Optical Communication Lab Manual

Laboratory Manual
For
Optical Communication
B.E (E.C)
SEM 6th
Electronics & Communication Department

Government Engineering College, Dahod
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that
Mr./Miss _______________________________________
Enrollment No. __________________________________
of Subject ___________________________________ has
satisfactorily completed his/her term work in
Code No.________________ course ________________
_____________________for the term ending in
_________ 20 - 20 .
Date of Faculty
SUBMISSION IN-CHARGE
HEAD OF THE
DEPARTMENT
Optical Communication (161005)
INDEX
Sr. Title of the Experiment Page Date Sign.

No No.
Study of a 650nm fiber optic analog link in
1 thisexperiment you will study therelationshipbetween
the input signal and received signal.
Study of a 650nm fiber optic digital link. In
2 thisexperiment you will study therelationship between
the input signal and received signal.
To obtain intensity modulation of the analog signal,
3 transmit it over a fiber optic cable and demodulate the
same at the receiver and to get back the original signal.
To obtain intensity modulation of digital signal,
4 transmit it over fiber optic cable and demodulate the
same at the receiver end to get back the original signal.
To study Frequency Modulation in
5 OpticalCommunication.
To study Pulse Width Modulation in Optical
6 Communication.
To measure propagation or attenuation loss in optical
7 fiber.
8 To study Bending Loss in optical fiber.
9 To measure optical power using optical power meter.

To measure propagation loss in optical fiber using
10 optical power meter.
The aim of experiment is to study the Vin (AC) versus
11 Vo (AC). The aim of experiment is to study the Vin
(AC) versus Vo (AC).
The objective of this experiment is to demonstrate
12 voice transmission through optic fiber using FM.
Study of voice transmission through Fiber Optic cable
13 using PWM.
E.C Dept, GEC-DAHOD

Optical Communication (161005
161005) Lab Manual
PRELAB: - Optical Communication

Introduction to Fiber Optics
Communication can be broadly defined as the transfer of information from one point to another.
Before Fiber optics came along, the primary means of real time data communication was electrical in
nature. It was accomplished by using copper wire or by modulating information on to an
electromagnetic wave which acts as a carrier for the information signal. All these
thes methods have one
problem in common the communication had to be over a straight line path. Fiber optics provides an
alternative means of sending information over significant distances using light energy. Light is utilized
for communication has major advantages
advantages because it can be modulated at significant higher frequencies
than electrical signals. That is till 1870, when an Irish physicist John Tyndall carried out a simple
experiment. He filled a container with water and shone light into it. In the darkened room he pulled the
bung from the opposite end of the container. The light shone out, ofcourse but in which direction?
The light followed the curved path of water. The light was guided and a new sciencewas born. This
was due to a property of light called refraction.
Theory of Fiber Optics

How optical fiber works?
The principle of operation of optical fiber lies in the behaviour of light. It is a widely held view that
light always travels in straight line and at constant speed. But that's not necessarily true as shown by
Tyndall's experiment. To understand the propagation of light within an optical fiber it is necessary to
take into account refractive index of the dielectric medium. Refractive index of a medium is defined as
the ratio of velocity of light in vacuum to velocity of light in medium.
Since, the velocity of light in any solid, transparent material is less than in vacuum the refractive index
of such material is always greater than 1. A ray of light travels slowly in an optically dense medium
than in the one that is less dense. Now, the direction that the light approaches the boundary between
the two materials is very important. When a ray is incident on the interface between two dielectrics of
differing refractive indices, refraction occurs. It may be observed that the ray approaching the interface
is propagating in a dielectric of refractive index n1 and is at an angle 1 to the normal at the surface of
the interface. If the dielectric on the other side of interface has a refractive index n2 which is less than
n1, then the refraction is such that the ray path in this lower index medium is at angle 2 to the normal
where 2is greater than 1.
Figure 1
E.C Dept, GEC-DAHOD Page 1

161005) Lab Manual
The angle of incidence 1 and refraction 2 are related to each other and to refractive indices of
dielectrics by Snells law of refraction which states that
Total Internal Reflection:
Since the angle of refraction is always greater than the angle of incidence. Thus when the angle of
refraction is 90 and the refracted ray emerges parallel to the interface between the dielectrics the angle
of incidence must be less than 90. This is the limiting case of refraction and this angle of incidence is
known as critical angle c. The value of critical angle is given by Angle of Incidence = Angle of
Reflection
In case the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle the light is reflected back into the
originating dielectric medium. This behaviour of light is termed as Total Internal Reflection. Here,
Figure 2
This is the mechanism by which light maymay be considered to propagate down an optical fiber with low
loss. Figure below illustrates the transmission of a light ray in an optical fiber via a series of total
internal reflection at the interface of the silica core and slightly lower refractive index
inde in the silica
cladding.
Figure 3
The light ray shown in figure 3 is known as meridional ray as it passes through the axis of the fiber
core. It is generally used when illustrating the fundamental transmission properties of optical fiber.

161005) Lab Manual
Acceptance Angle:
Since, only rays with an angle greater than critical angle at the core cladding interface are transmitted
by total internal reflection, it is clear that not all rays entering the fiber core will continue to be
propagated down the length.
Figure 4
Figure 4 illustrates a meridional ray at the critical angle cwithin the fiber at corecladding interface. It
may be observed that this ray enters the fiber core at an angle ato the fiber axis and is refracted at the
air-core
core interface before transmission to thecore - cladding interface at the critical angle. Hence, any
rays which are incident intothe fiber core at an angle greater than awill be transmitted to the core
claddinginterface att an angle less than cand will not be totally internally reflected instead willbe
refracted into the cladding and eventually lost by radiation. Thus, for rays to be transmitted by total
internal reflection within the fiber core they must be incident onthe fiber core within an acceptance
cone defined by conical half angle a.Hence, aisthe maximum angle to the axis atwhich light may
enter the fiber in order to bepropagated and is referred to as the acceptance angle for the fiber.
Numerical Aperture:
It gives the relationship between the acceptance angle and the refractive indices of the three media
involved viz. the core, the cladding and air.
Numerical Aperture = n0 sina = (n12-n22)
Where,
n0 = Refractive index of air

n1 = Refractive index of core
n2 = Refractive index of cladding
The Numerical Aperture is a very useful measure of light collecting ability of a fiber.

