Yokogawa - PMCA - Level

INPM Training Manual 43
Pa r t 2 Le ve l
Yokogawa Philippines, Inc

DOC No.: 00-TRG-TM-101
Training Department
File No. : TRG - 010600
INPM Training Manual Part 2 Principles of Operation 44
A. General Principles of Operation

Level is m easured at t he posit ion of t he int erface bet ween phases, where t he phases
are liquid/ gas, solid/ gas, or im m iscible liquid/ liquid. Level is sim ply a m easure of
height , defining t he posit ion of t he int erface, t hat is, t he surface where t he t wo
phases m eet wit h respect t o a reference point . This m easurem ent is oft en convert ed
t o a volum et ric or gravim et ric quant it y. So, level m ay be m easured direct ly, by
defining t he posit ion of t he int erface; or indirect ly, by m easuring anot her quant it y,
such as volum e, and inferring t he level m easurem ent by convert ing t hat quant it y t o
a level measurement.
Level is m easured at t he int erface bet ween t wo m at erials. I n order for t he level of a
substance to be measured directly and accurately, this interface must be definite. For
exam ple, t he point at which wat er m eet s air in an open t ank is a definit e int erface.
Anot her exam ple would be t he int erface form ed bet ween oil and wat er. The specific
gravit y of oil is less t han t hat of wat er. Therefore, t he oil float s on t op of, but
separate from, the water and forms an easily defined interface.
On t he ot her hand, liquids t hat m ix well do not form clearly defined int erfaces. So, it
is difficult t o det erm ine t he level of each subst ance using level m easurem ent
t echniques. However, m any liquids form det ect able int erfaces wit h gases, ot her
liquids, and solids. Solids also form clear int erfaces wit h gases. Level m easurem ent
is commonly used to determine the amount of these substances.
Level is a vert ical m easurem ent t aken from t he surface, or int erface, t o a fixed
reference point. Normally, the reference point is the bottom of the vessel holding the
substance. As with most process variables, level can be measured by both direct and
indirect methods.
A- 1 Direct Level Measurement
Direct m et hods em ploy physical propert ies such as fluid m ot ion and buoyancy, as
well as opt ical, t herm al, and elect rical propert ies. To m easure level direct ly, t he
posit ion of t he int erface m ay be m onit ored visually t hrough a sight glass ( see Figure
I - 1) , dipst ick, or by a float device riding on t he surface. Displacers, diaphragm
boxes and air bubble systems are also used to directly measure level.
The direct m easurem ent of level is possible because of t he relat ive sim plicit y of t his
variable com pared wit h ot her variables. Level is sim ply a m easure of height , while
t em perat ure is a m easure of t he m olecular act ivit y of fluids and alm ost always
requires inferent ial m easurem ent ; pressure is a m easure of force per Unit area; and
flow is a measure of volume per unit time.
Direct level m easurem ent does not require com pensat ion for changes in level caused
by changes in t em perat ure. Alt hough liquids and gases expand or cont ract in
response t o t em perat ure change, direct level m easurem ent s show t he act ual level of
the interface.

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File No. : TRG - 010600
A- 2 Indirect Level Measurement:
I ndirect level m easurem ent involves convert ing m easurem ent s of som e ot her
quant it y, such as pressure t o level ( see Figure 1- 2) . All subst ances have weight and
exert a m easurable force over a given area. This force, or pressure, is m easured in
pounds per square inch ( psi) . By det erm ining how m uch pressure is exert ed over a
given area at a specific m easuring point , t he height of t he subst ance above t hat
measuring point can also be determined.
Figure 1- 1 Sight glasses
Figure 1- 2 Pressure Gage
Tem perat ure can also affect t he accuracy of indirect level m easurem ent . Substances
have a t endency t o expand when heat ed and cont ract when cooled. Gases are
great ly affect ed by changes in t em perat ure, while solids are affect ed very lit t le.
Liquids, on t he ot her hand, are affect ed som ewhat m ore t han solids but less t han
gases. A change in t em perat ure causes a change in densit y and t his affect s t he
amount of force exerted on a pressure sensor.
For a specific mass or weight of substance, the volume will increase if it is heated and
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File No. : TRG - 010600
will decrease if the substance is cooled. Figure 1-3 shows the differences in level of two
water-filled tanks at different temperatures. The level in each tank is different even
though the pressure gage on both tanks reads the same. The mass or weight of the
substance remains constant, but the volume of the substance has changed because of a
change in temperature. Because indirect level measurement is sensitive to specific gravity
and the effects of temperature, it is necessary to compensate for these factors to ensure
accurate measurement.
Table 1- 1 Specific gravity of commonly used liquids
Material Specific gravity

Kerosene (41 API) .82
Diesel fuel (No. 2d) .82 - .95
Turpentine .86 - .87
Sesame oil .923
Linseed oil .925 - .936
Soy bean oil .927
Phenol (Carbolic Acid) .95 1.08
Water 1.00
Hydrochloric acid (31.5%) 1.05 @ 68oF
Ethylene glycol 1.125
Glycerine (100%) 1.26 @ 68oF
Glucose 1.35 1.44
Freon 1.37 1.49 @ 70o F
Molasses A 1.40 1.46
Corn syrup 1.40 1.47
Sulfuric Acid (100%) 1.83
Figure 1- 3 Water levels at two temperatures
A- 3 Continuous Level Measurement

