =6nms Example 2 ‘An aircraft is 12 nm off track when 240 nm from a way point. What is the angular deviation from the planned track? Distance = Angle x Range 60 9-3 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1: 12= Angle x 240 60 12= Angle x 4 Therefore angle Example 3 (Typical exam question!) ‘An aircraft is tracking 270°M at ground speed 180kts. At 1000 hrs, an airfield bears 358°M. At 1006 his, the same airfield bears 004°M. Using the 1:60 rule, estimate your range from the airfield. both of which are essentially the same. Method 1 (logic) The aircraft has travelled 18 nm (6 mins at 180 kts). The bearing changed by 6° (38°M to 004°M) By logic, if the ac had been 60nm from the airfield, the 6° change in bearing would have represented a change in distance of 6nm, But the aircraft actually travelled 18 nm, therefore the range must be 18 x 60nms. 6 Answer. 180nms Method 2 (formula) Range 60 I8nm = 6° x Range 60 therefore Range = 18 60 6 Range = 18 x 60 = 180 nms 6 9-4 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE 93 1:60 RULE - MATHEMATICAL APPROACH ‘The mathematical approach to the 1:60 rule can be used very effectively to solve navigation tracking problems. It can also be applied to develop simple Rules of Thumb for calculating, heights on glide slopes and rates of climb/descent, The basis of the approach is to use tangents (tan) of angles. The tangent of an angle is defined as the ratio ina right-angle triangle between the side adjacent to the angle(A) and the side opposite to the angle(©). This is illustrated below. e@--007v ‘Adjacent Fig 92 tanZ opposite o adjacent A Now consider the next 2 tables, the first of tangent Z from 0° to 20°, the second of tan Z multiplied by 60. This is a table of the tangents of selected angles from 1° to 20° “Angle Zin T 2 3 8 10 B 7 20 degrees Tangent | 017 | 035 | .087 | 141 | 176 | 231 | 306 | 304 (tan) Now if we multiply the tangent of the angle Z by 60 we get a table as follows: ‘Angle Z in T 2 3 fe 10 3B 7 20 degrees 60 Tan Z 102 | 210 | saz [ sae | 1056 | 1386 | 18.36 | 21.84 9-5 © Orford Aviation Services LitesNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 60 RULE Given a 10% flexibility (acceptable for estimation purposes), it can be seen that for angles of Z up to 20°, the value of 60 x Tan Z is close to the value of Z itself. Thus, a formula can be written: 72 = 60 tan Z* ‘This is another way of stating the 1:60 rule, Note that the rule works reasonably well (10 within 10%) for angles up to 20°. If you tried to use the 1:60 rule with an angle of 45°, the estimation would not work-—--- Tan 45°= 1, 60x Tan 45°60, clearly not within 10%). Do not use the 1:60 rule for problems involving angles greater than 20°. Fortunately, your glideslopes will be less than 20°( for fixed wing aircraft) and , hopefully, your track errors will not be greater than 20°! Given these conditions, the formula can be applied to solve a variety of navigation problems. 9-6 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE 9.4 TRACKING PROBLEMS USING 1:60 RULE Imagine a situation where an aireraft is planning to fly from X to Y. Distance off «~~ Track P Track made Track good (TMG) error Fig 9.3 - Track Error ‘The track between X and Y is known as the ‘planned’,*desired’ or ‘required’ track (the JAA, may use any of these terms to refer to the track you want to fly). In these notes, planned track will be used. Imagine now that the aircraft has steadily deviated from planned track, due to, say, a change in the wind velocity. In this case, the aircraft position is “fixed’, some miles to the right of planned. track at position P. The “fix” might have been achieved in many ways, eg, GPS, VOR/DME, combining radio bearings or ,in the simplest case, looking down and recognising that you are flying over a known geographic point — the ‘pinpoint’. ‘The aireraft has actually flown along the track X to P. Actual track is more commonly called “Track Made Good” (TMG). The angular deviation of TMG from planned track is known as “ If the aircraft is left of planned track, TE is left ( port) If the aircraft is right of planned track, TE is right( starboard) \ck Error” (TE). drift. Track error is measured between planned track is measured between heading and track Do not confuse Track Error and actual track (TMG). Dri Considering the line P-Q, drawn perpendicular to the planned track a. line PQ is Distance off Track (DO) (and lies opposite to angle TE in the right angle triangle XPQ), 97 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE b. Line XQ is Distance Gone (DG) (and lies adjacent to angle TE in the right angle triangle XPQ). Note that DG has been measured along desired track. Using trigonometry ( you need not remember this proof but remember the final formula!) tangent of Track Emor °(TE)= Distance off (opposite) Distance gone (adjacent) Multiplying both sides of the equation by 60. 60xtanTE= Distance off x 60 Distance Gone but by the 1:60 rule 60 x tan TE=TE* (60 tanZ=Z) ‘Therefore ‘Track Error (TE)° = Distance Off(DO) x 60 Distance Gone (DG) In abbreviated form: TE = DOox60 DG (N.B. See para. 9 for a CRPS method of solving this equation.) Example (Over position A, an aireraft sets heading for B, a ground distance of 78 nm. After travelling 30 nm along track, the pilot fixes the aircraft at position C, 4nm port (left) of track. What is the Track Error (TE)? Track Error = Distance off x 60 Distance Gone = 8° Port (TMG is 8° port/eft of planned track) 9-8 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE ‘This situation is illustrated below. ‘Angle CAB = Track Error TE Fig 9.4 Line AB is planned track, Line AC is TMG. Angle CAB is the Track Error. But navigation does not stop here! Navigation has often been described as the ‘3 W's? Where am 1? Why am I here? (off track) What am I going to do about it? Not examinable - but the 3'W’s lead you to the correct thought process ( more of this in the Plotting part of the syllabus) Now consider the final question. We need to recover the navigation situation and get to our turning point( TP)waypoint(WP). In real flying there might be many valid techniques for getting to B, but, for theoretical knowledge exams, you should be able to solve the problem using 2 options based on the 1:60 rule: Option 1 Alter heading direct to the TP/WP Option 2 ‘The Double Track Error method 99 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1: 95 OPTION 1 -ALTER HEADING ( A/H) DIRECT TO TURNING POINT This option is also known as the Track Error/Closing Angle method. Fig 9.5 If no action was taken at C, the aircraft would continue to deviate from track, by Track Error, towards D. ‘The deviation can be stopped at C by immediately turning( right in this case) by the same angle as the Track Error (8°). This would result in the aircraft tracking towards E, i.e., parallel to planned track AB. This manoeuvre, if used alone , is often known as an Alter Heading Parallel Track (A/H//TK). ‘The parallel track ( A/H // TK) manoeuvre clearly stops the track deviation from getting worse, butt does not get the aircraft to position B, the intended destination or way point. To achieve this, the aircraft must tun further to close with track. The angle by which it must tum further is known as the Closing Angle (CA) - angle OBC on the diagram (but note that angle OBC ‘equals angle BEC). 