161005) Lab Manual
Optical Fiber Communication System
Figure 5
Here, the information source provides an amplified electrical signal to a transmitter comprising an
electrical stage, which drives an optical source to give conversion, may be either a semiconductor laser
or LED. The optical source, which provides an electrical
electrical to optical conversion, an optical fiber cable
used for transmission of signal and the receiver, consists of an optical detector, which drives a further
electrical stage and hence provides demodulation of optical carrier. This electrical signal is amplified
amp
and applied to the destination. e.g. speaker photo diodes (P-I-N,
(P N, or avalanche) and in some instances
photo transistors and photo conductors are utilized for detection of optical signal and optical to
electrical conversion. The optical carrier may be be modulated using an analog or digital information
signal. Analog modulation involves the variation of light emitted from the optical source in continuous
manner. In digital modulation however, discrete changes in the light intensity are obtained (i.e. On-On
Off pulses). Although often simpler to implement, analog modulation with an optical fiber
communication system is less efficient, requiring a far higher signal to noise ratio at the receiver than
digital modulation. Also, linearity needed for analog modulation
modulation is not provided by semiconductor
optical sources especially at high modulation frequencies.
Advantages of Fiber Optic System
1. Enormous potential band width (BW)
The optical carrier frequency in the range 1013 to 1016 Hz. (generally near infrared around
1014 or 1015 GHz) yields a far greater potential transmission B.W. (Bandwidth) then
metallic cable system. (i.e. coaxial cable Bandwidth up to 500 MHz) or even millimeter
wave radio system. (i.e. system. Currently operating
operating with modulation Bandwidth of 700
MHz) at present the Bandwidth available to fiber system is not fully utilized by modulation
at several GHz over hundred Km. and hundreds of MHz over 300 Km with intervening
electronics (repeaters) is possible. Therefore,
Therefore, the information carrying capacity of optical
fiber system has proved far superior to best copper cable available, by comparison losses in
coaxial cable systems restrict. A much enhanced Bandwidth utilization for an optical fiber
can be achieved bytransmitting
bytransmitting several optical signals each at different centre wave lengths
in parallel on the same fiber. This wavelength division multiplexed operation particularly
with dense packing of the optical wave length or (fine frequency spacing) offers potential
information
mation carrying capacity.

Optical Communication (161005) Lab Manual
2. Small size and weight
Optical fibers have very small diameter. Hence, when they are covered with protective
coatings they are far smaller & lighter. This is a tremendous boon towards the alleviation of
duct congestion in cities and allowing expansion of signal transmission in mobiles e.g.
aircrafts, ships etc.
3. Electrical isolation
Optical fibers are fabricated from glass or plastic polymers, they are electrical insulators
therefore they do not exhibit earth loop and interface problems. This property makes them
suited for communication in electrically hazardous environment as fiber create no arcing or
spark hazard at abrasions or short circuit & usually fiber do not contain sufficient energy to
ignite vapours or gases.
4. Immunity to interference and cross talk
Optical fibers form a dielectric wave guide and therefore are free from Electro Magnetic
Interference (EMI), Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) or switching transients. It is not
susceptible to lightening striker if used over head rather than underground. More over it is
easy to ensure that there is no optical interference between fibers.
5. Signal security
The light from optical fibers does not radiate significantly and therefore they provide a high
degree of signal security. A transmitted optical signal cannot be obtained from a fiber in a
non-invasive manner (i.e. without drawing optical power form the fiber). In theory, any
attempt to acquire a message signal transmitted optically may be detected. This feature is
obviously attractive for military & banking.
6. Low transmission loss
Optical fibers result in low attenuation or transmission loss in comparison with the best
copper conductor. It facilitates the implementation of communication links with extremely
wide repeater spacing thus reducing both system cost and complexity. This quality along
with already proven modulation B W capability of fiber cable, it is used in long haul
telecommunication applications.
7. Potential Low Cost
The glass which generally provides optical fiber transmission medium is made of sand not a
scarce resource. In comparison with copper conductors, opticalfiber offers low cost line
communication.

161005) Lab Manual
Characteristics of Optical Fiber

The Optic Fiber:
The simplest fiber optic cable consists of two concentric layers of transparent materials. The inner
portion (the core) transports the light; the outer covering (the cladding) must have a lower refractive
index than the core so the two of them are made of different materials.
material
To provide mechanical protection for the cladding an additional plastic layer, the Primary Buffer is
added. Some constructions of optic fiber have additional layers of buffer, which are then referred to as
Secondary Buffer. It is very important to note that the whole fiber-Core,
Core, Cladding & Primary Buffer is
solid and the light is confined to the core by the Total Internal Reflection due to the difference in the
refractive index of the core as compared to that of cladding.
Figure 6
Single Mode v/s Multi mode:
As we have already seen that there are particular angles of propagation defined by cone of acceptance,
which are able to be transmitted down the optic fiber. At these angles, the electromagnetic wave which
is the light can set up a number of complete
complete patterns across the fiber. The number of complete patterns
called Modes depends on the dimensions of the optic fiber core. There are essentially two different
types of fiber optic transmission schemes in use via,
1. Single mode
2. Multi mode
Single Mode:
As the name suggests the single mode cable is able to propagate only one mode (electromagnetic
wave). This is used in long distance and/or, high speed communication. It is beneficial over long
distances since it completely eliminates a problem known as Inter Modal Dispersionassociated with
multimode cables. All our long distance telephone conversations are now carried by single mode optic
fiber system over at least some part of the route. Multimode the term multimode means that the
diameter of the fiber
ber optic core is large enough to propagate more than one mode (electro magnetic
wave). Because of the multiple modes the pulse that is transmitted down the fiber tends to become
stretched over distance this is referred to as dispersion & has the effect of reducing the available
bandwidth. These are typically used in applications such as LAN (Local Area Networks) & FDDI
(Fiber Distributed Area Interface).
Interface)

Step Index and Graded Index Fibers:
The first type of fiber optic cable used was called step index. In this design, the cladding has a different
index of refraction than the core. The light bounces off the side and is reflected back into the fiber
core. The problem with this design is that the reflected light must travel a slightly longer distance, than
that which travels down the center of the fiber, thus limiting the maximum transmission rate. This
design was improved with the use of graded index fiber. In this design, the index of refraction
decreases in proportion to the distance away from the center of the fiber core. The light moves more
quickly in the outer portion thus compensating for the additional distance. The change in index has the
effect of bending. This change increases the transmission capacity by a factor. In the newest single
mode design, the diameter of the fiber core is so small that all the light travels in a straight line. Even
the latest fiberoptic facility in use today uses less than 5 % of the maximum theoretical capacity of a
single mode fiber.
Some of the optical fibers in use are:
1. Multimode step index fibers.

