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ABSTRACT: Theoretical and experimental modal analysis, i.e., the computation of vibration modes from a mathematical model
and from experimental data, respectively, is quite sophisticated and advanced in linear structural dynamics. However, nonlinearity
is a frequent occurrence in real-world engineering structures, and the existing linear methodologies can no longer be used in
this context. Therefore, the development of a nonlinear analog of modal analysis would be a timely contribution. Because
nonlinear normal modes (NNMs) provide solid mathematical foundations for a rigorous analysis of nonlinear dynamical behaviors,
a framework which includes both their computation from finite element models and their identification from experimental data is
proposed in this paper. In view of the still limited use of NNMs in structural dynamics, special attention is devoted to develop tools
that have the potential to deal with large-scale structures.
LNM
Shooting
NNM motion
at low energy
zp0,(1) , T(1) (j = 1)
Predictor step
Computation of the tangent
and control of the stepsize
(0) (0)
z ,T (k = 0)
p0,(j+1) (j+1)
Residual evaluation
Time integration:
j = j+1
(k)
H = H(z )
p0,(j+1)
NO
1 1 1
1 1
0.5 x1 x2
A continuation method is combined with the shooting method developed. In particular, the phase lag of the response with
to determine successive NNM motions at different energy levels. respect to the applied force is used as an indicator to assess
The so-called pseudo-arclength continuation method is used the quality of the appropriation. This first step is referred to
herein. Starting from a single NNM motion at a specific as nonlinear force appropriation.
energy level, another NNM motion at a different energy level The second step turns off the excitation to track the energy
is computed using a predictor step and a corrector step. Using dependence of the NNM of interest using the free damped
the LNMs as initial guess at low energy, the NNM computation response resulting from the appropriated NNM motion. During
is carried out for increasing energy levels. this NNM free decay, the frequency-energy dependence may be
One typical dynamical feature of nonlinear systems is the identified using time-frequency analysis. More details on the
frequency-energy dependence of their oscillations. As a result, two steps of the procedure are given in the next sections.
the modal curves and frequencies of NNMs depend on the total The methodology therefore consists in extracting one NNM
energy in the system. Due this dependence, the representation at a time from the time series by means of this two-step
of NNMs in a frequency-energy plot (FEP) is particularly procedure. In order to relate the forced and free responses of
convenient. An NNM motion is represented by a point in the damped system to the NNMs of the underlying conservative
the FEP, which is drawn at the fundamental frequency of the (i.e., undamped and unforced) system, the approach relies on
periodic motion and at the conserved total energy during the three fundamental properties:
motion, which is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies. A 1. Forced responses of nonlinear systems at resonance occur in
branch, represented by a solid line, is a family of NNM motions the neighborhood of NNMs [6], [8].
possessing the same qualitative features. 2. According to the invariance property, motions that start out
For illustration, the 2DOF system depicted in Figure 2 is in the NNM manifold remain in it for all time [9].
considered. The underlying linear system possesses two (in- 3. For weak to moderate damping, its effect on the transient
phase and out-of-phase) LNMs. The FEP, computed using the dynamics may be considered to be purely parasitic. The
numerical algorithm, is shown in Figure 3. More complex damped invariant manifold can therefore be approximated by
systems can be considered without difficulty [15], [16]. For the undamped invariant manifold. The free damped dynamics
instance, one NNM of the full-scale aircraft shown in Figure closely follows the NNM of the underlying undamped system
4 is represented in Figure 5. More details on this application are [6].
available in [16].