9-10 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 60 RULE ‘The closing angle (CA) can be calculated using a similar formula to the Track Error formula but using Distance To Go rather than Distance Gone. Closing Angle (CA) = Distance off x 60 Distance to Go Applying this formula to the present example, where the distance to go is 48 nms (78-30) Closing Angle = 4x60 The total alteration to reach destination B is the sum of the Track Error(TE) and Closing Angle(CA),-—---- 8° + 5° = 13° right in this example. Generally, for a tum to go direct to a turning point/ waypoint Alteration of heading( A/H) = Track Error( TE) + Closing Angle(CA) Mathematically: AHO = TE + cA Total Alteration = Distance off (DO) x 60 + Distance off (DO) x 60 Distance Gone ( DG) Distance To Go (DTG) 2 8° + s 13° Example An aircraft is flying from M to N, distance 5S nm, After 25nm, the aircraft is 2.5 nm right of track. What alteration of heading is required to fly directly to N? Total Alteration = 25x60 + 25x60 25 30 11° left (port) Answer. 911 (© Oxford Aviation Servicos LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE 9.6 OPTION 2 -DOUBLE TRACK ERROR METHOD Although the Track Error/Closing Angle method achieves the aim of flying direct to destination, it does not regain track early. It may be advantageous to regain track earlier, ¢.g. in a visual map reading exercise, the pilot may have planned visual fix points along the planned track and needs to return to planned track quickly to use the planned visual fix points. The Double Track Error method is one way to achieve this. Returning to the basic situation we used earlier. (Flying A to B, 78 nms, pinpoint 4 nms left after 30nm.) Fig 9.6 If, at C, the aircraft now turns through 2x Track Error (16° in this example). The aireraft will now intercept track at P, regaining planned track with a “closing angle” equal to the track error (8° in this example). 9-12 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - :60 RULE nm hy TE ni Track Error Fig 9.7 Note the following. ‘The aircraft will regain track in the same distance that it took to deviate to C. ‘The time to regain track will be approximately the same as the time to C. At, the aireraft will have to alter heading by track error (8°) in the opposite sense from the original correction. Thus, in this example the aircraft turns 16° right at Cand then 8° left at P. ‘Total distance AP = 2 x 30 = 60nms leaving 18nm to run to B. ‘The technique only works if the “fix” position is less than halfway to the destination, 9-13 © Orford Aviation Serves LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - Example An aircraft is flying from X to Y, distance 60nm, at ground speed 90kts, The aircraft leaves X. at 0940 hrs. At 0956 hrs, the aircraft is fixed 4nm right of track. Using the Double Track Error method, calculate: a. Track error b. Alteration of heading to regain track, cc. Time when planned track will be regained. 4. Alteration of heading on regaining planned track, a. TrackError = Distance off x 60 Distance Gone Distance Gone is 16 minutes at 90 kts = 24nm TE: = 4x60 Br 10°S (right) b. Alteration of heading = 2 x TE = 20°P (left) c Aircraft will regain planned track in approximately the same time as that taken to deviate, i.e. 16 minutes Aircraft regains at 0956 + 16 = 1012 hrs d. On regaining planned track, aircraft must alter heading 10° starboard (right) to maintain planned track. 9.7. OTHER APPLICATIONS OF THE 1:60 RULE ‘The main other applications which may be examined are: a, Calculation of height on a glide slope. b. Calculation of rate of descent to maintain a glide slope. ¢. Calculation of shallow slopes, particularly runway slopes. 4 Caleulation of distance off required track using radio aids such as VOR/DME. 914 © Oxlord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1: 971 Height on a Glide slope To find a Rule of Thumb for calculating height on a glide slope, we can use the track error technique but view the situation in side elevation rather than plan. For convenience, the sglideslope angle is referred to as Z°. The derivation of the Rule of Thumb will not be examined. Fig 9.8 tan Z= height range Multiply both sides by 60. 60 tan Z° = height x 60 range but 60 tan Z° = Z° therefore Z° = heightx 60 ———— and by cross muliplication range height = Zxsanse 60 But range is normally measured in nautical miles (nm) and we need height in feet (ft). Range (am) must be converted to feet. Although multiplying by 6080 might be correct, for pilot navigation/estimation, 6000 ft is acceptable. Thus: 9-15 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE height=Z x range x 6000 60 Which simplifies to a well known Rule of Thumb. Height (ft) = Angle x 100 x range (ms) In plain Englis! Fora glidepath of x°, your height should be 100'x" ft per mile, e.g., 2.5° glide slope - 250 ft per mile 3° glide slope - 300 ft per mi 3.5° glide slope - 350 ft per mi 5.5° glide slope - 550 ft per mile, Example 1 Ona 3° glide slope at 4nms from touchdown. Height (ft) x 100x4 = 1200 ft. Example 2 Ona 5.5° glide slope at 3 miles from touchdown. Height (f) 5x 100x3 650 ft Note. 3° glide slopes are the most common, 2.5° glide slopes are often found at military airfields operating high speed jets. Glide slopes greater than 3° are normally found when airfields are located near high terrain or high buildings. London City has an extremely steep glide slope of 5.5°. (In all problems, glide slopes will be given. The heights calculated may need to be refined in Radio Navigation exams depending on whether the approach is visual or instrument. This will be covered in the Radio Navigation syllabus). 9-16 {© Orford Aviation Serves LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE 9.7.2 Rate of Deseent(ROD) ‘The rate of descent ( ROD) required to maintain a glide slope at a given speed can be estimated using the 1:60 rule. ‘The simple problem is to calculate the height of the aircraft when it is one minute from touchdown. After all, the aircraft has to lose this height in one minute. The range at one minute is given by ground speed divided by 60. Fig 99 Modifying the height formula. Rate of Descent (ROD) = Angle x 100 x Ground speed 60 A well-known simplification of the above formula can be used for the most common glide slope, ie, 3°. ROD = 3 x 100 x Ground speed 60 ROD =5 x Ground speed (3° only) Similar simplifications ean be made for other glide slopes e.g. 2.5° is approximately 4 x ground speed. However, it is recommended that for glide slopes other than 3°, the full formula used. 9-17 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE 9.7.2.1 Change of speed on a glidestope Students may need also to calculate the effect on ROD of changing