2. Multimode graded index fibers.
3. Single mode step index fibers.
4. Plastic - clad fibers.
5. All plastic fibers.
Dimensions of fiber optic cables are written as a ratio e.g. a cable with cladding diameter of 125
microns and fiber core diameter of 62.5 or 50 microns will be referred to as 62 .5/125 or 50/ 125 fiber.
Choice of operating frequency:
Once we had the laser and the new optic fiber available, everything was in place for a significant
upsurge in communications. This resulted in two driving forces: one towards the ability to send more
data faster and secondly to send the data to greater distances without being re-amplified.
More Data Faster:
As the transmission rate of data is increased, the required bandwidth increases and this can best be
accommodated by increasing the carrier frequency. This premise has stood us in good stead over many
years. The speech and poor quality music transmissions on the medium frequency, AM radio, give way
to the higher frequency of FM radios which accommodate the increased bandwidth necessary for
improved music quality. When television required even higher data rates, we responded by moving to
even higher frequencies. These previous experience rather suggested that the light used for fiber optic
communications should be of the highest frequency possible. But there was a surprise in store.
Lower frequencies mean lower losses:
The first experiments used visible light of different colours (frequencies). As the losses were
measured, we found that the higher frequencies caused more losses. The losses actually increased by
the 4th power of the frequency. This means that a trebling of the frequency would result in the losses
increasing by 34 or 81 times.

161005) Lab Manual
We therefore have two conflicting influences:
High frequency = high data rates

Low frequency = long ranges
At the moment, long distance communication is more important than achieving the ultimate in data
transmission rates. Therefore, in most real installations, we tend to go for the relatively low
frequencies of infrared light, which is just below the visible spectrum.
Fiber windows:
We now have an infrared range between 800 nm 1700 nm with one part of it around 1380nm which
is best avoided. It seemed sensible to agree on standard wavelengths so that equipment from different
manufacturer can be compatible.
Figure 7
This has resulted in three standard wavelengths called windows. The windows were really the result of
looking at the available light sources. Some wavelengths of LED and laser light are easier and less
expensive than others to produce. The design
design and manufacture of the optic fiber is then optimized for
these frequencies.
Note:
The infrared light is very dangerous to eyes it can cause irreversible damages and since it is invisible
care should be taken to ensure that the optic fiber is not live.

161005) Lab Manual
Losses in Optic Fiber:
1.Attenuation
Transmission of light is not 100% efficient. Some photons of light are lost, causing attenuation of signal.
Several mechanisms are involved, including absorption by materials within the fiber, scattering of light
out of the core caused by environmental factors. The degree of attenuation depends on the wavelength of
light transmitted. Attenuation measures the reduction in signal strength by comparing output power with
input power. Measurements are made in decibels (dB). It is defined as dB loss
10 10
2. Material absorption losses
It is a loss mechanism related to the material composition and fabrication process of the fiber
which result in the dissipation of some of the transmitted optical power as heat in waveguide.
The absorption of light may be intrinsic (caused by one or more major components of glass) or
extrinsic (caused by impurities within the glass).
3. Linear scattering losses
Linear scattering mechanisms cause the transfer of some or all of the optical power contained within one
propagating mode to be transferred linearly (proportionally) into a different mode. This process tends to
result in attenuation of the transmitted light
light as the transfer may be to a leaky or radiation mode which
does not continue to propagate within the fiber core, but is radiated from the fiber. It is mainly of two
types.
a. RayLeigh Scattering
b. Mie Scattering
Ray Leigh Scatter:
When the infrared light strikes a very - very small place where the materials in the glass are
imperfectly mixed. This gives rise to localized changes in the refractive index resulting in the light
being scattered in all directions. Some of the light escapes the optic fiber,
fiber, some continues in the correct
direction and some is returned towards the light source. This is called back scatter.
Figure 8

161005) Lab Manual
1. Mie scattering
These result from the non - perfect cylindrical structure of the waveguide. It may be the caused
by the imperfections such as irregularities in the core cladding interface core, cladding
refractive index difference along the fiber length, diameter fluctuations,
fluctuat strains and bubbles.
The scattering created by such in homogeneities is mainly in the forward direction.
2. Non linear scattering
Optical waveguide does not behave linearly, several non-linear

non linear effects occur, which in the case
of scattering cause disproportionate attenuation usually at high optical power level. This non-
non
linear scattering causes the optical power from one mode to be transferred
transferred in either the forward
or backward direction to the same, or other modes at different frequency. It depends critically
upon the optical power density within the fiber and hence only becomes significant above
threshold power levels.
3. Micro bending and macro bending
A problem which often occurs in cabling of the optical fiber is the meandering of the fiber core
axis on a microscopic scale within the cable form. This phenomenon, known as micro bending
result from small lateral forces exerted on the fiber
fiber during the cabling process and it causes
losses due to radiation in both multimode and single mode fiber.
Macro bends:
The light propagates down the optic fiber solely because the incident angle exceeds the critical angle.
If a sharp bend occurs, the normal and the critical angle move round with the fiber. The incident ray
continues in a straight line and it finds itself approaching the core - cladding boundary at
a an angle less
than the critical angle and much of light is able to escape.
Figure 9

161005) Lab Manual
Dispersion:
When a laser is energized by an electrical pulse, it launches a short flash or light along the optic fiber.
fiber
It is an unfortunate fact that the light burst becomes longer as it moves along the fiber optic cable. The
light spreads out. This effect is called dispersion. In figure 10 the light pulse shown before and after it
has travelled through the cable.
Figure 10
It is going to limit how fast we can send data - how many bits per second we can transmit through a
fiber optic link. In fact it is the main limit to the data transmissionrate for long distance communication
system. If we send flashes of laser light
light down along link in which dispersion is a problem, the flashes
will merge at the far end andthe On / Off states will not be distinguished by the receiver. Over a
giventransmission path, there are only two remedies. Firstly, we could reduce thetransmission
thetransmi rate so
that even allowing for the spreading effect of the dispersion, theOn Off states is still clearly
separated. This is not a very exciting solution andwould clash with one of the main reasons for using
optic fiber.
There are two types of Dispersion.

ispersion.
1.Inter
Inter modal dispersion
2.Intra
Intra modal dispersion
Inter modal Dispersion:
You will recall that, to be propagated down the core of the optic fiber,
fiber, the light must enter at an angle
greater than the critical angle. Let us consider just two such rays of light as they travel along a section
of optic fiber.
Which ray would reach first?

Figure 11
Ray A will reach the far end before Ray B since it is travelling a shorter distance. Assuming that rays
A and B are part of the same pulse of light and start at the same time, we can now see how the
spreading of the pulses can occur. Each and every ray being propagated at its own angle will arrive at
slightly different times at the far end. This spreading effect will occur all along the fiber so it is also the
fiber so it is also important to appreciate that the longer the optic fiber, the greater the dispersion.
Transmission rates that are actually possible in in an optic fiber therefore depend on its length. In
practice, there are only particular angles of propagation which are able to betransmitted down the optic
fiber.