3.1 Nonlinear force appropriation
3 EXPERIMENTAL MODAL ANALYSIS For linear systems, force appropriation is usually performed by
adapting the frequency and the amplitude distribution of the
There are two classical linear approaches for EMA [2]. Phase
multi-point excitation. According to the phase lag quadrature
separation methods excite several modes at once using either
criterion (also called phase resonance criterion), a linear damped
broadband excitation or swept-sine excitation covering the
structure vibrates according to one of the normal modes of the
frequency range of interest. Phase resonance methods excite
underlying conservative system if all degrees of freedom vibrate
one mode at a time using multi-point sine excitation at the
synchronously with a phase lag of 90 degrees with respect to the
corresponding natural frequency. A careful selection of the
harmonic excitation. Hence, if the phase quadrature criterion
shaker locations is required to induce single-mode behavior.
is verified during the experimental testing, a single undamped
This process is also known as normal-mode tuning or force
normal mode is isolated, and the natural frequency and the mode
appropriation.
shape can be identified [20].
Phase resonance methods have been used for decades, The NNM framework is used herein to extend force
particularly in the aerospace industry (e.g., for ground vibration appropriation to nonlinear structures in order to isolate and
testing of aircrafts [17] and modal survey of satellites [18]). extract a single NNM at a time. To this end, the forced
They provide a very accurate identification of the modal response of a nonlinear structure with linear viscous damping
parameters, but they are time-consuming. In order to reduce is considered
the testing time, phase separation methods are now used in
conjunction with phase resonance methods; these latter are Mx(t) + Cx(t) + Kx(t) + fnl {x(t)} = p(t) (1)
reserved for modes that need a special attention (e.g., closely-
spaced modes and important modes for flutter computations). Extracting a given NNM motion of the underlying conservative
Realizing that the general motion of a nonlinear system system by means of appropriate excitation is equivalent to
cannot be expressed as a superposition of NNMs, it is not assume x(t) = xnnm (t) in the equations of motion. Because an
clear how individual NNMs can be extracted using a nonlinear undamped NNM motion is defined as a periodic solution of the
extension of phase separation methods. This is why our focus underlying conservative system, the excitation vector achieving
is on the extension of phase resonance testing to nonlinear a perfect appropriation of the damped system is given by
structures. The present section therefore introduces a two- pnnm (t) = C x nnm (t) (2)
step approach that extracts the NNM modal curves and their
frequencies of oscillation directly from experimental data [19]. This relationship shows that the appropriate excitation is
First, the method consists in exciting the system to induce periodic and has the same frequency components as the
single-NNM behavior at a specific energy level. To this end, corresponding NNM motion (i.e., generally including multi-
an extension of force appropriation to nonlinear systems is harmonic components).
Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Structural Dynamics, EURODYN 2011 107
0.9
0.8 S11
0.7
0.6
Frequency (Hz)
0.5
0.4
0.3
S11+
0.2
0.1
0 5 0
10 10
Energy (log scale)
Figure 3. Frequency-energy plot of a 2DOF system. NNM motions depicted in the configuration space are inset. The horizontal
and vertical axes in these plots are the displacements of the first and second DOFs, respectively.
35
34.8 a 33.5344
33.5343
33.5342
34.6
33.5341 tongue 9:1
33.534
34.4
Frequency (Hz)
33.5339
0 2
34.2 10 10
34
33.8
b
33.6
33.4 4 2 0 2 4
10 10 10 10 10
(a) (b)
Figure 5. FEP of the second (anti-symmetric) wing torsional NNM of the Paris aircraft. NNM shapes at energy levels marked in
the FEP are inset; they are given in terms of the initial displacements (m) that realize the periodic motion (with zero initial
velocities assumed).
Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Structural Dynamics, EURODYN 2011 109
An NNM motion is now expressed as a Fourier cosine series By balancing the coefficients of respective harmonics, it follows
that
xnnm (t) = Xnnm
k cos(k t). (3)
k2 2 MXk + KXk + Fnl,k (Xr ) = 0
k=1 (8)
k CXk = Pk
where is the fundamental pulsation of the NNM motion and
Xk is the amplitude vector of the kth harmonic. In this paper, this for k = 1, . . . , . So, the external force is given by
type of motion is referred to as monophase NNM motion due to
the fact that the displacements of all DOFs reach their extreme
values simultaneously. The expression of the corresponding
p(t) = Pk sin(k t) = k CXk sin(k t) = Cx(t) (9)
k=1 k=1
appropriate excitation is given by
and the periodic response x(t) is a solution of the underlying
pnnm (t) = CXnnm
k k sin(k t) (4) conservative system. The response x(t) is therefore an
k=1 undamped NNM motion of the system: the NNM force
appropriation is realized.
