Boundary Layer and Frictional Force

Reference
Sections 8.8-8.12
After you complete this lecture, you will be able to
Understand the concept of boundary layer
Estimate the thickness of turbulent boundary layer
Classify pipe/surface roughness
Describe the velocity profile in turbulent flow
Improve your understanding of Moody diagram

Courtesy of the course materials: A/P Lim Siew Yong ( CEE, NTU) 1
 Concept of Boundary Layer
In practice, flow will be affected if it flows past a solid
boundary.
Ludwig Prandtl (1875-1953) in 1904 proposed the
concept of boundary layer (BL) within which viscosity
(i.e. viscous effect) is important. Outside the BL, the
friction is not imp, & fluid can be assumed to be ideal or
inviscid.
For real fluid, condition-of-no-slip at boundary dictates
that flow is zero at boundary.
Hence there will be a boundary layer (BL) formed from
zero velocity at the boundary up to a free stream vel
above the boundary.
It is the viscous effect that caused the flow to stick to
the boundary, i.e. condition of no-slip.
2
 Concept of Boundary Layer

For Laminar pipe flow, the fig shows BL grows from zero at
entrance & is fully developed at a length given by eq: Le/D =
0.058Re, eg. if Re = 2000 & D = 0.1 m, Le = 11.6m.
For turbulent flow, entrance length for fully developed BL is
Le/D = 4.4 (Re)1/6
3
 Turbulent Flow
Momentum transfer
across ab

Above line ab, vel is faster, below ab, vel is slower

Fluid particles that cross from below will slow down faster
moving fluid above, & vice versa
This causes a shear stress along surface of line ab
4
 Shear stress in turbulent flow
Fig. b (slide 4), for molecular transport in laminar flow, we
can use Newtons Law of Absolute Viscosity to cal shear,
du
i.e. lam = (1)
dy
Fig. (c), turbulent fluctuations of vel at a pt caused by
eddies which are created from viscous shear bet. adjacent
particles (ptles).
These eddies grow in size & then disappear as their ptles
merge into adjacent eddies.
Thus, there is a continuous mixing of ptles, with a
consequence transfer of momentum.
Viscosity dissipates mechanical energy generating small
amt of heat.
5
 Shear stresses in turbulent flow
Liggett expresses this way:
Big whirls have little whirls
That feed their velocity
little whirls have lesser whirls
And so on to viscosity

Meaning:
The process that creates the turbulence feeds energy
into the large eddies & large eddies pass this energy
to smaller eddies until finally viscosity damps the
process at a very small scale.
6
 Total shear stresses in turbulent flow
Following lam format, turbulent shear stress can be
expressed as du
tur =
dy
Hence, total turbulent shear stress = lam + tur
du du du
= + =(+)
dy dy dy
= eddy viscosity (or coeff. of momentum transfer, not const. & is
not property of fluid, but depends on turbulence of flow)
= / = kinematic eddy viscosity ( >> )
= / = kinematic fluid viscosity
= dynamic fluid viscosity (a property of fluid)
Note: For lam flow, tur = 0, hence turb flow always have higher shear
than lam flow 7
 Reynolds shear stress

Turbulent shear expresses as Reynolds shear stress

2
' ' du
2
=-u v =l
dy
Reynolds stresses are forces associated with eddying
motion 8
 Derivation of Reynolds stress
Consider over a short time interval, a fluid mass moving
upwards fr below line ab with v, and the ambient vel at this
location is u + u
Momentum per unit time transported is = (vdA)(u)
Momentum Eq: Force = rate of change of momentum +v
F = Q ( vel ) Part of vel
profile
dA = (v ' dA ) [(u + u ' ) u ] - u +u
dA = v ' u ' dA
or = u ' v ' - v
Note: minus sign added to eq becos product of fluctuating compt is always ve, i.e.
(-u)(+v) & (+u)(-v) play a major role in shear & (+u)(+v) & (-u)(-v) have
lesser role & ignored, note bar above uv means temporal average values.
9
 Prandtls mixing length concept
Assume u ' v ' and of same order of magnitude, i.e. u ' v '

Assume l = dist. normal to flow direction (i.e. y-dir) such

that u = u ' ,see Fig a (Reynolds stress slide),

du u' du
vel grad = = '
or u = l Main purpose of
dy l dy this eq is to get
= u ' v ' and sin ce u ' v ' theoretical eq for
vel profile in turb
flow, then link it to
du
2 friction factor, f
2
= l
dy 10
Viscous Sublayer, v due to viscosity only

xc = 500000 /u v thickness = order of 0.01 mm

11
 Viscous sublayer & velocity profile
As v must be zero at a smooth wall, turb there is inhibited
so that a viscous sublayer, v occurs next to wall, with
thickness order of 0.01 mm (= viscous zone)
v is extremely thin layer but its effect is great to flow cos
of very steep vel grad within it and becos of = (du dy )