161005) Lab Manual
Intra modal dispersion:

This form of dispersion occurs in both multimode and single mode optic fibers. It is only really
significant in single mode usage since, being very slight, it is completely swamped by the inter modal
dispersion in the multimode case. The cause is simple enoughen - the refractive index of material is
determined to some extent by the wavelength of the light source. Can you see how this causes
dispersion? A change in refractive index will change the speed of that particular wavelength of light.
Now if your light source produces different wavelengths concurrently, we will havecomponents of the
transmitted light pulse travelling simultaneously. If will have components of the transmitted light pulse
travelling at difference speeds. The total package of light will spread
sp out - hence the dispersion.
The cure for inter modal dispersion:

A large core diameter means many modes and severe inter modal dispersion. The curefor this type of
dispersion is quite simple. Reduce the core size, the number of modesdecreases, and the inter modal
dispersion is reduced. We can do better than justreducing the inter modal dispersion, we can
completely eliminate it. Simply make thecore so small that only one mode is propagated. A single ray
cannot possibly go attwo different speeds so inter
inter modal dispersion cannot occur. In practice the core
isreduced to about 9 m. The optic fiber which now carries only a single mode is nowreferred to as a
'single mode fiber'. Single mode fiber is used for all long distanceand/or high speed communications.
communicati
All long distance telephone conversations arenow carried by single mode fiber optic systems over
some parts of the route. The larger core optic fibers for short and medium distances carry many modes
and arecalled ' Multimode'.
The cure for intra modal dispersion:
The cure is apparently so simple; use a light source which emits only one wavelength of light.
Unfortunately, it has not yet been invented. Our light sources in current use are the LED and the laser.
Study figure 12 and decide which of the two
two would cause the lesser amount of intra modal dispersion.
Figure 12
The laser would cause less intra modal dispersion because its light is more concentrated around the
central wavelength. The spread of wavelength measured between the points where the power output
falls to half of the peak power is called the spectral width.
width. Some lasers have spectral widths as low as
0.1 nm. The low spectral width together with its high power and fast switching makes the laser first
choice for long distance communications using single mode optic fiber. Also there are some losses due
to coupling
ing in between the fibers and at LED and photo detector ends.

161005) Lab Manual
Applications of macro bends:
1. A Live Fiber Detector
Here is the problem: long distance fiber optic systems employ powerful lasers operating in the infrared
region of the spectrum. This infrared light has two properties which are very significant to the
engineers and technicians working on the system.
We have various pieces of test equipment that can be used to check the system. The 'live' fiber detector
is able to find which fibers are carrying data in most day to day checks, but read the instruction manual
first to ensure that the instrument is suitable for the type of optic fiber you are checking.
checki
Figure 13
This device has a pair of spring loaded jaws. The fiber under test is slipped in between them and when
the jaws close it will cause the fiber to be bent sufficiently to cause a macro bend. The escaping light
can be detected by the photocell and used to activate the LED indicator. One flaw in the system is that
it relies on the buffer beingtransparent to the infrared light.
The Optical Time Domain Reflecto meter (OTDR):
The OTDR is a measuring instrument which makes use of backscatter. It is the most versatile piece of
test equipment that we have for making measurements on fiber optic systems. It provides us with two
different measurements:
1.It
It can measure the magnitude of any losses that occur along optic fiber.
2.It
It can measure distance along the optic fiber.

161005) Lab Manual
Figure 14
Losses:
As the light moves along the optic fiber, the light intensity is attenuated by the lossesin
losses the optic fiber
and so the reflections returned to the OTDR receiver becomeweaker. Measurement of the amplitude of
the returned signals tells us the optic fiberloss in dB/Km. if a macro bend has occurred, it would show
up as a drop in the signallevel at a particular point. If the optic fiber has been cut as it has to be when
fitting aconnector, the end face of the glass causes a reflection of energy. It is also usual forthis to
occur at the extreme end of the optic fiber. This cause a localized increase inenergy returned to the
OTDR. This reflection called a as FRESNEL (thes( is notpronounced) reflection shown up as a small
spike on the display. There is always aFresnel reflection at the start of the fiber due to the connector on
the front panel of theOTDR.
Distance:
We obtain timing information by starting the display and the pulse generator at the same instant. This
is achieved by the synchronizing pulse which switches on both the laser and the receiver at the same
instant. If we know how long it takes for the backscatter
backscatter light to return to the OTDR then we only have
to know how fast the infrared light is travelling along the optic fiber to be able to calculate how far the
light hastravelled. Some light returns after say, 500ns, it follows that it has travelled to a total
t of 100
meters. This represents 50 meters out along the optic fiber and 50 meters back. You will remember that
the actual speed of propagation is determined by the refractive index of the core of the optic fiber.
Speed of propagation = speed of light in free space / refractive index of the core (The refractive index
of the optic fiber being tested must be punched into the OTDR otherwise all the distance will
miscalculate. The value of the refractive index is quoted by the manufacturer.) The synchronizing
synchroniz
pulse simply provides a "start" to the generator and to the display circuits to allow them to determine
the travel-time
time of the laser light and the backscatter.

161005) Lab Manual
Figure 15
Figure 15 shows Fiber Optics system together with its appearance on OTDR screen. Notice that both
the macro bends and fusion splices are shown as a sudden loss of power at a particular point. Indeed, it
is not possible to distinguish between a macro bend and a fusion splice just
just by observing the OTDR
display. It just shows a localizedloss. The loss may appear a vertical drop or as sloping line depending
upon the speed at which the screen being scanned on the OTDR. The connector has a similar loss but it
also has afresnel reflection.
tion. Typical value of losses:
Fusion splice 0.05 dB

Connector 0.2 dB
Macro bend: 0 to more than a dB depending on the severity of the macro bend. Two other
Applications of Back scatter.
1. Distributive temperature sensing (DTS)
The amount of backscatter occurring in an optic fiber is dependent upon the manufacture of the optic
fiber, the optic window used, and upon the temperature of the optic fiber.
Now, when we find a characteristic of the optic fiber, which depends on the temperature,
tem it is but a
small step away from using the effect to measure temperatures.
This new technique is called distributive temperature sensing (DTS). It is an optic fiber connected to
equipment operating just like an OTDR, which is then passed through
through the areas to be measured. If it is
passed through a refrigerator (minimum temperature of -190 C or -310
310 F), for example, the trace on
the OTDR will show the backscatter level falling to a level dependent upon the temperature in the
refrigerator. Similarly,
arly, a heated area (maximum temperature 460 C or 860 F) would return a higher
level of backscatter.