Comparing equations (3) and (4), the excitation of a monophase
In conclusion, the phase lag quadrature criterion, valid for
NNM is thus characterized by a phase lag of 90 of each
linear systems, can be generalized to monophase NNM motions
harmonic with respect to the displacement response.
of nonlinear structures, where the phase lag is defined with
One important feature of the appropriate excitation is that it is
respect to each harmonics of the monophase signals.
energy-dependent. In particular, it is characterized by the same
In other words, if the response (in terms of displacements
frequency-energy dependence as the corresponding NNM. This
or accelerations) across the structure is a monophase periodic
is illustrated for the 2DOF example in Figure 6 where the FEP of
motion in quadrature with the excitation, the structure vibrates
the in-phase NNM is depicted. The appropriate excitation and
according to a single NNM of the underlying conservative
the resulting NNM motion are depicted for four different energy
system. The phase lag of the generated monophase excitation
levels. Their Fourier coefficients are also represented. Clearly,
with respect to the response can thus be used as an indicator of
when progressing from low to high energies, the fundamental
the NNM appropriation.
frequency of the appropriate excitation increases, which is due
to the hardening behavior of the system. In addition, multiple 3.3 NNM free decay identification
harmonics are necessary to induce single-NNM behavior.
By means of nonlinear force appropriation, the forced response
3.2 Phase lag quadrature criterion for NNM force appropria- of a damped system may be restricted to a single undamped
tion NNM at a specific energy level. In view of the frequency-energy
dependence, successive appropriate excitations at different
The previous section has demonstrated that nonlinear systems
force levels have to be considered to provide a complete
can successfully be forced according to a given NNM at a
characterization of the NNM of interest. This may complicate
specific energy level through force appropriation. An indicator
the experimental realization.
highlighting that the NNM appropriation has effectively
The alternative strategy proposed here consists in exploiting
been achieved would be particularly useful. To this end,
the NNM invariance property. When a high-energy NNM
we generalize the phase lag quadrature criterion (or phase
motion is isolated using force appropriation, the excitation is
resonance criterion) to nonlinear systems.
stopped to obtain the resulting free damped response. Due to
The forced response of the damped system (1) is examined
invariance, this free decay response initiated on the undamped
when it vibrates according to a monophase periodic motion with
NNM remains close to it when energy decreases [6].
a phase lag of 90 degrees of each harmonics with respect to the
Using this procedure, the energy dependence of the NNM
periodic excitation, i.e.,
modal curves and the corresponding frequencies of oscillation
may be easily extracted from the free decay. To compute
x(t) = Xk cos(k t), p(t) = Pk sin(k t) (5) the oscillation frequency of NNMs, time-frequency analysis is
k=1 k=1
considered; the continuous wavelet transform (CWT) is used
As the response is even with respect to the time, the nonlinear in this paper. In contrast to the Fourier transform, which
restoring forces can be written as a cosine series assumes signal stationarity, the CWT involves a windowing
technique with variable-sized regions. Small time intervals are
considered for high-frequency components, whereas the size
fnl (x(t)) = Fnl,k cos(k t) (6)
of the interval is increased for lower-frequency components.
k=1
The CWT can therefore track the temporal evolution of the
We then obtain instantaneous frequencies, which makes it an effective tool for
analyzing nonlinear signals.