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File No. : TRG - 010600
I n m any processes, cont inuous level m easurem ent is required because it is

necessary to know at all times the exact position of the interface in relation to one or
m ore specific reference point s. To illust rat e t his concept , consider t he wat er level in
t he st eam drum of a boiler ( see Figure 1- 4) . For t he boiler t o operat e m ost
efficient ly, it is crit ical t hat t he wat er level rem ain const ant . I n m ost m odem boilers,
an automatic control system will monitor and maintain the water at the correct level.
Figure 1- 4 Boiler steam drum
However, it is also im port ant t hat t he operat or be able t o m onit or t he level. For t his
purpose, a direct reading device, such as a gage or sight glass, can be used t o
cont inuously observe t he posit ion of t he int erface. I n addit ion, t em perat ure-
com pensat ed and pressure- com pensat ed gages m ay also be inst alled. Properly
designed cont inuous level m easurem ent syst em s cont inuously indicat e t he changing
level of a substance.
A- 4 Point to- Point Level Measurement
Cert ain processes require only t hat t he level of a subst ance be m aint ained bet ween
t wo point s. Frequent ly t hese t wo point s are a high level and a low level. When t his is
required, a Point- to- point level m easurem ent syst em is used. Such a syst em
act ivat es cont rol devices only when predet erm ined levels are reached. A surge t ank
( see Figure 1- 5) in a process syst em is a good exam ple of a device which would
require point - t o- point level m easurem ent . The exact posit ion of t he int erface is not
crit ical. I t is only crit ical t hat t he t ank not overflow or run dry. Thus, t he level m ust
be m aint ained bet ween t he t wo ext rem es. When t he int er- fare reaches eit her of t he
critical points, an alarm or other indicator will activate so adjustments can be made.

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File No. : TRG - 010600
Figure 1- 5 Surge tank
A- 5 Level Measurement System Mathematics
A- 5.1 Constant head for steady Process flow
Oft en st eady process flows, such as t he int roduct ion of raw m at erial t o a process are
m aint ained by holding a const ant head pressure on t he feed line. This can be
achieved by cont rol of t he liquid level in t he feed t ank whose feed line exist from t he
bottom of the tank, as shown in fig.1.
Figure 1. Basic flow versus head factor
Q CA 2 gH
Where:
Q= quantity ft3 /s
C = orifice constant
A = area of flow
g = acceleration of gravity 32.2 ft/sec2
H = height of the liquid, ft.

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File No. : TRG - 010600
A- 5.2 Relationship of flow to level in Process vessel
I n designing process equipm ent and det erm ining t he requirem ent s of liquid level
cont rolling equipm ent , an engineer m ust oft en calculat e in advance how a change in
liquid inflow will affect t he level in t he vessel. I n any given vessel, a st able quant it y
of inflow to the vessel equals the outflow. The relationship is given by:
Qi Qo 0.987CAo 2 gH
where :
Qi = flow rate into the vessel gal./min
Qo = flow rate out of the vessel gal/min
C = orifice constant or coefficient
Ao = Orifice area, in2
G = accelation of gravity, 32.2 ft/s2
H = height of liquid level, in
Variat ion in t he in flow or in t he orifice area, wit h t he ot her variables rem aining
const ant , causes a level change. A cont rol valve subst it ut ed for t he fixed orifice
provides an easy m eans of varying t he orifice area. I f t he orifice area is concerned,
t he level will fall unt il, at t he new area, t he level st abilizes at a point where it s head
effect on the orifice causes outflow to equal inflow.
I f t he orifice area is decreased , t he level will rise unt il t he product of a sm aller

orifice value and a larger head effect causes out flow t o equal inflow. The rat e at
whuch the level rises or falls can be expressed by the following relationship.
Qo 0.897CAo 2 gH standard flow formula (1)

dH 231
Qi Qo height change ( unit/min) (2)
dt A
substituting equation 1 to 2 and solving the differential equation, we obtain
dH 294
Qi 7.20CAo H
dt d2
where:
dH = change in liquid level height, in
dH/dt = change in liquid level height, in/min.
A = transverse tank area, in2
d = diameter of the tank ( cylindrical), in
To find H2 at a time t2 , when Qi is initially equal to Qo and is instantaneously

changing at time ti
dH 294
Qi 7.20CAo H
dt d2
dH
dt
204 204
Qi 7.20CAo H
d2 d2
for easy manipulation, let
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294 294
B 7.20CAo and D Qi
d2 d2
Then
t2 H2
dH dH
dt and dt
D B H t1 H1 D B H
From the table of integral after transformation into standard form,
H2
H D
2x log e D B H t2 t1
B B2 H1
A- 5.3 Fluid pressure to level relationship.
By det erm ining how m uch pressure is exert ed over a given area at a specific
m easuring point , t he height of t he subst ance above t he m easuring point can also
be determined.
P P
h ( for H2 O) h (for fluids other than H2 O)
0.433 0.433G
h= height of the fluid

P=pressure indicated on a page
0.433 psi = pressure exerted by one square inch of water, one foot high.
G= specific gravity
B. Classification of Level Measuring Devices
B- 1 Visual level Sensor
B- 1.1 Dipstick and Lead Lines
Principle of Operation
Probably t he oldest form of level m easurem ent is t he dipst ick ( see Figure 2- 1) . A
dipst ick is essent ially a st ick or rod t hat is calibrat ed t o indicat e level. The Dipstick
is lowered vert ically int o a t ank or vessel unt il it reaches a reference point . Usually
t he bot t om of t he t ank is used t o ensure t hat t he dipst ick is insert ed t o t he correct
dept h. The dipst ick is t hen wit hdrawn and t he level is read by determining where the
int erface last m ade cont act wit h t he dipst ick. Reading t he scale on t he dipst ick
indicates the level measurement. This scale can be marked for point measurement or
in units that provide continuous measurement.