161005) Lab Manual
Figure 16
Security:
You will recall that one of the advantages of the fiber optic system is the high level of security offered.
We know however, that a macro bend would allow the light to escape and hence the data to be copied.
An OTDR monitoring the line would immediately detect the power loss of the macro bend and be able
to measure
asure its distance along the optic fiber to an accuracy of approximately 0.1 meters (4 inches). The
same immediate detection would occur as with the security matting shown in figure 17(a b c).
Figure 17
Recommended Testing Instruments for experiments
1.Dual
Dual trace oscilloscope 20 MHz
2.Oscilloscope Probes

161005) Lab Manual
Experiment 1
Objective: Setting up Fiber Optic Analog Link
Aim: - Study of a 650nm fiber optic analog link in this experiment you will study
therelationship between the input signal and received signal.
Apparatus: - Dual trace oscilloscope 20 MHz,
MHz Oscilloscope Probes,, Optical fiber cable, Fiber Optic
Trainer kit (ST2502), Connector wire.
Theory:
Fiber optic links can be used for transmission of digital as well as analog signals. Basically a fiber
optic link contains three main elements, a transmitter, an optical fiber and a receiver. The transmitter
module takes the input signal in electrical form and then transforms it into optical (light) energy
containing the same information. Theoptical fiber is the medium which takes the energy to the
receiver. At the receiver light is converted back into electrical form with the same pattern as originally
fed to the transmitter.
Transmitter:
Fiber optic transmitters are typically composed of a buffer, driver and optical source. The buffer
provides both an electrical connection and isolation between the transmitter & the electrical system
supplying the data. The driver provides electrical power to the optical source. Finally, the optical
source converts the electrical current to the light energy with the same pattern. Commonly used optical
sources are light emitting diodes
iodes (LED s) and Laser beam. Simple LED circuits, for digital and analog
transmissions are shown below.
Figure 18
Figure 18 shows Transconductance drive circuits for analog transmission-common

transmission emitter
configuration. The transmitter section comprises of:
1. Function Generator
2. Frequency Modulator &
3. Pulse Width Modulator block.

The Function Generator generates the input signals that are going to be used as information ' to
transmit through the fiber optic link. The output voltage available is 1 KHz sinusoidal signal of
adjustable amplitude, and fixed amplitude 1 KHz square wave signal. The modulator section accepts
the information signal and converts it intosuitable form for transmission through the fiber optic link.
The Fiber Optic Link:
Emitter and Detector circuit on board form the fiber optic link. This section provides the light source
for the optic fiber and the light detector at the far end of the fiber optic links. The optic fiber plugs into
the connectors provided in this part of the board. Two separate links are provided.
The Receiver:
The comparator circuit, low pass filter, phase locked loop, AC amplifier circuits form receiver on the
board. It is able to undo the modulation process in order to recover the original information signal. In
this experiment the trainer board is used to illustrate one way communication between digital
transmitter and receiver circuits.
Procedure:
1. Connect the Power Supply to the board.

2. Ensure that all switched faults are Off.
3. Make the following connections.
a. Connect the 1 KHz sine wave output to emitter l's input.
b. Connect the Fiber Optics. cable between emitter output and detectors input.
c. Detector l's output to AC amplifier 1 input.
4. On the board, switch emitter l's driver to analog mode.
5. Switch on the power.
6. Observe the input to emitter 1 (TP5) with the output from AC amplifier 1(TP28) and note that
the two signals are same.
Output:-
Conclusion:-

161005) Lab Manual
Experiment 2
Objective: Setting up Fiber Optic Digital Link
Aim: - Study of a 650nm fiber optic digital link. In this experiment you will study
therelationship between the input signal and received signal.
Apparatus: - Dual trace oscilloscope 20 MHz,
MHz Oscilloscope Probes,, Optical fiber cable, Fiber Optic
Figure 19
Figure shows a simple drive circuit for binary digital transmission consisting a common emitter
saturating switch.
Procedure:

connections
a. Connect the 1 KHz square wave output to emitter l's input.
b. Connect the fiber optic cable between emitter output and detectors input.
c. Detector 1's output to comparator 1s input.
d. Comparator l's output to AC amplifier l's input.
4. On the board, switch emitter 1's driver to digital mode.
5. Switch on the power.
6. Monitor both the inputs to comparator 1 (TP13 & 14). Slowly adjust thecomparators bias
preset, until DC Level on the input (TP13) liesmid waybetween the high and low level of the
signal on the positive input (TP14).
7. Observe the input to emitter 1 (TP 5) with the output from AC amplifier 1(TP28) and note that
the two signals are same.

Output:-
Conclusion:-

Experiment 3
Objective: Study of Intensity Modulation Technique using Analog input signal.
Aim: - To obtain intensity modulation of the analog signal, transmit it over a fiber optic cable
and demodulate the same at the receiver and to get back the original signal.
Apparatus: - Dual trace oscilloscope 20 MHz, Oscilloscope Probes, Optical fiber cable, Fiber Optic
Theory:
Modulation: In order to transmit information via an optical fiber communication system it is necessary
to modulate a property of the light with the information signal. This property may be intensity,
frequency, phase with either digital or analog signals. The choices are indicated by the characteristics
of optical fiber, the available optical sources and detectors, and considerations of the overall system.
Intensity modulation:
In this system the information signal is used to control the intensity of the source. At the far end, the
variation in the amplitude of the received signal is used to recover the original information signal.
Figure 20
The audio input signal is used to control the current through an LED which in turn controls the light
output. The light is conveyed to the detector 1 circuit by optic fiber. The detector is a photo transistor
which converts the incoming light to a small current which flows through a series resistor. This gives
rise to a voltage whose amplitude is controlled by the received light intensity. The voltage is now
amplified within the detector circuit and if necessary, amplified further by amplifier circuit.
The Analog Bias Voltage:

There are two problems using amplitude modulation with an analog signal. The first is to do with the
signal itself.
Figure 21
If you glance at the figure you will see that analog waveform moves positive & negative of the zero
line. The second problem is that it is the shape of the waveform which carries the information. Ideally
the emitter characteristic would be a straight line. Even so we would lose the negative going half
cycles as shown.