M k2 2 Xk cos(k t) C k Xk sin(k t)
k=1 k=1
+K Xk cos(k t) + Fnl,k cos(k t) = Pk sin(k t)
k=1 k=1 k=1
(7)
Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Structural Dynamics, EURODYN 2011 110
0.25
(d)
0.2
(c)
Frequency (Hz)
(b)
(a)
0.15
0.1 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Energy
0.01 0.04
1 0.02
p1 , p2 (N)
p1 , p2 (N)
p1 , p2 (N)
p1 , p2 (N)
0 0 0 0
1 0.02
0.01 0.04
0.04
2
0.02 0.08
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
t (s) t (s) t (s) t (s)
3
x 10 0.02 0.05 0.08
2
0.04
1.5 0.015 0.06
0.03
Pk
Pk
Pk
Pk
1 0.01 0.04
0.02
0.5 0.005 0.02
0.01
0 0 0 0
1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9
k k k k
0.08 0.8 2
4
0.04 0.4 1
2
x1 , x2 (m)
x1 , x2 (m)
x1 , x2 (m)
x1 , x2 (m)
0 0 0 0
2
0.04 0.4 1
4
0.08 0.8 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
t (s) t (s) t (s) t (s)
0.08 0.8 2 5
4
0.06 0.6 1.5
3
Xk
Xk
Xk
Xk
0.04 0.4 1
2
0.02 0.2 0.5
1
0 0 0 0
1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9
k k k k
Figure 6. Frequency-energy dependence of the appropriate excitation for the 2DOF system. Top plot: FEP of the in-phase NNM of
the underlying undamped system. Bottom plots (from top to bottom): time series of the appropriate excitation (: p1 (t);
: p2 (t)); Fourier coefficients of the appropriate excitation (grey: p1 ; black: p2 ); time series of the corresponding NNM
motion (: x1 (t); : x2 (t)); Fourier coefficients of the NNM motion (grey: x1 ; black: x2 ).
Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Structural Dynamics, EURODYN 2011 111
Figure 7. Top plot: experimental set-up; bottom plot: close-up of the connection between the two beams.
100
50
Acc. (m/s2 )
50
100
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time (s)
3
x 10
2
1
Displ. (m)
2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time (s)
Figure 8. Measured time series of the appropriated forced response of the first NNM ( = 39.91 Hz). Top plot: acceleration beam
tip; bottom plot; displacement at beam tip.
Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Structural Dynamics, EURODYN 2011 113
80 80
60
Acc. at position 7 (m/s2 )
Acceleration (m/s2 )
40 60
20
0 40
20
40 20
60
80 0
60 40 20 0 20 40 60 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3
x 10
2
NNM force
appropriation
2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (s)
Figure 10. Free decay identification of the first NNM of the test structure. Measured displacement at beam tip which is initiated
from the appropriated forced response ( = 39.91 Hz).
Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Structural Dynamics, EURODYN 2011 114
45
NNM force
appropriation
40
Frequency (Hz)
30
25
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (s)
Figure 11. Wavelet transform of the measured free decay of the first NNM of the test structure initiated from the appropriated
forced response ( = 39.91 Hz). Temporal evolution of the instantaneous frequency of the displacement at the tip of the
beam, i.e., at position 7. The solid line corresponds to the maximum ridge of the transform.
80 80
60
Acc. at position 7 (m/s2 )
Acceleration (m/s2 )
40 60
20
0 40
20
40 20
60
80 0
60 40 20 0 20 40 60 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
The framework developed in this paper only addresses [11] C. Touze, O. Thomas, A. Huberdeau, Asymptotic non-linear normal modes
stiffness nonlinearities. An important contribution would thus for large-amplitude vibrations of continuous structures, Computers &
Structures 82 (2004), 2671-2682.
be to properly account for nonlinear damping (e.g., dry friction). [12] R. Arquier, S. Bellizzi, R. Bouc, B. Cochelin, Two methods for the
All structures considered in this work possess spatially computation of nonlinear modes of vibrating systems at large amplitudes,
localized and smooth nonlinearities. More complicated Computers & Structures 84 (2006), 1565-1576.