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File No. : TRG - 010600
INPM Training Manual Part 2 Visual Level Sensor 51
A Le a d line ( see Figure 2- 2) act s in t he sam e way as a dipst ick. A st eel m easuring
t ape wit h a weight at t ached, t he lead line can be used in m ost places t hat t he
dipstick can.
Advantages of Lead lines over Dipstick
Since t he lead line can be rolled up int o a sm aller, com pact unit , it is oft en
easier to handle than a dip stick.
Lead lines can m easure m uch higher levels t han would be pract ical wit h dip
sticks.
Advantages and Limitation:
Advantage
Dipst icks, sight glasses and float s are very reliable direct m easurem ent
devices. When inst alled and used correct ly, t hese devices provide a high
degree of accuracy.
Limitations:
It can only be used to measure level on open process systems.
Safet y precaut ions m ust be observed when t he process is caust ic or t oxic t o
personnel.
I t requires t hat an operat or m ust int errupt his dut ies t o t ake t he
measurement.
Cont inuous represent at ion of t he process level is not possible; level is known
only at t he t im e t he m easurem ent is t aken. These drawbacks lim it t he
application of these means of visual measurement.
Accuracy:
Alt hough t he Dipst ick and lead line m et hods of level m easurem ent m ay seem crude,
they are in fact accurate to about 0. I percent with ranges up to about 20 feet.
Application:
Two applicat ions for which dip st icks are com m only used are t o m easure t he oil level
in int ernal com bust ion engines and t o det erm ine fuel quant it ies in underground
st orage t anks. When m easuring clear liquids, special chem icals can be applied t o t he
st ick or line t hat will darken or change color when im m ersed in t he liquid. The
chemical should not react with the process.

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Figure 2- 1 Dipstick
Figure 2- 2 Lead lines
B- 1.2 Sight Glasses and Gage Glasses
Principles of Operation:
The sight glass is an im port ant m et hod for visually det erm ining level. The sight glass
( see Figure 2- 3) is a t ransparent t ube of glass or plast ic m ount ed out side t he vessel
and connect ed t o t he vessel wit h pipes. The liquid level in t he sight glass m at ches
t he level of liquid in t he process t ank. As t he level in t he t ank rises and falls, t he
level in t he sight glass changes accordingly. Thus, it is possible t o m easure t he level
in the tank, by measuring the level in the sight glass.

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File No. : TRG - 010600
Sight glasses: Sight glasses operat e on t he principle t hat equal pressure on t he

surfaces of t wo connect ed colum ns causes t he liquid t o seek t he sam e level. To
bet t er underst and t his principle, consider t he U- t ube m anom et er. Wit h equal
pressure on both legs of the manometer, the level in the two legs will have the same
am ount of vert ical displacem ent . For exam ple, if m ore liquid is added t o t he
manometer, the level in both legs rises. Applying this concept to a sight glass, one of
t he legs is represent ed by t he process; t he ot her is a t ransparent t ube on t he
out side of t he process vessel t hat is available for visual inspect ion. As t he process
level fluct uat es, t he level in t he t ransparent t ube changes accordingly and is a t rue
represent at ion of t he process level. Thus, t he level of t he liquid in t he sight glass will
be equal t o t he level in t he vessel. When it is equipped wit h a scale, t he liquid level
in the sight glass acts as an indicator for direct reading.
Reflex sight glasses: I n process syst em t hat cont ain a liquid under high pressure a
reflex sight glass is used. The design of a reflex sight glass is based upon t he opt ical
law of t ot al reflect ion of light when it passes from a m edium of great er reflect ive
power int o a m edium of lesser reflect ive power. To facilit at e reading t he level,
groove facet s are cut in t he inner surface of t he glass at appropriat e angles, m aking
it possible t o elim inat e all light from t he vacant space ( back port ion) of t he glass. At
t he sam e t im e, light is perm it t ed t o pass t hrough t he port ion of t he glass t hat is
covered wit h t he process fluid. A sharp, clear line m arks t he height of t he liquid
surface, above which t he air or gaseous space has a bright , m irror- like appearance.
Light is reflect ed by t he grooves in t he glass above t he liquid, but not below t he
liquid surface. As a result , t he liquid appears t he sam e color as t he background of
t he cham ber, usually black, giving t he great est cont rast . When nat ural light is not
sufficient t o see t he level, a light ed plast ic st rip is placed in t he back side opposit e
the viewer. This allows the glass to be used in low light areas and at night.
Gage glasses: Gage glasses funct ion in a sim ilar m anner t o sight glasses. Gage
glasses are t ypically glass covered port s in a vessel t hat m ake it possible t o observe
the level of the substance in the vessel.

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File No. : TRG - 010600
Figure 2- 6 Gage Glasses
Advantages and Limitations
Advantage:
The sim plicit y and reliabilit y of sight - glass and gage- glass level m easurem ent
devices explains t heir frequent use for local indicat ion. When level
t ransm it t ers fail, or are out of service for m aint enance, sight glasses and
gage glasses allow t he process t o be m easured and cont rolled by m anual
means.
Limitations:
Tanks are very oft en inaccessible, which m akes viewing t he sight glasses
difficult.
Sight glasses are not designed t o provide rem ot e indicat ion. Sight glasses are
also vulnerable t o breakage. This could result in t he release of t he process
product int o t he environm ent . I f t he process is hot , corrosive, or caust ic, t he
result s of accident al spills could be serious. Care should be t aken t o inst all
sight glasses in locat ions where t he risk of breakage is m inim al and t hey
should be shielded whenever possible.
Applications:
These m easurem ent devices can be adapt ed t o eit her open or closed t ank
applicat ions. The closed- t ank sight glass is used in bot h pressurized and
at m ospheric processes. Com m on applicat ions of t his device on pressurized
vessels include boiler drums, evaporators, condensers, stills, tanks, distillation
columns, liquid accumulators, traps and other such applications.
Sight glasses can also be used in bot h low and high- pressure process
systems. The low- pressure gage shown in Figure 2- 4 consists of a clear round
tube fit t ed bet ween service valves t hat perm it s t he gage t o be isolat ed from
t he process for repair or replacem ent . The valves are also equipped wit h ball
checks inserted With- in the valve chambers that automatically shut off now in
t he event of a serious leak or rupt ure. The ball checks perm it a free passage
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File No. : TRG - 010600
of fluid when t he process level is changing, allowing t he level in t he t ube t o