Figure 22
The answer is to superimpose the sinusoidal signal on positive voltage called the bias voltage so that
both halves of the incoming signal have an effect on the light intensity. The combination of linear
characteristic would be ideal but the real characteristic is not completely straight. However, it does
have a straight section that we can use if we employ a suitable value of bias voltage. Figure 23 shows
ideal and practical situations.
Figure 23

Procedure:

a. Connect the FG output marked 1KHz sine wave to input if emitter 1.
b. Plug in a fiber optic link from output of emitter 1 LED to the phototransistor of the
detector1.
c. Detector 1 output TP 10 to input of Amplifier TP 27.
3. In the emitter 1 block switch the mode select to analog.
4. Turn the 1 KHz preset in function generator block to fully clockwise (maximumamplitude)
position.
5. Switch on the Power Supply.
6. With the help of dual trace oscilloscope observe the input signal at emitter 1 TP5 also; observe
the output from the detector 1. It should carry a smaller versionof the original 1 KHz sine wave,
illustrating that the modulated light beam hasbeen reconverted back into an electrical signal.
7. The output from detector 1 is further amplified by AC amplifier 1. Thisamplifier increases the
amplitude of the received signal, and also removes theDC component, which is present at
detector output. Monitor the output ofamplifier 1 TP28 and adjust the gain adjust 1 preset until
the monitored signalhas same amplitude as that applied to emitter 1 Input TP 5 .
8. While monitoring the output of Amplifier 1 TP 28 change the amplitude ofmodulating sine
wave by varying the 1 KHz preset in the function generatorblock. Note that as expected, the
amplitude of the receiver output signalchanges.
Output:-
Conclusion:-

Experiment 4
Objective: Study of Intensity Modulation Technique using digital Input signal
Aim: - To obtain intensity modulation of digital signal, transmit it over fiber optic cable and
demodulate the same at the receiver end to get back the original signal.
Apparatus: - Dual trace oscilloscope 20 MHz, Oscilloscope Probes, Optical fiber cable, Fiber
OpticTrainer kit (ST2502), Connector wire.
Theory:
Digital Modulation
With digital modulation, discrete changes in light intensity are obtained (i.e. On-Off pulses) figure 27
shows a block schematic of a typical digital optical fiber link.
Figure 24
Initially, input digital signal from the information source is suitably encoded foroptical transmission.
The LED drive circuit directly modulates the intensity of thelight with encoded digital signal. Hence, a
digital optical signal is launched into theoptical fiber cable. The photo transistor used as detector is
followed by an amplifier toprovide gain. Finally the signal obtained is decoded to give the original
digitalinformation.
Digital Bias Voltage:

In case of a digital signal the only information which needs to be conveyed is the ON state and Off
state. The digital Input signal is entirely positive going as shown in figure 28.
Figure 25
So, there is no negative part of the signal to be lost and furthermore any distortion due to non-linearity
of the characteristic is of no importance - all we need to know is whether the signal is On or Off.
There is no need therefore to generate a bias voltage.

Figure 26
When amplitude modulation is used with a digital input we employ a comparator at the receiving end
of the fiber to make the waveform square again called 'cleaning it up'.
Procedure:

a. Connect the 1 KHz square wave socket in function generator block toemitter 1 input.
b. Connect an optic fiber link between emitter 1 output & Detector 1 inputwith the help of
connector provided.
c. Detector output to comparator l's non-inverting (+ve) input.
3. Switch the mode switch in emitter block to digital mode. This ensures thatsignal applied to
thedriver's input cause the emitter LED to switch quicklybetween On & Off states.
4. Examine the Input to emitter 1 TP 5 on an oscilloscope this 1 KHz square waveis now being
used toamplitude modulate emitter I emitter LED.
5. Examine the output of detector 1 TP 10. This should carry a smaller version oforiginal I KHz
square wave illustrating that the modulated light beam has beenreconverted into an electrical
signal.
6. Monitor both input to comparator 1, at TP 13 & 14 and slowly adjust the"Comparator bias 1
preset until the DC Level on the negative input TP 13 liesmidway between the high & low level
of the signal on the positive input TP. 14.This DC level is comparator's threshold level.
7. Examine the output of comparator 1 TP15 Note that the original digitalmodulating signal has
been reconstructed at the receiver.
8. Once again carefully flex the fiber optic cable we can see that there is no changein output on
bending the fiber. The output amplitude is now independent of thebend radius of the cable and
that of length of cable, provided that detectoroutput signal is large enough to cross the
comparator threshold level. Thisillustrates one of the advantages of amplitude modulation of a
light beam bydigital rather than analog means. Also, non-linearties within the emitter LED

&photo transistor causing distortion of the signal at the receiver output are thedisadvantages
associated with amplitude modulating a light source by analogmeans. Linearity is not a
problem if the light beam is switched On & Offwith a digital signal, since the detector
output is simply squared up by acomparator circuit. To overcome problems associated with
amplitudemodulation of a light beam by analog means, analog signals are often used tovary or
modulate some characteristic of a digital signal (e.g. frequency or pulsewidth.). The digital
signal being used toswitch the light beam On& Off. Thenext two experiments illustrate how
an analog signal can be used to modulatetwo specific characteristics of a digital signal.
Output:-
Conclusion:-

Experiment 5
Objective: The Frequency Modulation System
Aim: - To study Frequency Modulation in Optical Communication.
Apparatus: - Dual trace oscilloscope 20 MHz, Oscilloscope Probes, Opticalfiber cable, Fiber
OpticTrainer kit (ST2502), Connector wire.
Theory:
In the traditional form of FM the carrier frequency is changed or modulated by theamplitude of the
analog signal. This is not feasible in a fiber optic system since bothour light sources, the LED and the
Laser, are fixed frequency devices. In fiber opticsystems FM is achieved by using the original analog
input signal to vary thefrequency of a train of digital pulses.
Figure 27
This is achieved by a circuit called Voltage Controlled Oscillator usually abbreviated as VCO. The
digital pulses are communicated through the optic fiber and squared up at the receiver by a comparator
in the same way as it was in amplitude modulation system. At this point we convert the digital train
back to the original analog signal by means of the Phase Locked Loop detector (PLL). The PLL circuit
performs a very simple function. It monitors an incoming signal and produces a DC voltage output. If
the input frequency increases, the DC voltage increases. If the frequency decreases, the DC voltage
decreases. In this way the original analog signal is recovered. The output of the PLL contains many
unwanted frequency components. These are removed by a low pass filter and then finally the signal is
amplified to the desired level.