At a greater dist from wall, viscous effect becomes

negligible, but turb shear is large (= turb zone).
Bet. the two, there is a transition zone where both types of
shear are significant.
Hence, vel profile is as shown in slide 14, with 3 zones.
12
 Law of the Wall
Derivation:

near the wall where viscous shear do min ates , vel profile is a str line
du u
shear stress at wall is o = , or o =
dy y
y
( 2
u = u
)

where o = u2 , u = shear velocity

u u y
Hence, = > Law of the Wall
u
u y
valid for 0 5 13

 Characteristics of vel. profile near a wall
1. Beyond c, flow is turb,
viscous shear is negligible

2. Upper limit of transition zone

is fr a to c

y = 70 = 14 v
u

3. Thickness of v

v = 5
u



= Kolmogorov length scale
u
= a measure of how turb energy is dissipated 14
 Relationship between shear velocity,
mean velocity & friction factor
Recall: o/V2 = fn (Re, e/D) = f/8 { Moody Diagram}
o/V2 = f/8
or u*2 = ( f V2)/8
or
f
u = V
8
Lets see what is thickness of v in terms of f
5 14.14
v = 5 = =
u f V f
V
8
14.14 D VD
or v = sin ce Re = 15
Re f
 Meaning of smooth & rough pipe w.r.t. v
& trends in Moody Diagram
If e < v or eu*/ < 5,
hydraulically smooth flow

If e > 14 v or eu*/ > 70,

fully rough flow

If v > e > 14 v or 5 eu*/ 70

Pipe flow in transitional rough flow. Most engrg pipe
flows fall in this range. 16
 Mixing length & logarithmic velocity distribution
law in turbulent flow
Prandtl assumed that mixing length, l near wall is
proportional to distance from wall, i.e., l = Ky,
where K = von Karman constant = 0.4
2 2
du
2 2 2 du
o =l = K y
dy dy
1 o dy
du=
K y

Integrating, u = 2.5 u* ln y + C
or u = 5.75 u* log y + C 17
 Boundary condition: find C by putting u = umax at pipe
centerline & y = ro = pipe radius

velocity defect law (defect cos of umax u)

u max u ro
= 2.5 ln
u* y

Replaced y by ro - r, gives Eq. 8.40 (see also figure of

vel profile in slide 14)
ro ro ---(8.40)
u=u max -2.5u *ln =u max -5.76u *log
ro -r ro -r
18
 Characteristics & limitations of Eq 8.40
Agrees well with expt data for smooth & rough pipes
At pipe centerline, du/dy must be zero, since eq. 8.40 is log.,
so at r = 0, slope is not zero.
Eq. is also not applicable very close to wall, becos when r =
ro, u = minus infinity
Eq. indicates that u = 0 not at wall, but at a small dist. y1 fr
wall (see vel profile figure in slide 14)
Despite all these limitations, eq. 8.40 is still good enough to
cal. Q with acceptable degree of accuracy, becos these
limitations only affect a small area of the vel profile.

19
 Log Velocity Distribution Law based on actual
experimental data
Researchers have found that the following eq. agrees well
for almost the whole vel profile for flow in smooth pipe

u u y
= 2.5 ln + 5.5
u

Compare to u = 2.5 u* ln y + C, what difference can you

notice? The above eq is dimensionless.
Notice similarity of bracket term with Re? what term is
this? This is the Re No based on u*.
20
 Calculation of flow discharge
Using eq. 8.40 & integrating over area of pipe

ro
Q= u dA = u (2 r dr )
area 0

Q = VA = V ( ro2), therefore mean vel V can be found, i.e.

V = u 2 ro
max 2.5 u ln ro 2 r ln (ro r ) dr
ro
0

Note that (from Mathcad)
ro ro2 ln ro 3 ro2
r ln (ro r ) dr =
0 2 4
21
 Calculation of flow discharge
Finally, 3
V = u max (2.5 u )
2
f
In terms of f, by subst. Eq. (8.37) u = V
8

We get, (Eq. 8.42) V = umax 1.326 V f

V 1
In dimensionless form, (Eq 8.43) =
u max 1 + 1.326 f

As umax & u* are not easily available, we can use Eq. 8.43 &
u* (Eq. 8.37) to remove them fr Eq. 8.40, we get Eq. (8.44)
ro
( )
u = 1 + 1.326 f V 2.04 f V log
ro r 22
 Plotting of velocity profile if V & f are known
Eq. 8.44 relates u at any point in the pipe to V and f, hence
we can plot the theoretical vel profile for any V and any f
(smooth or rough pipe) in turbulent flow.
Eq. 8.44 is derived theoretically, & is very close to actual
experimental measurements. The following actually match
the test data better (note only slight change in coeff.)
ro
(
u = 1 + 1.44 )
f V 2.15 f V log
ro r

What can you said about the shape of vel profiles plotted in
the slide 24?
23
Fig 8.10 - Velocity profiles across a pipe for equal flow
rates with the same Re = 107 , but different f,
f = 0.012 (smooth), f = 0.04 (rough).

Comparing laminar & turb vel

profiles: Turb profile is flatter
near central portion, why?

Comparing smooth & rough pipe

flow: smooth is flatter near
central portion of pipe.

Note: Any idea how you obtain

the laminar vel profile? Does lam
flow depends on roughness?
Poiseuilles Law (Fluid Mech
course) 24