change.
Figure 2- 4 Low Pressure sight glasses
B- 1.3 Magnetic- Type Float Devices
Float s can also be used wit h m agnet s t o det ect and indicat e level. This t ype of
m easurem ent syst em uses t he at t ract ion bet ween t wo m agnet s t o follow t he level of
a process liquid. Figure 2- 9 illust rat es a sim ple m agnet ic- t ype float device. The
syst em consist s of a m agnet enclosed in a float ring or collar. A second m agnet ,
called t he m agnet follower, is cont ained in a non- ferrous m et al t ube. The m agnet in
t he float at t ract s t he m agnet inside t he t ube, and, as t he float raises or lowers wit h
t he level of t he process liquid, it causes t he m agnet inside t he t ube t o raise and
lower also. By sensing t he posit ion of t his m agnet , t he level of t he, liquid in t he t ank
can be indicated.

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Figure 2- 7 Float cable and weight
Advantage and Limitation:
Advantage:
They are reliable and require very little maintenance and calibration.
Limitation:
They are lim it ed t o liquid- gas int erfaces. These t ypes of float devices are
usually not accurate enough for foaming liquids.
Application:
This t ype of inst rum ent is part icularly useful in corrosive process syst em s or
in processes where t he viscosit y of t he liquid could plug or det eriorat e a cable
or st eel t ape arrangem ent . I n such syst em s, it would be cost prohibit ive t o
creat e an ent ire m easurem ent syst em of m at erials able t o wit hst and t he
effect s of t he corrosive elem ent s. I n t his arrangem ent , t he only part of t he
syst em in cont act wit h t he corrosive process m at erial is t he float , so only t he
float requires SOMR- type Of protective coating.
A variat ion of t he m agnet ic float level m easuring device can be designed t o

act uat ed swit ches ( see Figure 2- 10) . A m agnet at t ached t o a float is housed
inside a non- m agnet ic t ube. The non- m agnet ic t ube is at t ached t o t he vessel
by sm all pipes at bot h t he t op and bot t om of t he t ube. This arrangem ent
allows the liquid in the tube to be at the same level as the liquid in the vessel.

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As t he float rises wit h t he liquid level, t he m agnet m oves up int o posit ion
opposit e t he swit ch m echanism . The m agnet ic field produced by t he m agnet
at t ract s t he iron arm at ure on t he swit ch. The swit ch is held in t he open
position by a spring until the magnet is raised to a certain point (see Figure 2-
IOA). Then, the magnetic pull will overcome the spring tension and the switch
will close, as shown in Figure 2- I OB. This m ovem ent t ilt s a glass t ube
cont aining m ercury. The m ercury flows t o cover t he t erm inals and com plet e
the electrical circuit.
This elect rical circuit m ight t hen be used t o sound an alarm indicat ing a high
level has been reached, or t o act ivat e a cont rol device. When t he liquid level
falls below t he set point , t he m agnet m oves, decreasing t he m agnet ic field
and t he spring t ension ret urns t he swit ch t o t he original posit ion. Ot her
magnetic- t ype float devices use t he sam e principle described in t he m ercury
switch to actuate micro- switches and pneumatic controls.
This t ype of level m easuring arrangem ent can be used on open or closed
processes. I n addit ion, it can be used t o provide rem ot e level indicat ions or
alarms.
Figure 2- 8 Float and spring Figure 2- 9 Float Collar and Magnet

Loaded drum

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File No. : TRG - 010600
INPM Training Manual Part 2 Variable Displacement Devices 58
Figure 2-10 Magnetic float switches Mechanism.
B- 2 Variable Displacement Devices:
When a body is im m ersed or part ly im m ersed in a liquid, it loses weight equal t o t he

liquid weight displaced. Variable displacem ent level devices ut ilize t his principle by
measuring the weight of the immersed displacer.
Archimedes' Principle:
To bet t er underst and what is involved in variable displacem ent m easurem ent , it is
necessary t o consider Archim edes' Principle. Archim edes' Principle st at es t hat a body
im m ersed in a liquid will be buoyed up by a force equal t o t he weight of t he liquid it
displaces. This upward pressure act ing on t he area of t he displacer creat es t he force
called buoyancy.
Theory of Buoyancy:
Archim edes principles st at es t hat t he result ant pressure of a fluid on a body

im m ersed in it act s vert ically upward t hrough t he cent er of gravit y of t he displaced
fluid and is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

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Fig. 16. Relationship between level position and displacer element. a). Level position
at t he bot t om or below t he displacer b) . Level posit ion at t he t op or above t he
displacer c) Level position between the top and bottom of the displacer.
Wit h reference t o fig. 16, it will be not ed, by m easuring t he difference in weight of a
part ially subm erged elem ent at various degrees of subm ergence, t he level of t he
liquid in which t he displacer elem ent is subm erged can be det erm ined, t he following
equations are useful in determining the forces exerted by the displacer.
Condition 1:
Level position at the bottom or below displacer (fig. 16a)
F=W
F = Force or weight to be supported
W = Weight of displacer
Condition 2:
VG
F W
D
V = volume of displacer
G = specific gravity of liquid at a reference temperature (usually 60o F)
D = Density of fluid
Condition 3:
Level position in intermediate position

VG Lin Lo
F W
D d
Lin = Level position in intermediate position
Lo = Level position at the bottom or below displacer
d= length of the displacer
Wit h a cylindrical displacer, F varies as t he level posit ion around t he displacer varies.
The value of F is m easured by a suit able m eans, such as a t orsion spring, pneum at ic
force balance, or elect ronic t ransducer. Thus, t his value becom es a funct ion of t he
level posit ion above t he dat um line and is governed by t he relat ionship shown in
fig.17