speed. Firstly, apply the following rules: ‘To maintain a glideslope: Deerease speed, decrease ROD Increase speed, increase ROD To calculate the amount of the change: Change in ROD = angle x 100 x change in speed 60 ‘Again, for 3° glide slopes, this ean be further simplified to, ‘Change in ROD = x change in speed (3°glideslopes only) (Note: the previous caveats regarding glide slopes other than 3° still apply). Example 1. You are on an ILS approach to London Heathrow using a 3° glide slope. If your ground speed is 140kts, what Rate of Descent (ROD) is required to maintain the glide slope? For this problem, involving a 3° glide slope, you may use the 5 x ground speed estimate. ROD = 5 x 140 = 700 ft/min. Example 2 You are approaching London City Airport on a glide slope of 5.5° ata ground speed of 120kts. What rate of descent is required to maintain the glide slope? ROD = angle x 100 x ground speed 60 =5.5 x 100 x 120 60 = 1100 ft /min. 9-18 (© Oxlord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE Example 3. Approaching London Heathrow (3° glideslope), an aircraft decreases speed from 140 kts to 120kts. What change in the ROD must be made to maintain the glide slope? Decrease speed = Decrease ROD Again, for a 3° glide slope only, the 5 x rule ean be used, Change in ROD = 5x change in ground speed (3° glideslopes only) =5x20 = 100ft/min, Decrease ROD by 1 00ft/min (this links with Example | and would result in anew ROD. of 600 fi/min). Example 4, Approaching London City airport (glideslope 5.5°), you reduce ground speed from 120kts to 110 kts. What change should you make to your ROD to maintain the glide slope? Decrease speed = Decrease ROD Fora 5.5° glide slope. Change in ROD = angle x 100 x change in speed 60 =55x100x 10 60 = 92 ft/min (Note: this links with Example 2 and would result in a new ROD of 1008 (1000) ft/min) 9-19 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LirNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE 9.1.3 Slopes A typical examination problem would be: Atan airfield, the threshold elevation of runway 09 is 96ft; the threshold elevation of runway 27 is 205 ft. If runway length is 8000 ft, what is the slope of Runway 09 in degrees? 8.000 ft ! is pes + ¥ 16 Fig 8.10 This problem can be solved using trigonometry or several of the 1:60 rules. Using the Track Error formula TE=DOx60 (and modifying the formula for slope problems) DG Slope (TE) = Difference in Elevation (DO) x 60 Runway Length (DG) " 109 x 60 8000 0.8175°( up) Answer 9-20 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 4: 974 VOR/DME Problems A typical examination example: You are flying along an airway to VOR/DME *Q’; the airway QDM is 271°M. Your Radio Magnetic Indicator indicates your QDM to Q as 266°M, range 48nm. How far are you off the airway centreline and to which side? Fig 9.11 Again, we can use the Track Error formula. Track Error = Distance off x 60 and modifying the formula Distance gone Angle off (TE Distance off( DO) x 60, DME range (DG) DOx60 48 DO=Sx48 60. = 4nm to the right of centreline, (Note: you are off track but still within the airway because most airways are 10 nm wide, ‘Snms either side of centreline) 9-21 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE 98 USE OF THE CRPS FOR 1:60 PROBLEMS. Many students prefer to calculate 1:60 problems using an electronic calculator, That said, many ofthe problemsare solvable by mental arithmetic. Another option exists and is worth practising, namely, using the CRP 5. (Students may wish to revise the use of the CRP 5 for arithmetic, calculations as explained in chapter 3). This is now demonstrated using typical examples that can be solved on the CRP 5. Example 1 After travelling 72 miles, you are 6 miles off track. What is your track error? Formula Solution ‘Track Error (TE) Distance off (DO) x 60 Distance Gone (DG) 6x 60 = Ser 2 CRPS Solution ‘The formula above can be rewritten in a form suitable for the CRPS, thus: i = DO 60 DG Rotate the inner slide so that the DG (72) is opposite the DO (6) on the outer scale. Against the 60’ on the inner scale, read the TE (5°) on the outer scale. Fig 9.12 9-22 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE Note that you can use the CRPS in reverse. Thus if you have a track error of 5°, you can work out your distance off at any range. Without moving the CRPS from the previous settings, you can read off the DO at 90 nms (7.5) or at 50 nm (4.17), or at any range you choose. Fig 9.13 ‘The student still must establish the correct order of 10 for the answer - mental arithmetic! Example 2 Ona3* glide slope, ata ground speed of 140 kts, what ROD is required to maintain glide slope. Remember the formula, ROD = angle x 100 x ground speed 60 This can be rewritten ROD = ground speed angle x 100 60 Removing the 100 factor on the left hand side of the equation, simply changes the ROD from feet per minute to 100s of ft’min. ‘Therefore, we end up with a basic formula which lends itself to CRPS operation. ROD = Gs angle 60 9-23 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE Using the figures in the example, set the G/S (140) against the 60 minute mark - a normal procedure for setting speed on the CRPS. Fig 9.14 Against the 3° value (30 on the CRPS), read off the ROD as 700 fmin (70 on the CRPS), (Again, note that the student must decide the correct order of 10). A great advantage of this method is that the ROD can be read on the outer scale for any glide slope angle at a given ground speed (140 ktin this case). Thus the rates of descent for other glide slopes are: 2.5°- 585 fi/min 3.0° - 700 ft/min 3.5° - 820 fumin 5.5° - 1286 fu Note for Students ‘The remainder of this chapter is devoted to techniques which are not examined in the JAA ground exams. However, the techniques may be briefed to you by flying instructors as suitable for your visual navigation exercises. Therefore, we recommend that you do study them, and your ground instructors will help if you have any queries. Al students, complete the consolidation exercises at the end of this chapter. 9-24 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1: 99 THE CLOSING ANGLE METHOD. This is perhaps the best system of all for corre 1g deviations from desired track. First of all, we must emphasise the need to held a steady heading until the aircraft's position is definitely pinpointed - rather than making rash, panicky alterations, Once the aircraft's position is established, calculate the required heading alteration as follows:~ a) Estimate, asa faction, the proportion of the total leg distance covered. b) Invert this fraction ©) Multiply the inverted fraction by the closing angle Looks difficult? It isa't!