Procedure:
1. Connect Power Supply to the board.

a. Connect Function generator 1KHz sine wave signal to frequency modulatorinput.
b. Frequency modulator output TP2 to the emitter 1 input at TP5.
c. Connect the optic fiber between the emitter 1 circuit and the detector 1circuit.
d. Detector 1 output TP10 to comparator 1 input at TP14.
e. Comparator 1 output TP15 to the PLL detector input at TP23.
f. PLL detector output at TP26 to the low pass filter 1 input at TP19
g. Low Pass Filter 1 output TP20 to A C amplifier 1 input at TP27
4. Switch emitter l's driver to digital mode. This ensures that fast changing digitalsignal applied to
the drivers input causes the emitter LED to switch quicklybetween On & Off states.
5. Turn the 1 KHz preset in the function generator block to fully anticlockwise(Zero
amplitude)position.
7. Monitor the output of the voltage controlled oscillators (VCO) in the frequencymodulator block
TP2. Note that the frequency of this digital signal is at presentconstant, since the modulating 1
KHz sine wave has zero amplitude.
8. Examine the output of detector 1 (TP10 and check that the transmitted digitalpulses
aresuccessfully detected at the receiver).
9. With the help of dual trace oscilloscope monitor both inputs to comparator1.Now adjust the
bias 1 preset until the bias input at TP13 is halfway between thetop and bottom of the square
wave on TP14. You will remember that thefunction of the comparator is to clean up the square
wave after its transmissionthrough the fiber optic link.
10. The output of comparator 1 drives the input of the PLL detector which producesa signal whose
average level is proportional to the frequency of the digitalstream. This average level is then
extracted by low pass filter 1, and amplifiedby AC Amplifier1 to produce the original analog
signal at the amplifiers outputTP28. Examine TP28 and note that the output voltage is zero.
This is expectedsince there is currently no modulating voltage in the transmitter.
11. While monitoring the input to the frequency modulator block TP1 and theoutput from AC
amplifier 1 TP28 turn the 1KHz preset to its fully clockwisemaximum amplitude) position.
Note that the modulating1KHz signal nowappears at the amplifiers output. If necessary, adjust
the amplifiers gain, adjust 1preset until the two monitored signal are equal in amplitude.
12. In order to fully understand how this frequency modulation transmitter/ receiversystem works,
examine the inputs and outputs of all functional blocks within thesystem, using an
Oscilloscope.

Output:-
Conclusion:-

Experiment 6
Objective: The Pulse Width Modulation System
Aim: - To study Pulse Width Modulation in Optical Communication.
Theory:-
Pulse width modulation (PWM) is an alternative to frequency modulation. They are both digital
transmission. In FM, you will remember, the incoming analog signal is used to change the frequency
of the digital stream. In pulse width modulation the width of the pulse is changed by the amplitude of
the analog signal to be transmitted. It is an extremely simple system of modulation. Assume an input
signal at zero volts. The digital stream and the average voltage level would be as shown in figure 33.
Figure 28
If the input voltage moves to a positive value, the pulse width will increase and since the waveform is
On longer than it is Off, the average value increases similarly, if the input signal goes negative the
width of the pulse will decrease.
The average value of the digital voltage now decreases. You will now appreciate that the average
voltage level is increasing and decreasing in accordance with the input voltage. At the far end of the
transmission system the digital pulses are cleaned up by the comparator and then simply passed
through a low pass filter. The filter removes the square waves but the average level remains to form the
output signal. At this stage, the output signal is increasing and decreasing in step with the input, but
you will remember that the 0 V input signal produced a DC level at the output. This DC level must
now be removed. We do this by means of blocking capacitors at the input to the final amplifier.

Figure 29
Procedure:
1. Connect the supply to the board

2. Ensure that all switched faults are set to Off.
a. FG' s 1KHz sine wave signal to the Pulse width modulator input TP3
b. Pulse width modulator output TP4 to emitter 1 input TP5
c. Connect the optic fiber between the emitter 1 circuit and detector 1 circuit.
d. Detector 1 output TP10 to comparator & input at TP14.
e. Comparator 1 output TP15 to LPF 1 at TP19.
f. LPF 1 output TP20 to A C amplifier 1 input at TP27.
4. Switch emitter 1s driver to digital mode. This ensures that fast changing digitalsignals applied
to the drivers input because the emitter LED to switch quicklybetween On & Off states.
5. Turn the 1 KHz preset of function generator block to fully anticlockwise (zeroamplitude)
position.
7. Monitor the output of the pulse width modulator block TP4. Note that the pulsewidth of this
digital signal is at present constant, since the modulating 1 KHzsine wave has zero amplitude.
8. Examine the output Detector TP10 and check that the transmitted digital pulses are successfully
detected at the receiver.
9. Monitor both input's comparator 1 TP13 & TP14 and if necessary, slowly adjustthe
comparator's bias preset, until the DC Level on the negative input TP13 liesmidway between
the high and low level of the signal on the positive inputTP14.
10. The average level of comparator l's output is extracted by LPF 1 and thenamplified by AC
amplifier which also removes the DC offset. Since, theaverage level of the comparator output is
proportional to the pulse width, theoriginal analog signal appears at the amplifiers output TP28.
Examine TP28 and note that the output voltage is zero. This is expected since there is currently
nomodulating voltage at the transmitter.
11. While monitoring the input to the pulse width modulator block TP3 and theoutput from AC
amplifier 1 TP28 turn the 1 KHz preset to its fully clockwise(maximum amplitude position).
Note that the modulating 1KHz signal nowappears at the amplifiers output. If necessary, adjust
the amplifiers gain adjust 1preset until the two monitored signals are equal in amplitude.
12. In order to fully understand how this pulse width modulation transmitter/receiver system
works, examine the inputs and outputs of all functional blockswithin the system using an
oscilloscope.

Output:-
Conclusion:-

Experiment 7
Objective: Study of Propagation Loss in Optical Fiber
Aim: - To measure propagation or attenuation loss in optical fiber
Theory:-
Attenuation is loss of power. During transit, light pulse lose some of their photons, thus reduce their
amplitude. Attenuation for a fiber is usually specified in decibels per kilometer. For commercially
available fibers attenuation ranges from 1dB/km for premium small-core glass fibers to over
2000dB/Km for a large core plastic fiber. Loss is by definition negative decibels. In common usage,
discussions of loss omit the negative sign. The basic measurement for loss in a fiber is done by taking
the logarithmic ratio of the input power (Pi) to the output power (Po).
Where is Loss in dB / Meter
Procedure:
1. Connect Power Supply to board.

a. Function generators 1 KHz sine wave output to Input 1 socket of emitter 1circuit via 4
mmlead.
b. Connect 0.5 m optic fiber between emitter 1 output and detector l's input.
c. Connect detector 1 output to amplifier 1 input socket via 4mm lead.
4. Set the Oscilloscope channel 1 to 0.5 V / Div and adjust 4 - 6 div amplitude byusing X 1 probe
with the help of variable pot in function generator block atinput 1 of Emitter 1.
5. Observe the output signal from detector TP10 on CRO.
6. Adjust the amplitude of the received signal same as that of transmitted one withthe help of gain
adjust potentiometer in AC amplifier block. Note this amplitudeand name it V1.
7. Now replace the previous FG cable with 1 m cable without disturbing anyprevious setting.
8. Measure the amplitude at the receiver side again at output of amplifier 1 socketTP 28. Note this
value end name it V2.
Calculate the propagation (attenuation) loss with the help of following formula.
V1 / V2 = e- (L1 + L2)
Where, is loss in nepers / meter