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Fig. 17. the force f versus level height Fig 18. Ball float mechanism operating
principles
Two important points are demonstrated here:
First, when the liquid level is lowered to completely uncover the displacer, the
displacer can no longer m easure level. Any changes in level below t he lower
end of the displacer will not be measured.
Second, t he sam e is t rue when liquid level rises t o t he t op of t he displacer.
Then, any changes in liquid level above t he t op of t he displacer will not be
det ect ed. However, it is possible t o increase m easurem ent span. Longer
displacer bodies can be used and, in som e inst allat ions, several displacer
bodies (see Figure 3- 2) may be connected together.
Figure 3- 2 Displacer Bodies
Classification of Liquid Level Measurement
B- 2.1 Liquid- Liquid Interface Measurement:
When a displacer is used t o det erm ine t he level of an int erface bet ween t wo liquids,
it is always com plet ely subm erged as shown in Figure 3- 3. The displacer should be
posit ioned so t hat it s m id- sect ion is at t he liquid- liquid int erface. When t he int erface
level changes, t he buoyant forces act ing on t he displacer will change t he weight of
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t he displacer. This change in weight is a result of t he change in buoyancy caused by

t he difference in specific gravit y bet ween t he t wo liquids. The weight of t he displacer
is t hen a funct ion of t he int erface posit ion and a direct indicat ion of t he level of t he
interface.
Relative Advantage:
An advant age of variable displacers is t hat t hey are capable of det ect ing
liquid- liquid interfaces as well as liquid- gas interfaces.
Application:
This application can be used in liquid separators. It must be remembered, however,

t hat t he level indicat ion only represent s t he posit ion of t he liquid- liquid int erface
and does not indicate the overall level in the tank.
Figure 3- 3 Displacer Indicating Liquid- Liquid Interface
B- 2.2 Variable Displacement Level Measuring Devices:
I t should be not ed, t hat displacers are only sensing elem ent s. To be a useful
m easuring device, a displacer m ust be connect ed t o a m easuring m echanism which,
when sensing t he changes in buoyant force, convert s t his force int o an indicat ion of
level. A displacer body can be suspended direct ly in a t ank, as shown in Figure 3- 4,
or inst alled in a float cham ber on t he out side of t he vessel. I n t he first case, t he
displacer is direct ly exposed t o t he process and indicat es level as buoyancy changes
due to changes in the level of the process liquid.

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Figure 3-4 Displace suspended Figure 3-5 Displacer outside Tank

in Tank
Auxiliary Devices:
Regardless of how t he displacer is inst alled, it m ust be connect ed t o a device t hat

can sense changes in displacer weight result ing from changes in buoyancy. This
information is then used to indicate level.
1. Torque Tube: One such t orque t ube displacer level inst rum ent is shown in
Figure 3- 6. Wit h t his inst rum ent , t he displacer is suspended from an arm t hat
is at t ached t o a t orque t ube or t orque rod. A knife- edge bearing support s t he
m ovable end of t he t orque t ube. This t ype of bearing provides an alm ost
frict ionless pivot point . The t orque t ube m ust be of sufficient st rengt h t o
support t he full weight of t he displacer in t he absence of buoyancy, or when
t he level is at m inim um . I t is a solid or hollow t ube t hat t ransfers displacer
m ot ion t o an elect ronic inst rum ent or a pneum at ic inst rum ent t hat will
produce a signal proportional to the changes in the weight of the displacer.
2. Spring Balance Displacer: Spring balance displacers are devices similar to torque
tube displacers. In these devices, the torsional spring of the torque tube is replaced
by a conventional range spring. The indicating portion of the instrument is located
in a separate housing to isolate it from the process. The motion of the displaced is
transferred to the indicator by means of magnetic coupling. As shown in Figure 3-
7, the displaced is suspended in the liquid by means of an extension range spring.
As the level in the tank rises or falls and the weight of the displacer changes, the
spring expands or contracts. A magnet attached to the displacer rod rises or falls
in response to the displacer movement. Another magnet in the indicator housing
follows the displacer magnet and transmits this movement to either a rotating earn
on pneumatic units, or to a slide wire on electronic units.

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File No. : TRG - 010600
Figure 3- 6 Torque Tube
Figure 3- 7. Spring balance displacer
Relative Disadvantage:
A m aj or disadvant age of t his t ype of arrangem ent is t hat in order t o work on
t he displacer body, it is necessary t o shut down t he syst em and drain t he
tank.

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File No. : TRG - 010600
INPM Training Manual Part 2 Head Pressure Measurement Sensor 64
Applications:
1. Pneum at ic and Elect ronic applicat ions: Displacers can be used t o generat e a
t ransm it t ed signal, which cont rols process level at t he field locat ion, and
provides measurement indications at a remote location.
2. Chem ical and Pet roleum I ndust ries: Cont rol of t he int erface posit ion is an
im port ant considerat ion. Field- m ount ed level cont rollers are oft en used for
such liquid- liquid int erface applicat ions. For exam ple, if t he wat er- petroleum
dist illat e int erface level in a separat or is cont rolled at som e point around t he
m idlevel value, t he wat er can be drawn off t hrough a valve at t he bot t om of
t he t ank. The valve m ust be closed when t he wat er level is low t o prevent t he
loss of product , and open when t he wat er level is high t o m aint ain t he
int erface level bet ween t he wat er and t he dist illat e. Field- m ount ed liquid
level controllers open or close the valve to maintain the interface.
3. Measurem ent and cont rol: When it is desirable t o m easure as well as cont rol
a liquid level, devices such as duplex- t ype cont roller- t ransm it t ers are
available. This type of device operates from a single displacer and torque tube
assem bly t o generat e t wo independent signals. One is from t he cont rol
segm ent t hat posit ions a cont rol elem ent for cont rol purposes; t he ot her
operates for the remote level indication or records the level value.
B- 3 Head Pressure Measurement Sensors
Theory of Hydrostatics:
Hydrost at ic head m ay be defined as t he weight of t he liquid exist ing above t he