_Let us work through some examples. Example 1 PINPOINT im ¢ Figure 9.9, Consider Figure 9.9., you pinpoint yourselfat C, to port of your desired track from A to B. The closing angle is 5° and you are about % of the way along the track. So:- M4; a) Proportion of leg travelled b) Invert this fraction, giving 4/1; ©) Multiply this 4/1 by the closing angle of 5° This gives 20°. You alter heading 20° (starboard, of course) for destination B. 9-25 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 60 RULE, At this point you will appreciate the value of - before flight - using protractor and pencil to draw 5° and 10° lines on both sides of planned track, radiating out from your destination. (If in doubt, look at the chart on the Appendix to these pilot-navigation notes.) These 5° and 10° lines make the estimation of closing angle very simple and accurate. (Similar Jines can be drawn from the point of departure - see the Appendix chart again - so that track error can be easily assessed if required). Example 2 PINPOINT %s Figure 9.10, Consider Figure 9.10., you obtain a pinpoint at T, to port of your desired track X-Y. The pinpoint is about % of the way to Y. The 5° and 10° lines drawn into Y shown your closing angle to be about 9°, To determine your heading alteration, invert the % and multiply by 9°. 4x9 so: gives 12° alteration (Starboard again) ‘The closing angle method is extremely simple to use when further deviations from track occur, necessitating further heading corrections. Let us revert to Example 1 in which we pinpointed at C (port of track) and made a heading correction of 20° to starboard. ‘We hoped that this alteration would cause the aircraft to follow a ‘new’ track from C to B. Now let us assume that the wind changed and we subsequently fixed our position at D, to port of our new’ track from C to B. 9-26 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE NEW PINPOINT NEW CA =2° Figure 9.11 ‘We apply the system again, this time with respect to our new’ track C-B. Suppose the 5° and 10° lines drawn on our chart show that angle DBC (which is the closing angle relative to our ‘new’ desired track C-B) is 2°. Suppose also that our new pinpoint D is about halfway between C and. B. Then our heading alteration (to starboard) will be:- agg 1 If you look again at Figure 9.11., you will realise that the track lines C-B and D-B will not actually appear on your chart so that the new closing angle CBD of 2° will be rather difficult to assess direct. However, the 5° and 10° lines on the chart showed the original closing angle to be S® and the final closing angle to be 7° relative to the original desired track A-B. ‘Thus the new closing angle DBC (2°) is in the fact the change in closing angle relative to the original desired track A-B in other words:- Change in closing angle multiplied by the inverted fraction of the distance along the new track. 2 = 7 - 5px 2 2a 7 - 3y 7 ‘The second alteration Once again - it appears complicated but when you think about it carefully it becomes delightfully simple and is remarkably effective in the air. 9-27 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE 911 REVISION OF ESTIMATED TIME OF ARRIVAL (ETA). Revision of ETA is vital on airways because separation is based on your ETA but it is also important for off-airways fights. In the ultimate you can, of course, calculate your ground speed from a knowledge of distance to go and ground speed. However, that type of calculation is best done by computer whereas in pilot navigation we are looking for quick mental methods of solving problems. The necessary figure can often be arrived at by proportions, eg. half the distance covered in 6% minutes - whole distance will be covered in 13 minutes. Probably the best method is to mark the chart before take-off. Most pilots hold unshakable views ‘on how to mark the chart - here are two methods:~ a) Use distance marks. Mark the track at, say, every 10 nautical miles; then if you know how long it takes to cover a certain distance you can fairly easily calculate your ETA. Distance marks never change, so once you gave marked your chart the marks hold good for all subsequent flights along this track. b) Using timing marks. Put timing marks along the track at, say, every 6 minutes, or possibly at prominent features (eg. railway/toad/tiver crossing). If you then know how early/late you are at a particular timing mark, your re-estimate of ETA is quite a simple problem. Agreed the timing marks will change if the ground speed changes on a subsequent rip but by using china graph on a fabion-covered map this is no problem. It is not proposed to argue which method is better - each has advantages. Its up to you to decide which to use. A ‘programmed learning! exercise appears later and will illustrate both methods, You may like sometimes to use a simple ‘inverted fraction’ system for ETA revision (rather like that used in the Closing Angle heading correction method explained earlier). For instance, before flight, you could put marks on your chart at the Y4, % and % points on the leg and compute the quarter distance times. Write in the ETAs for these points, after you have set heading on the leg, Then suppose that, in flight, you map reading or a cross-track radio bearing shows you to be 2 minutes late at approximately the “4 distance point. You could from this information expect to be 2X 4/1 = 8 minutes late at the end of the leg. If your original ETA had bcen, say, 1006 you would revise itto 1014. The rule, then, isto multiply the time late/early by the inverted fraction of the total leg distance. 9-28 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE ‘Suppose later on you are exactly 4% X 4/3 = 6 minutes late on your original ETA of 1006. You would therefore expect to reach the end of the leg at 1012. This should be an accurate revision, because of the relatively short distance remaining on the leg. ‘There isa similar but somewhat rough-and-ready ETA revision system. Suppose flight plan leg time is 25 minutes and you obtain a pinpoint which you judge to be about ‘4 of the way along the track, 7 minutes after setting heading. ‘This information indicates that at present rate of progress the whole leg time will be 7 X 4/1 = 28 minutes, implying that you will be 3 minutes late on ETA. Figure 9.12. This last method is useful for unplanned diversions. Suppose during flight from P to Q you decide to divert to R on fixing your position at T. (see Figure 9.12). You lay off. track from T to R, work out a rough heading into steer and an ETA for R You have now accepted that the 1 in 60 rule is tolerably accurate up to 20° so that you can estimate tracks 20° either side of the meridian, ie, 340 to 020 and 160 to 200. Now you usually carry a tight-angle in your pocket - an envelope or the letter you received this morning - so you can now define the 090 and 270 degrees directions and with the 1 in 60 rule tracks from 070 to 110 and 250 to 290 - but there is still a gap of 50° in each quadrant! From the basic geometry you may remember that in a 30° angle is 2: 1. Additionally, in a 45°-90° -45° triangle the sides adjacent to the right angle have equal length, so you now have the basis for dealing with tracks in any direction. 9-29 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE Ee Fold paper edge to 8, edge or use °° handspan to lay off 45° and then use 1 in 60 Rule to estimate tracks 025 - 065 jse the 1 in 60 Rule EQUAL SIDES. to estimate tracks. 