1 neper = 8. 686 dB
L 1 = length of shorter cable (0.5 m)
L 2 = Length of longer cable (1 m)

Output:-
Conclusion:-

Experiment 8
Objective: Study of Bending Loss
Aim: - To study Bending Loss in optical fiber
Theory:-
Whenever the condition for angle of incidence of the incident light is violated the losses are introduced
due to refraction of light. This occurs when fiber is subjected to bending. Lower the radius of curvature
more is the loss.
Procedure:
1. Repeat all the steps from 1 to 6 of the previous experiment number 7 using 1m cable.
2. Wind the FO cable on the mandrel and observe the corresponding AC amplifier output on
CRO. It will be gradually reducing showing loss due to bends.
Figure 30
Output:-
Conclusion:-

Experiment 9
Objective: Measurement of Optical Power using Optical Power Meter
Aim: - To measure optical power using optical power meter.
Procedure:
1. Connect the Power Supply to the board. Ensure that all switched faults are Off.
2. Connect the fiber optic cable between emitters 1's output & power meter's input.
3. On the board, switch emitter l's driver to analog mode. Keep the power meter's wavelength
selector switch in 660 nm
4. Switch on the power. Note the reading displayed in power meter.
5. Switch the wavelength selector switch to 950 nm positions. & note the reading displayed on
power meter.
6. Perform the same experiment with emitter 2.
Output:-
Conclusion:-

Experiment 10
Objective: Measurement of Optical Power using Optical Power Meter
Aim: - To measure propagation loss in optical fiber using optical power meter.
Procedure:
1. Connect the Power Supply to the main board. Keep the mode switch in emitter 1 circuit in
analog mode
2. Connect the 0.5m fiber cable in between the emitter LED & I/P of power meter.
3. Switch on the instrument fiber optic trainer & power meter (Keep the wavelength switch in 660
nm, position). Note the reading in power meter.
4. Replace the 0.5m fiber cable with the 1m cables without disturbing any setting. Again note the
reading in power. This reading will be lesser then the previous one, indicating that the
propagation loss increases with increase in length.
5. Perform the same experiment with emitter 2.
Output:-
Conclusion:-

161005) Lab Manual
Experiment 11
Objective: Characteristics of Fiber Optics communication Link
Aim: - The aim of experiment is to study the Vin (AC) versus Vo (AC).
Procedure:
1. Connect Power Supply to board (as shown in figure 31).

31
conne
a. Function generator 1KHz sine wave output to input socket of emitter 1 circuit via 4mm lead.
b. Connect optic fiber between emitter ls output and detector 1s input.
c. Connect Detector 1 output to amplifier 1 input socket via 4nm lead.
4. Set the amplitude of the function generator to 2V p-p.
p
5. Observe the transmitted and received signal on CRO. Vo (output voltage) should be in the
same order as Vin (input voltage).
6. Next set Vin to suitable values and note the values of Vo.
7. Tabulate and plot a graph Vo versus Vin & compute Vo/Vin.
Figure 31

Output:-
Conclusion:-

Experiment 12
Objective: Setting up Fiber Optics voice link using Frequency Modulation
Aim: - The objective of this experiment is to demonstrate voice transmission through optic
fiber using F M.
Procedure:
Follow the steps 1 to 12 as given in experiment number 5.
1. Disconnect the 1 KHz sine wave output from in put of F M block.

2. Make the following additional connections (as shown in figure 32) without disturbing
previoussetting.
a. Plug the Microphone in the input of Audio input block.
b. Output of Audio input block to input of FM block.
c. Output of AC Amp block to input of Audio output block.
4. Speak in the Microphone and listen the same in the speaker / Headphone.
Figure 32

Output:-
Conclusion:-

Experiment 13
Objective: Setting up of Fiber Optic Voice Link using PWM
Aim: - Study of voice transmission through Fiber Optic cable using PWM
Procedure:
Follow the steps 1 to 12 given in experiment number 6.
1. Disconnect the PWM input from 1 KHz sine wave socket

2. Make the following additional connection (as shown in figure 33) without disturbing any
previous settings
a. Plug the microphone into input of audio input block
b. Output of audio input block to input of PWM block
c. Output of AC Amp block to input of audio output block
3. Switch on the Power Supply
4. Observe that the same audio sound is available in the speaker as fed to microphone.
Figure 33

Output:-
Conclusion:-

Optical Communication Lab Manual

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Optical Communication Lab Manual

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Laboratory Manual

Electronics & Communication Department

Enrollment No. __________________________________

of Subject ___________________________________ has

satisfactorily completed his/her term work in

Code No.________________ course ________________

_____________________for the term ending in

Sr. Title of the Experiment Page Date Sign.

8 To study Bending Loss in optical fiber.

9 To measure optical power using optical power meter.

E.C Dept, GEC-DAHOD

PRELAB: - Optical Communication

Theory of Fiber Optics

E.C Dept, GEC-DAHOD Page 1

Total Internal Reflection:

E.C Dept, GEC-DAHOD Page 2

Numerical Aperture = n0 sina = (n12-n22)

n0 = Refractive index of air

E.C Dept, GEC-DAHOD Page 3

Optical Fiber Communication System

Advantages of Fiber Optic System

1. Enormous potential band width (BW)

E.C Dept, GEC-DAHOD Page 4

2. Small size and weight

4. Immunity to interference and cross talk

6. Low transmission loss

7. Potential Low Cost

E.C Dept, GEC-DAHOD Page 5

Characteristics of Optical Fiber

E.C Dept, GEC-DAHOD Page 6

Step Index and Graded Index Fibers:

Some of the optical fibers in use are:

1. Multimode step index fibers.

Choice of operating frequency:

More Data Faster:

Lower frequencies mean lower losses:

E.C Dept, GEC-DAHOD Page 7

We therefore have two conflicting influences:

High frequency = high data rates

E.C Dept, GEC-DAHOD Page 8

Losses in Optic Fiber:

3. Linear scattering losses

Ray Leigh Scatter:

E.C Dept, GEC-DAHOD Page 9

2. Non linear scattering

Optical waveguide does not behave linearly, several non-linear

3. Micro bending and macro bending

E.C Dept, GEC-DAHOD Page 10

There are two types of Dispersion.

Inter modal Dispersion:

Which ray would reach first?

E.C Dept, GEC-DAHOD Page 11

Intra modal dispersion:

The cure for inter modal dispersion:

E.C Dept, GEC-DAHOD Page 12

Applications of macro bends:

1. A Live Fiber Detector

The Optical Time Domain Reflecto meter (OTDR):

E.C Dept, GEC-DAHOD Page 13

E.C Dept, GEC-DAHOD Page 14

Fusion splice 0.05 dB

1. Distributive temperature sensing (DTS)

Code No. course