reference or dat um line and can be expressed in various unit s , such as pounds per
square inch, or gram s per square cent im et er.. t he head is a real force, due t o liquid
weight, and, as shown in fig 38, is exerted equally in all direction. It is independent
on t he volum e of liquid involved or t he shape of t he cont aining vessel. Measurem ent
above the datum line may be expressed by the following relationship.
P P PM
H
D DW G G
H = Height of the liquid above the datum line
P = Pressure due to the liquid head.
D = Density of liquid at operating temperature
DW = Density of water at reference temperature
G = Specific gravity of liquid at operating temperature
M = multiplying factor , depending on the units of measurement used. For example,
If H is in inch, P is in psi, G is in 62.4 lb/in3 , and the reference temperature is
60o F, M = 27.70
From t his relat ionship , it is seen t hat t he m easurem ent of pressure P at t he dat um
or reference point in a vessel provides a m easure of t he height of t he liquid above
t hat point , provided t he densit y or specific gravit y of t he liquid is known. Also, t his
relat ionship shows t hat changes in t he specific gravit y of t he liquid will affect liquid
level m easurem ent by t his m et hod, unless correct ion are m ade for such changes.
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During t he past relat ively few years, com pensat ion environm ent changes which
affect m easurem ent accuracy has been aut om at ed in som e syst em t hrough t he use
of m icroprocessor and sensor t hat cont inuously or int erm it t ent ly det ect changes in
such factors as liquid temperature and or/ density.
When a pressure great er t han at m ospheric is im posed on t he surface of a liquid in a

closed vessel, t his pressure adds t o t he pressure due t o t he hydrost at ic head and
m ust be com pensat ed for by a pressure m easuring device which records liquid level
in terms of pressure.
Basic Element of Hydrostatic Head
Classification of Fluid Level Measurement
B- 3.1 Open- Tank Head Level Measurement
The applicat ion of t he hydrost at ic principle t o t his apparat us is fundam ent al. I f a
pressure gage is inst alled in t he wall of an open vessel, it s reading will provide an
indication of the height of the interface above the measuring point.
Figure 4- 2 illust rat es an applicat ion where t he level value is inferred from a pressure
m easurem ent . A pressure gage placed at a point on t he t ank t hat is level wit h t he
surface of t he liquid would indicat e zero. The pressure at t he surface of an open
vessel is always at at m ospheric pressure and, t hus, will always indicat e zero. The
gage will only provide ot her t han a zero indicat ion when t he pressure applied t o it
exceeds at m ospheric pressure. When t he level in t he t ank is raised, t he pressure
creat ed by t he hydrost at ic head of t he liquid is applied t o t he gage. The gage
indicat ion will be used t o infer a level m easurem ent . I f t he indicat ed pressure is 1
psi, then the level would be 2.31 feet or 27.7 inches.
I f level is t o be det erm ined and indicat ed by m easuring pressure, t he specific gravit y
of t he liquid m ust be known. The specific gravit y of wat er is
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1.00. I f t he liquid has a lower specific gravit y, t he pressure exert ed by t he colum n of

liquid will be less t han t hat exert ed by a colum n of wat er of t he sam e height . For
liquids wit h a specific gravit y great er t han 1.00, t he pressure exert ed by t he colum n
of liquid will be greater.
To compensate for the difference in specific gravity, the following equation is used:
p (2.31 ft.)
h
G
h = height in feet
p = pressure
G = specific gravity
Figure 4- 2 Hydrostatic level measurement Open tank
5 - 3.2 Diaphragm Box
Anot her open- t ank level m easuring inst rum ent which uses t he hydrost at ic head
principle is t he diaphragm box. The diaphragm box ( see Figure 4- 3) is subm erged in
t he process liquid and connect ed t o a pressure gage by a gage line. The hydrostatic
head produced by t he level of t he liquid in t he t ank exert s pressure on t he bot t om of
t he diaphragm causing it t o flex upward. This act ion com presses t he gas in t he box
and t he gage line. The pressure is applied t o a gage or ot her pressure elem ent t hat
is part of an indicator assembly calibrated to indicate liquid level units. As the level in
the vessel rises, t he pressure exert ed by t he hydrost at ic
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head on the diaphragm increases in direct proportion. The diaphragm will continue to
flex until the pressure of the gas in the box and the gage line is equal to the pressure
exerted by the level of the liquid on the bottom of the diaphragm.
I t is essent ial t o t he accurat e operat ion of t he diaphragm box t hat t he box and
connect ing gage line be free of leaks. I f t he gas inside t he t ube leaked, t here would
be less increase in gas pressure wit h an increase in liquid level, and t he indicat ions
would be inaccurate.
To place t he diaphragm box in operat ion, t he liquid level is lowered t o zero or t he

same level as t he bot t om of t he diaphragm . Then, t he gas in t he diaphragm box, t he
gage line, and the pressure element are all at atmospheric pressure.
Disadvantages:
The diaphragm is in cont act wit h t he process liquid. This m ay preclude it s use
in corrosive process applications.
A t orn diaphragm can adm it gas int o a process liquid. I n som e inst ances, t his
can be detrimental to the process.
The syst em is also sensit ive t o changes in volum e and pressure caused by
changes in temperature.
Figure 4- 3 Diaphragm