360 - 020 070 - 090 60 Use the 2 in 1 ratio to lay off 60°, then the 1 in 60 Rule to estimate tracks 040-080 to lay off 30° then 1 in 60 Rule to estimate tracks 010 -050 Figure 9.13. By using your hands alone you can measure off any track and distance - remember the standard aviators handspan’ of about 60 miles and the length of the top joint of your thumb of about 10 miles? You will find this has many practical applications when you cannot locate your ruler oF protractor and will alittle practice you can get surprisingly accurate results! 9-30 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5 PILOT NAVIGATION - 1: CONSOLIDATION QUESTIONS. Ifan aircraft is 3° off required track ata range of 120nm, how farin nautical miles(nm) is the aircraft off required track? Ifan aircraft is 2 miles off required tack ata range of 40nm, what it the angle off track (track error)? An aircraft is flying due South. At 1000 hrs, point P bears 267°T from the aircraft. At 1006 hrs, point P bears 275°T from the airfield. If the aireraft has a ground speed of 120kts, estimate the range of the aircraft from point P. An aircraft leaves A to fly to B, 95 nms distance. Having flown 3Snms, the aircraft position is found from a ‘pinpoint’ (a geographical point over which the aircraft has flown); the pinpoint is Tims right of track. a. What is the track error? b, What alteration of heading is required to fly direct to B? ¢. What is the drift? (Trap question). An aircraft is flying from Oxford to Cambridge, planned track 074°M, distance 70nm, heading 065°M. Having flown 30nm, the pilot ‘pinpoints’ theaircraft position overhead Cranfield, 4nm left of planned track. a. What is the track error overhead Cranfield? b. What is the Track Made Good (TMG) from Oxford? What was the expected drift? 4. What has the actual drift been? ©. What alteration of heading should be made over Cranfield to fly direct to Cambridge? f What is the new heading to be flown from overhead Cranfield? 9-31 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION Question 6 Question 7 Question 8 Question 9 Question 10 PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE An aircraft is flying from Norwich to Oxford, planned track 250°M, distance 96nms, heading 260°M, ground speed 180 kts. The aircraft departs Norwich at 1000 brs. At 1012, the aircraft is overhead Ely, 3nms right of planned track. Use the 1:60 to estimate the following. a ‘What was the planned drift? b What is the track error at 1012 hrs? c. What TMG has been flown between 1000 hrs and 1012 hrs. 4. What has the actual drift been between 1000 hrs and 1012 hrs? What alteration of heading should be made to track directly to Oxford? £ What heading is required to fly directly to Oxford? g. _ Whatalteration of heading should be made to regain track at 1024 hrs? h. What heading should be flown between 1012 and 1024 hrs to regain track at 1024 hrs? i Given the situation in g. and h, above, what heading change should be made at 1024 hrs and what heading should be flown from 1024 hrs onwards? imate the ETA at Oxford. ‘You are approaching Innsbruck, Austria on a glide slope of 3.5°. What height (QFE) should you be at 2 miles range? You are approaching Rota, Spain on runway 28 which has a glide slope of 2.6°. At what height should you be at 4 miles range? You are approaching Paris/Charles de Gaulle on a glide slope of 3°, At what height (QFE) should you be at a range of nm? Using the detail in questions 7-9, what rates of descent (ROD) are required to maintain the glide slopes in: a. question 7 if ground speed is 120 kts b. question 8 if ground speed is 180 kts c. question 9 if ground speed is 150 kts. 9-32 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE Question II Onthe approach to London Heathrow runway 27, glide slope 3°, you reduce speed from 150 ktsto 120 kts. What change should you make to your ROD to maintain glideslope? Question 12. You are flying a Tomado aircraft into Gioia Del Colle, Italy, on a glide slope of 2.5°. Having had a hydraulic failure, you camnot move your wings from the ‘swept back” position (67°). You approach at 220 kts TAS and have a headwind component of 10kts. a. What rate of descent do you need to maintain the glideslope? (On the approach, you regain some hydraulic power and can sweep your wings forward to the ‘mid’ (45°) position. This enables you to reduce your approach TAS to 190 kts. b. What change in the ROD is required to continue to maintain the glideslope? What is your new ROD? Question 13 On the approach to Gioia Del Colle, your navigator gives you the airfield information. ‘You are landing on runway 32 (threshold elevation 1210 ft). The opposite runway, 14, has a threshold elevation of 1150 ft. If the runway length is 2996 metres, what is the slope of runway 32 (in degrees up or down)? Question 14 You are flying an airway with a centreline QDM of 137°M towards VOR/DME *A’ ‘Your RMI reads 141°M/DME 90 nms, a. Are you left or right of centreline? b. What is your distance off the airway centreline? ©. Are you in trouble with ATC? 9-33 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE 9-34 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5 Question 6 Question 7 Question 8 Question 9 Question 10 Question 11 Question 12 Sree meee PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE Answers to Consolidation Questions 6nm Use techniques/formulae in 9.3 3° -asabove- 90nm Use techniques/formula as in 9.3 (Example 3) 12%right Use para 9.5 19° left (TE= 12°, CA=7°) Cannot calculate as heading not given. To calculate drift, you must know heading. Drift is defined as the angle between heading and “track” Use para. 9.5 8° left 066°M os 18S 14° right (TE = 8°, CA = 6") 079°M Use para 9.5 and 9.6 10°P (Hdg 260M, planned track 250M) 5° right (aircraft has travelled 12 minutes at 180kts = 36nms. 3nm in 36nm = 5° error) TMG = 255°M 5°port (left) (Heading 260M, TMG 255 M) 8*left (TE=5°, CA=3°) Heading 252°M 10° left (2x TE=2x5=10) Heading 250°M Heading 255°M (original planned heading corrected for track error). ETA 1032 hrs (1000-1012 =36nms_ 1012-1024 = 36nms Leaves 24 miles which takes 24 x 12 = 8 mins) 36 700ft (2 x 350) (para. 9.8.1) 10408 (4 x 260) (para 9.8.1) 600Ft (2 x 300) (para, 9.8.1) 700 fiimin para. 9.8.2 780 fmin para. 9.8.2 750 fi/min para. 9.8.2 Decrease ROD by 150 fi/min para, 9.8.2 A lot of info. here to disguise the same basic question used in Qs 10, 11. For ROD, you need ground speed which is 220 kts - 1Okts headwind =210 kts. For change in ROD, you only need the change in TAS. 875 ft/min Decrease ROD by 125 fi/min 750 fv/min 9-35 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:1 Question 13 0.37° down Question 14a, left b. Gams Airways are only Snms wide from centreline but rules may vary. 9-36 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited10.1 10.2 103 los los CHAPTER TEN - WIND COMPONENTS, Contents INTRODUCTION, CROSSWIND COMPONENTS. . DETERMINING THE CROSSWIND VALUE BY DRAWING