[13] D. Laxalde, F. Thouverez, Complex non-linear modal analysis for
behaviors, such as distributed and nonsmooth nonlinearities, mechanical systems: application to turbomachinery bladings with friction
should also be addressed. interfaces, Journal of Sound and Vibration 322, 1009-1025, 2009.
[14] M. Peeters, R. Viguie, G. Srandour, G. Kerschen, J.C. Golinval, Nonlinear
Due to mode bifurcations, supernumerary NNMs with no
normal modes, Part II: Toward a practical computation using numerical
linear counterparts (i.e., those that are not the direct extension continuation, Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 23, 195-216,
of the LNMs) may exist. Therefore, the development of a robust 2009.
[15] F. Georgiades, M. Peeters, G. Kerschen, J.C. Golinval, M. Ruzzene, Modal
and automatic branch switching strategy would be a meaningful analysis of a nonlinear periodic structure with cyclic symmetry, AIAA
advancement for facilitating their computation. Journal 47, 1014-1025, 2009.
[16] M. Peeters, G. Kerschen, J.C. Golinval, C. Stephan, P. Lubrina, Nonlinear
Experimental modal analysis normal modes of a full-scale aircraft, 29th International Modal Analysis
Conference, Jacksonville, USA, 2011.
Further investigations need to be carried out to assess the [17] M. Degener, Ground vibration testing for validation of large aircraft struc-
tural dynamics, Proceedings of the International Forum on Aeroelasticity
efficiency of the NNM identification method when applied to and Structural Dynamics, Manchester, UK, 1995.
real-world structures: [18] M. Degener, Experiences in large satellite modal survey testing,
Because nonlinear systems undergo bifurcations, modal Proceedings of the European Conference on Spacecraft Structures,
Materials and Mechanical Testing ESA SP-428, Braunschweig,
interactions and shrinking basins of attraction, the practical Germany, 1998.
realization of nonlinear force appropriation is more challenging [19] M. Peeters, G. Kerschen, J.C. Golinval, Dynamic testing of nonlinear
than its linear counterpart. The development of a more general vibrating structures using nonlinear normal modes, Journal of Sound and
Vibration, 330, 486-509, 2011.
constructive procedure for NNM force appropriation, resorting [20] J.R. Wright, J.E. Cooper, M.J. Desforges, Normal-mode force appropria-
to several shakers with harmonics of the fundamental frequency, tion theory and application, Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing
is of particular interest to ensure the robustness of the proposed 13, 217-240, 1999.
[21] F. Thouverez, Presentation of the ECL benchmark, Mechanical Systems
methodology. and Signal Processing 17, 195-202, 2003.
The experimental methodology assumes that the damped [22] G. Kerschen, V. Lenaerts, J.C. Golinval, Identification of a continuous
dynamics can be interpreted based on the NNMs of the structure with a geometrical non-linearity, part I: CRP, Journal of Sound
and Vibration 262, 889-906, 2003.
underlying conservative system. This issue deserves more [23] V. Lenaerts, G. Kerschen, J.C. Golinval,Identification of a continuous
attention and should be investigated more thoroughly. structure with a geometrical non-linearity, part II: POD, Journal of Sound
and Vibration 262, 907-919, 2003.
[24] M. Peeters, G. Kerschen, J.C. Golinval, Modal testing of nonlinear
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vibrating structures based on nonlinear normal modes: experimental
The author would like to acknowledge his collaborators and demonstration, Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, in press.
[25] M. Peeters, Theoretical and experimental modal analysis of nonlinear
colleagues, Prof. L.A. Bergman, Prof. J.C. Golinval, Prof. Y.S. vibrating structures using nonlinear normal modes, PhD Thesis,
Lee, Prof. D.M. Mc Farland and Prof. A.F. Vakakis without University of Li`ege, Li`ege, 2011.
whom this work would not have been possible. The author is
particularly grateful to Dr. M. Peeters; the results presented
herein have been mostly borrowed from his PhD thesis [25].
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