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5 - 3.3 Air- Trap Sensors
A variat ion of t he diaphragm box syst em uses an air- t rap sensor, or invert ed bell,
inst ead of a diaphragm box ( see Figure 4- 4) . As t he liquid level rises, t he hydro-
static head forces liquid up into the bell. As the level of the liquid rises, it compresses
t he air t rapped in t he bell and t he gage line unt il an equilibrium bet ween t he air
pressure and t he pressure exert ed by t he hydrost at ic head is reached. The pressure
of the compressed air can be used to determine level.
Advantage and Disadvantage:
Disadvantage:
One dist inct disadvant age t o t his syst em is t he loss of air t rapped in t he bell
and the gage line due to air absorption by the process liquid.
Advantages:
This design is useful where ext rem e operat ing t em perat ures or corrosive fluid
applications might damage a diaphragm.
Alt hough air t rapped in t he bell and t he gage line is m ore prevalent at high
t em perat ures, it does affect t he accuracy of t he syst em and in m any cases
precludes its use.
Figure 4- 4 Air trapped method

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5 - 3.4 Air Bubble or Surge Tube
An alt ernat ive t o variat ions of t he diaphragm syst em is shown in Figure 4- 5. I t is

known by various nam es, including an air bubble, a surge t ube, an air purge and a
dip t ube. This t ype of syst em uses a cont inuous air supply t hat is connect ed t o a
tube that extends into the tank to a point that represents the minimum level line.
An air regulat or cont rols airflow. I t increases airflow t o t he t ube unt il all liquid is
forced from t he t ube. At t his pressure and flow rat e, t he air begins t o bubble out of
t he bot t om of t he t ube. This indicat es t hat t he air pressure forcing t he liquid out of
t he t ube is equal t o t he hydrost at ic head produced by t he height of t he process
liquid being forced into the tube. The air pressure acting against the hydrostatic head
provides the pressure indication to the gage.
To minimize the need to visually inspect the tank for the presence of bubbles, a sight
device is usually inst alled in t he air line leading t o t he t ank t o m onit or air flow . I t
can be assum ed t hat air is being forced t hrough t he t ube if t here are bubbles in t he
sight glass. When the liquid head pressure and the air supply pressure are equalized,
as can be det erm ined by const ant bubbling in t he sight device, t he pressure on t he
airline can be used to provide a level measurement.
Const ant air flow at t he correct pressure m ust be m aint ained t o produce bubbling. I f
there is an air flow rest rict ion in t he t ube, it can creat e a back pressure on t he gage
which results in a false measurement reading.
Advantage:
An im port ant advant age t o t he bubble syst em is t hat t he m easuring device
can be mounted at any location and elevation with respect to the tank. This is
most useful for applications such as underground tanks and water wells.
Limitation:
However, as wit h ot her hydrost at ic pressure syst em s, t he m aj or lim it at ion of
these systems is that they are generally limited to open- tank applications.

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Closed- Tank Applications:
I n open t anks, m easurem ent s are referenced t o at m ospheric pressure. At

at m ospheric pressure, t he pressure on t he surface of t he liquid is equal t o t he
pressure on t he reference side of t he pressure elem ent in t he m easuring inst rum ent .
When at m ospheric pressure changes, t he change is equal on bot h t he surface of t he
liquid and t he reference side of t he m easuring elem ent . The result is t hat no change
occurs in the measurement value.
I n closed processes, pressure will exert an addit ional force on t he surface of t he

liquid. Pressure applied t o t he level surface react s according t o Boyle's Law and has
an undim inished effect on t he pressure exert ed on all surfaces in cont act wit h t he
liquid. Thus, changes in pressure affect t he m easurem ent regardless of where t he
measurement is taken.
Com pensat ion on t he effect of pressure variat ion in close t anks: To com pensat e for
t he effect s on level m easurem ent caused by such pressure variat ions in closed- tank
applicat ions, a different ial pressure ( d/ p) cell is oft en used t o m easure and indicat e
level. A t ypical applicat ion is shown in Figure 4- 6. I n t his applicat ion, t he d/ p cell
only responds t o differences in pressure applied t o t wo m easuring t aps. Pressure
t aps are connect ed t o opposit e sides of t he d/ p cell. One pressure t ap is t he
m easuring point on t he t ank, which is usually below ft m inim um level point for t he
liquid. The ot her t ap is usually locat ed near t he t op of t he t ank. The t ap in t he liquid
region of t he t ank is referred t o as t he high- side; t he ot her t ap, locat ed above t he
level of t he liquid, is referred t o as t he low- side. Syst em pressure is sensed by bot h
t he high and low sides. I n addit ion t o syst em pressure, t he high side also senses t he
pressure exert ed by t he height of t he liquid. Since bot h sides are exposed t o t he
sam e syst em pressure, t he effect s of syst em pressure are cancelled and t he
differential pressure cell only indicates liquid level.
Fact or affect ing accuracy: One pot ent ial problem wit h t he different ial pressure
m et hod of m easuring level is t hat vapor m ay condense in t he space above t he
surface of t he liquid and fill t he low pressure t ap of t he d/ p cell wit h liquid ( wet leg
problem) . This can affect accuracy because t he condensed liquid produces it s own
st at ic head, which causes t he d/ p inst rum ent reading t o be inaccurat e. For exam ple,
it would read below zero when there is no liquid in the tank.
Solutions to the Wet Leg Problem:

The inst rum ent can be calibrat ed t o com pensat e for t he addit ional st at ic
pressure created by the condensed liquid. This compensation or adjustment is
called zero elevation.
The low pressure leg is deliberat ely filled wit h liquid. This is referred t o as a
wet leg installation.
The use of a device called a pressure repeat er or one- to- one relay. The
repeat er is inst alled at t he t op of t he t ank and linked by pipe t o an air relay.
The pressure in t he t ank act uat es t he air relay, which is connect ed t o an air
supply. When t he pressure in t he t ank increases, t he relay increases t he air
pressure on t he low- pressure leg. The relay regulat es t he air pressure so t hat
it is equal t o t hat of t he t ank pressure. When t he pressure in t he t ank
decreases, t he relay vent s air from t he low pressure leg t o m aint ain t he
equilibrium.
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File No. : TRG - 010600
INPM Training Manual Part 2 Electrical Level Sensor 71
For corrosive, viscous, or slurry- t ype process liquids, d/ p cells are available wit h
diaphragm capsules that protect the cell from corrosion and plugging. The diaphragm
is m ade of corrosion- resist ant m at erial. The high side of t he d/ p cell is flanged
direct ly t o t he process vessel. The diaphragm act ually serves a dual purpose since it
also prevent s solid m at erial in t he bot t om of t he t ank from clogging t he different ial
pressure cell.
I n som e applicat ions, it m ay becom e necessary t o locat e t he different ial pressure