TO SCALE. SIMPLE COMPUTER SOLUTIONS. FINDING THE WIND VELOCITY (WV). PILOT NAVIGATION/WIND COMPONENTS - EXAMPLES Page 10-1 10-1 (© Oxlord Aviation Services Limited© Orford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION WIND COMPONENTS: 10.1 10.2 INTRODUCTION. ‘The wind rarely blows exactly along the centre line ofa runway - theres almost always an angle between the runway direction and the direction from which the wind is bl owing. WIV 300° (My/30Kt 30° RUNWAY DIRECTION 270° (M) Figure 10.1. Wind Direction and Runway Relationship. CROSSWIND COMPONENTS. If the wind direction and runway direction were the same, the full force of the wind would be directed along the runway, and there would be no effect across it However, in the above example where the wind is blowing at an 'angle-off of 30° from the right, only part of the force is directed along the rumway, and part of the force is directed across the runway from right to left. The wind velocity of 300°(M)/30kt is resolved into two components, one acting along the runway called the headwind component, and the other acting across the runway and called the crosswind component. In this case the headwind component will have a value of 26kt, and the crosswind, 1 Skt from the right Anaireraft is not allowed to land or take offif the crosswind component exceeds the maximum values laid down for its type ROSS WIND SOMPONENT | é RUNWAY DIRECTION 270° (M) Figure 10.2. Wind Components. 10-1 (© Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION WIND COMPONENTS 10.3 DETERMINING THE CROSSWIND VALUE BY DRAWING TO SCALE. Itis possible to determine the values of both components by drawing a right angled triangle to scale, The headwind component always acts along the runway opposing the direction of landing, or take off, and the crosswind component always acts at right angle to it. Take the following example:~ Runway 060°(M) What are the headwind and crosswind wy o40°(My/40kt ‘components? a) Draw a line in direction 060°%M) to represent the runway direction. © 10 20 30 40 50 SCALE Figure 10.3. b) Place a dot near the middle of this line (A) and into it draw a line from direction (040°(M) to meet the runway Tine at the dot ‘The length of this line represents the wind speed to scale (AB). s A © 40 20 30 40 50 SCALE Figure 10.4. ©) From B draw a line to cut the runway line at right angles at C. AC represents the headwind component - 13% kt. © 10 20 30 40 50 Scale Figure 10.5. 10-2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION WIND COMPONENTS: It is just as simple to determine the wind velocity if the two components are known. The problemis similarto finding the resultant Track (TR) and Ground Speed (GS) when the Heading (HDG) and True Air Speed (TAS) and Wind Velocity (WV) are known, Study the two examples in Figure 10.6:- WV 117°(M) 36 kt WV 183°(M) 36 kt eo : a 2 g Ak cies Pesca venir Sector ae oy eee ee aray from Components. Figure 10.6. Wind Velo In both cases draw in the headwind component AB (reciprocal of runway direction). Then ‘without removing the pencil’, draw in the crosswind component BC. The resultant AC represents the WV. 10.4 SIMPLE COMPUTER SOLUTIONS. ‘There are simple computer solutions to these problems which will now be described. They are based on the principles brought out in the previous paragraphs. Finding the components:- a) Set the slide so that the top line of the squared section is under the centre dot. Mark in the wind cross using the squared section. Use the + example in para. 3 - WV (0402/40. Figure 10.7. Components on the Protractor. 10 oe (© Orford Aviation Services Limited10.5 FINDING THE WIND VELOCITY ow. To find the wind velocity we can use the reverse process to that used above. Use the first example in Figure 10.6 a) Set the runway direction (150°) against the true heading index. The crosswind is 20 kt from the left to the right. Make a cross on the right hand side of the centre vertical line in the position which represents 20 kt crosswind and 30 kt headwind, Figure 10.9. Wind Components on the Protractor. b) Turn the plastic disc until the cross lies on the centre vertical line below the centre dot. read off the wind velocity in the normal way. (117°/36 kt). In the second example in Figure 10.6., the crosswind component is 20 kt from the right to the left. The cross therefore is placed on the left of the centre vertical line. Another problem sometimes arises which is quickly solved on the computer. It takes the form, of determining between what directions a wind of given speed can blow without exceeding a stated crosswind component. Itis required to find the directions between which a wind of 50 kt may blow without creating a crosswind component of more than 30 kt on a runway of direction 250°(M). il ULLNAVIGATION a) ») ©) d) WIND COMPONENTS With the runway direction set against the true index, mark a cross on the centre vertical line to represent the wind speed of 50 ke. ‘Turn the plastic dise clockwise until the cross indicates a crosswind of 30 kt. Note the direction which now appears against the true index (214°(M)) Now tum the plastic disc anti-clockwise and repeat the procedure, reading off the direction which appears against the true index (286°(M)). ‘The same crosswind component will be present ifthe wind direction is between 034°(M) - 106°(M) - the reciprocals of the directions found in b) and c) above, but a tailwind component will be present on this runway. 10-5 © Osford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION WIND COMPONENTS 10-6 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION WIND COMPONENTS Pilot Navigation/Wind components - Examples Question 1 An ireraft isto fly from position M to position N which is 260 nm away. Required track is 150° (M). At 1100 UTC the aircraft is overhead M heading 161° (M). At 1120 UTC a pinpoint is obtained showing the aircraft to be 7 nm right of planned track and 190 nim from N a) Give the required heading to regain track at 1140 UTC. (149° M) b) Once track is regained what will be the heading to reach N . (155° M) ©) What was the drift experienced between 1100 and 1120 UTC ?. (5° Port) Question 2 At 0100 UTC an aircraft departs position A heading 125°M to make good a track of 135°M to position B. The distance from A to B is 350 nm and local variation is 10°W. At 0120 UTC a pinpoint shows the aircraft to be 10 nm to the left of track and $5 nm from A. What is: a) The track error ?. (17° Port) b) The True TMG ?. (114° 1) ©) The actual drift experienced ?. (1° Port) 4) The alteration of heading to fly direct to B 2. (14° Std) ©) The ETA for B 2. (03.07 Hrs UTC Approx) Question 3 Anaireraft leaves X heading 075°M to make good a track of 085°M to point Y which is 170 nm away. After 20 minutes flying at a Doppler GS of 150 kt the pilot receives a QTE from X of 080°, Local variation is 10°W. If an immediate alteration of heading is made, what is: a) The heading required to fly to fly direct to Y ?. (068° M) b) The actual drift experienced ?. (15° Std) 10-7 © Orlord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION WIND COMPONENTS Question 4 An aircraft leaves point L. at 0900 UTC heading 270°M intending to make good a track of 265°M to point M which is 250 nm away. Local variation is 12°E. ‘After 30 minutes flying the pilot obtains a pinpoint 80 nm from Land 4 nm to the left of his planned track 8) Ifa radio compass bearing was obtained at this time with the equipment tuned to M, ‘what indication would be shown on the RMI in the aircraft 9. (266.4°.M) b) What has heen the actual drift experienced 2(8° Port) Question 5 An airfield at P has available runways 18/36 and 07/25, all of equal length, The foreeast (ie True) W/V is 310/25. Local variation is 20°E. a) Which is the best runway for take-off and landing 2. (R/W 25) b) What will be the head and ctoss-wind components for this runway 2. (19 Kts HWC and 16 Kts XWO) Question 6 An aireraft requires 10 kt head-wind component for take-off. The crosswind limit for the aircraft is 20 kt. The only runway available is RW 25, If the wind direction is a constant 290°M, what are the minimum and ‘maximum wind speeds to allow take-off. (Min 13 Knots and Max 31 Knots) 10-8 (© Oxdord Aviation Services Limited(CHAPTER ELEVEN - CONVERGENCY AND CONVERSION ANGLE. Contents ILL INTRODUCTION. ........ ea 11.2 CONVERGENCY 11.3 CONVERSION ANGLE, EARTH CONVERGENCY ONE QUESTIONS EARTH CONVERGENCY TWO QUESTIONS .... CONVERGENCY & CA QUESTIONS .... W-1 1-3 fed 1-6 u-7 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited(© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION CONVERGENCY AND CONVERSION ANGLE 1 U2 INTRODUCTION. Meridians are Great semi-circles joining the NORTH POLE: poles. From this it follows that meridians converge as they run towards the nearer pole, and diverge as they run away from the nearer pole. Figure 11.1, demonstrates these facts. Starting at the north pole it can be seen that the two meridians ‘x’ and 'y' diverge until they cross the equator, where they are parallel to each SOUNPOLE other. As they continue into the southern hemisphere they begin to converge, finally meeting at the south pole. Figure 11.1. Converging and Diverging Meridians. ‘The change in longitude between the two selected meridians is 40° as shown. Since the ‘meridians meet at the poles the angle of inclination between them at the poles must be equal to the change in longitude of 40°, whilst at the equator, where they are parallel to each other, the angle of inclination between them is 0°. CONVERGENCY Convergency is defined as the angle of inclination between two selected meridians measured at a given latitude. In the above example which considers meridians X and Y:- Lat 90° (Pole) Convergency = 40° Lat 0° (Equator) Convergency= 0° Its easy to see that at some time intermediate latitude, the angle of inclination (convergency) between the same meridians must have a value of something between 40° and 0°. 11-4 (© Oxlord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION CONVERGENCY AND CONVERSION ANGLE. In Figure 11.2. the latitude chosen is 30°N,and tangents have been drawn to each meridian at this latitude. The angle between the slope of the two tangents is convergency. Sh There is a simple method of calculating the value of convergeney if the change in longitude between the meridians is known and the latitude is known, x 7 Equator Figure 11.2. Convergency. Convergeney is shown in the formula:- ‘Convergency = change in longitude X sin Latitude In examination questions requiring the use of this formula, the value of 'sin lat’ is always made available. In the example shown in Figure 11.2.,sin30° = 0.5 and therefore:~ convergency 40° X 0.5 20° So using the meridians in Figure 11.2.:- Lat 90° Convergency = — 40°X1 = 40° (Sin 90°= 1) Lat 30° Convergency = — 40°X 0.5 20°(Sin 30° = 0.5) Lat 0° Convergency 40° X0 0° (Sin 0° = 0) ‘The value of convergency given be using the above formula is exact only if the meridians through two points in the same latitude are used. If the points are in different latitudes the formula is amended to give an approximate value of convergency, and reads:~ Convergency = change i longitude X sin Mean Latitude where mean latitude is the mean latitude between the two points, 1-2 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION CONVERGENCY AND CONVERSION ANGLE 113 So far convergency has been considered as the angle of inclination between two given meridians ‘measured at a given latitude. It has been seen that the direction of a great circle (other than a ‘meridian or the equator) is continually changing, ‘Therefore if the direction of a great circle NORTHFOE is measured at two selected meridians, I convencency there will be a difference between two directions. This difference is equal to the convergency between these meridians; Figure 11.3. shows a great circle cutting ‘two meridians, X and Y. Tangents to the meridians have been drawn at the points where the great circle cuts them, and convergency is shown in the same way as in Figure 11.2, ‘The great circle direction at meridian X is represented by the angle ‘a’ and the great rele direction at meridian Y by the angle 'b. The difference between the two is 'b’- ‘a! i.e. convergency. Figure 11.3. Convergency as the change in great circle direction. ‘To summarise, convergency isthe angle of inclination between two selected meridians measured at a given latitude and is equal to the difference between the great circle directions measured at each meridian. Its value may be calculated from the formula:- Convergency = change in Longitude X sin Mean Latitude CONVERSION ANGLE. Conversion angle is the difference between the great circle direction and the rhumb line direction joining two given points. There is obviously an angle at either end and these two angles may be considered equal to each other. 1-3 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION In Figure 11.4. a great citcle and thumb fine are shown, joining positions A and B in the northern hemisphere, and joining C and D in the southern hemisphere. Conversion angle at A can be considered equal to conversion angle at B, and conversion angle at C can be considered equal to that at D. Conversion angle is equal to half Convergency. For example, ifthe convergency between the ‘meridians through A and B is 50°, then conversion angle is 25°. CONVERGENCY AND CONVERSION ANGLE Figure 11.4. Conversion Angle. Ifthe rhumb line direction from A to B is 075°, then the great circle direction at A is 050°, and at B, the great circle direction is 100°. Notice that half-way between A and B, the great circle direction will be 075°, the same as the thumb line direction. Radio waves travel over the surface of the earth along great circle paths. It is often necessary for navigational purposes to convert the great circle direction to a shumb Line direction and this is done by applying conversion angle to the great circle direction to obtain the rhumb line direction, IT IS NECESSARY TO APPLY THE CONVERSION ANGLE AT THE POSITION WHERE THE GREAT CIRCLE DIRECTION IS MEASURED. Since conversion angle is equal to half convergency it may be calculated by using the formula:- Conversion angle =‘ change in Longitude X sin Mean Latitude 1-4 ‘© Oxtors Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION CONVERGENCY AND CONVERSION ANGLE EARTH CONVERGENCY ONE. Question 1. ‘The great circle bearing of B (SOON 01000E) from A (4000N 00200W) is 060°. What is the great circle bearing of A from B)? (Sin 45°=.71 Cos 45*=.71 Tan 45° = 1.00) Question 2. ‘The initial great circle wack from C (3600N 01500E) to D (latitude 4200N) is 300°T and the final great circle track at D is 295°T. a) What is the longitude of D? (Sin 3% = 63 Cos 3% =.78 Tan 39” = 81) b) What is the approximate great circle track direction at longitude 01100 E? Question 3. ‘The great circle bearing of E from F is 090°T and the great circle bearing of F from E is 265°. hemisphere are E and F? Inwi Question 4. ‘The great cirele bearing of G (4500S 17400E) from H (4000S 17000W) is 250°T. What is the great circle bearing of H from G? (Sin 424° =.67 Cos 42%" =.74 Tan 4214" = 92) Question 5. a) Determine the value of convergeney between J (5812N 00400W) and K (5812N 006008). b) What is the rhumb fine bearing of K from J? ©) What is the great circle bearing of J from K? (Sin 58°12'=.85 Cos 58°12"=.53 Cot 58*12"= .62) 1-5 © Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION CONVERGENCY AND CONVERSION TABLE EARTH CONVERGENCY TWO Sin 30° = 0.5. Cos 30° = 0.87 Tan 30° = 0.58 1. The convergency of the meridians through M and N which are in the southern hemisphere is 12°, Ifthe rhumb line track from M to N is 249°T, what is the great circle bearing of: a) NfromM ? b) MfromN? 2. The greatcircle bearing of position 1oo°T. latitude 30°00'S from position A (30°00'S 165°00E) is What is: a) The great circle bearing of A from B ? b) The longitude of position B ? 3 The rhumb line bearing of position C from position D (30°00'N 179°00'W) is 090°T, The great circle bearing of D from C is 287°T. What is: a) The great circle bearing of C from D? b) The approximate latitude and longitude of position C ? 4. The great circle bearing of position F in longitude 24°00'E from position E at 27°00'N 08°00'W measured at longitude 08°00'E is O84°T. The great circle bearing of E from F, measured at F is 272°T. What is; a) The great circle bearing of F from E measured at E? b) The approximate latitude of F? 11-6 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION CONVERGENCY AND CONVERSION ANGLE. CONVERGENCY & CA 1 The great circle track from A to B measures 227°T at A and 225°T at B. What is the convergency of the meridians through A and B and in which hemisphere are they ?. 2. Theconvergency of the meridians through M and N which are in the southem hemisphere is 12°. If the rhumb line track from M to N is 249°T, what is the great circle bearing of: a) —N from M. b)— MfromN 3, a)_In what latitude is the convergency between two meridians on the earth equal to twice their convergency in latitude 20°N 2. b) _Is there latitude where the convergency would be three times the value at 20°N ?. 4. a) Aand Bare in the same hemisphere, The great circle bearing of A from B is 268°T and the great circle bearing of B from A is 092°T. i) Inwhich hemisphere are A and B 2. ii) Whats the chumb line bearing of B from A ?. b) Cand D are in the same hemisphere. The great circle bearing of D from C is 063°T and the thumb line bearing of C from D is 240°T. i) Inwhich hemisphere are C and D ?. ii) Whats the approximate great circle bearing of C from D ? i Position X_ 64°00'S 11°S0'W. Position Y 64°00'S 05°10'W. Give: a) The convergency between the meridians of X and Y. b) The approximate great circle bearing of X from Y. c) The rhumb line track from X to Y. 6 a) Calculate the convergency between positions A (55°30'N 04°35'W) and B (64°00 2°37'W). b) Ifthe rhumb line track from A to B is 313°T what is the approximate great circle bearing, of A from B? 11-7 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION CONVERGENCY AND CONVERSION ANGLE 7. The great circle bearing of A from B is 245°T and the thumb line bearing of B from A is 060°T. If the mean latitude between A and B is 53° and the longitude of B is 02°15'E, what is the longitude of A 2. 8. A and B are both in the southern hemisphere and the convergency of their meridians is 8°. The great circle bearing of B from A is 094°T. IF the position of B is 23°00'S 20°00'W, what is the position of A ?. 1-8 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION CONVERGENCY AND CONVERSION ANGLE EARTH CONVERGENCY ONE ANSWERS. Question 1. ‘The great circle bearing of B (S0°00'N 10°00'E) from A (40°00'N 02°00'W) is 060°T. What is the great circle bearing of A from B? (248,5° 7) (Sin 45° =.71, Cos 45° =.71, Tan 45° = 1.0) Question 2. ‘The initial great circle track from C (36%00'N 15°00'E) to D in latitude 42°N is 300°T and the final track at D is 295°T. a) What is the longitude of D2. (7° Easy) b) What would be the approximate track direction at 11°E 2 (297.3°D) (Sin 39° = 63, Cos 39° =.78, Tan 39° = 81) Question 3. The great circle bearing of E from F is 090°T and the great circle bearing of F from E is 265°T. In which hemisphere are E and F? (Southern Hemisphere) Question 4. The great circle bearing of G (45°00'S 174°00'E) from H (40°00'S 170°00'W) is 250°T. What is the great circle bearing of H from G ? (081° T (080.7°)) (Sin 424° = 67, Cos 42 74, Tan 455° = 92) Question 5. a) Determine the value of convergency between J (58°12'N 04°00'W)and K (58°12'N 06°00). (8.59) b) What is the rhumb line bearing of K from J? (090° T. On same Latitude so a Rhumb Line Track) ©) What is the great circle bearing of J from K ? (274° T. (274,259) (Cos 58°12! = .53, Cot 58°12 62, Sin 58°12" = 0.85) 1-9 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedNAVIGATION CONVERGENCY AND CONVERSION ANGLE. EARTH CONVERGENCY TWO ANSWERS Sin 30° = 0.5 Cos 30° = 0.87 Tan 30° = 0.58 Question 1. ‘The convergency of the meridians through M and N which are in the southern hemisphere is 12°. Ifthe rhumb line track from M to N is 249°, what is the great circle bearing of: a) N fromM? (243° 1) bd) MfromN? (075° 1) Question 2. The great circle bearing of position B in latitude 30°00'S from position A (30°00'S 165°00'E) is, 100°T. What is: a) The great circle bearing of A from B? (260° 7) b) The longitude of position B? (155° West) Question 3. The rhumb line bearing of position C from position D (30°00'N 179°00'W) is 090°T. The great circle bearing of D from C is 287°T. What is: a) The great circle bearing of C from D? (073° T) b) The approximate latitude and longitude of position C ? GON 11° W) Question 4. The great circle bearing of position F in longitude 24°00'E from position E at 27°00'N 08°00'W. ‘measured at longitude 08°00 is 084°T. ‘The great circle bearing of E from F, measured at F is 272°T. What is: a) The great circle bearing of F from E measured at E? (076° 7) b) The approximate latitude of F ? (Latitude 33° North) 11-10 @ Oxford Aviation Services Limited