m easuring device at a level below t he reference point on t he t ank. The head
pressure caused by t he liquid in t he connect ing t ap from t he zero point t o t he high
side pressure t ap will cause a m easurem ent indicat ion on t he inst rum ent when t here
is no liquid in t he t ank. To account for t his, t he zero m ust be suppressed. This
operat ion, known as zero suppression, is t he correct ion adj ust m ent required t o
compensate for error caused by the mounting position of the instrument with respect
to the level measurement reference.
Figure 4- 6 Differential Pressure Cell in Close tank
B- 4 Electrical Level Sensor
A num ber of widely used level- sensing devices operat e by det ect ing differences in
elect rical propert ies creat ed by t he int erface of process m at erials. These propert ies
are:
Capacitance
Conductivity
Resistance
B- 4.1 Capacitance
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Capacit ance is t he propert y of an elect rical device t hat perm it s it t o st ore energy.
Capacit ors can be used t o st ore elect ricit y. Figure 5- 1 illust rat es a capacit or t hat
consist s of t wo plat es separat ed from each ot her by an insulat ing m at erial called
Dielectric. By connecting these plates to a power supply, electrons are attracted from
one plate and on to the other. The result is that the plates have opposite charges.
Capacit ors are capable of st oring and holding t he charge unt il t hey are discharged.
The am ount of charge t hat can be st ored is det erm ined by t hree fact ors: t he area of
t he plat es; t he dist ance bet ween t hem ; and t he t ype of dielect ric used. The
relationship is expressed by the following equation:
KA
C
D
where:
C = capacit ance
K = dielect ric const ant
A = area of t he plat es
D = distance between the plates
The unit used to indicate the value of capacitance is the farad (F).
The change in capacit ance is a direct funct ion of t he dielect ric const ant . As t he level
of t he m easured m at erial increases, it replaces t he air or dielect ric bet ween t he
elect rodes or plat es. The dielect ric const ant of air and m ost gases is 1. Table 5- 1
indicat es dielect ric const ant s for som e solids. Dielect ric const ant s for granular
material are listed in Table 5- 2.
Temperature can cause the dielectric constants for liquids to vary (see Table 5- 3). An
increase in t em perat ure usually causes a decrease in t he dielect ric const ant . Thus,
changes in m at erial t em perat ure can result in changes in dielect ric const ant t hat
could cause level measurement error. In applications in which temperature variations
normally occur and accuracy is critical, temperature compensation is required.
Figure 5- 1 Capacitor formed by two plates

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Figure 5- 2 Capacitor Probe
Advantages and Limitations:
Advantages:
The prim ary sensing elem ent is very sim ple and rugged and has no m oving
parts.
Capabilit y for t em perat ure, pressure, and corrosion resist ance is easily
obtained.
The sensing elem ent s are easily cleaned, and sanit ary st andards are readily
met.
I nt rinsically safe elem ent s wit h explosion- proof inst rum ent s are readily
available.
The cost of m ost capacit ance syst em s is com pet it ive wit h t hat of t he sim ple
m echanical or pneum at ic unit s; however, m ore cost ly special purpose
capacitance systems are available for special difficult- to- measure applications.
Limitations:
I f t he dielect ric const ant of t he m easured m edium changes wit h t he
t em perat ure, a m easurem ent error will result unless a dielect ric com pensat ed
detector is used.
Viscous conduct ing liquids, which coat t he sensing elem ent can cause
erroneous or false readings unless a det ect or which com pensat es for coat ings
is used.
Air bubbles in t he liquid or foam on t op of t he liquid can give erroneous
readings.
Sensing t he int erface level bet ween t wo conduct ing liquids is difficult ,
depending on the magnitude of the conductivity.
Application:
I n applicat ions involving capacit ance m easuring devices, one side of t he process
cont ainer act s as one plat e and an im m ersion elect rode is used as t he ot her. The
dielect ric is eit her air or t he m at erial in t he vessel. This configurat ion is illust rat ed in
Figure 5- 2. The area of t he plat es and t he dist ance bet ween t hem are bot h fixed
values. The dielect ric varies wit h t he level in t he
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vessel. This variat ion produces a change in capacit ance t hat is proport ional t o level.
Thus, level values are inferred from t he m easurem ent of changes in capacit ance,
which result from changes in the level.
1. Non- conduct ive Tank Walls: A single probe which cont ains t wo elect rodes can
be used. This t ype of probe is used for point m easurem ent and is inst alled
horizont ally. The t erm inals of t he elect rodes are connect ed t o a m easuring
device. When t he int erface passes bet ween t he elect rodes, t he capacit ance
changes because of t he differences in t he dielect ric const ant s of t he process
m at erials. A second t wo- elect rode probe can also be inst alled for high and
low level measurement.
2. Conduct ive Tank Walls: For conductive materials, an insulated probe, such as a
teflon-coated probe, is used.
3. Cont inuous Level Measurem ent : I n applicat ions requiring cont inuous
measurement, the probe is positioned vertically. Its length corresponds to the
m easurem ent span. As level changes occur, t he t ot al capacit ance will change
reflecting different dielect ric const ant s of t he process liquid. I n som e
applicat ions in which probes are used, t he process m at erial adheres t o t he
probe. As the level in the tank falls, a layer of liquid can remain on the probe.
This layer can creat e t he effect of a change in plat e area, or it m ay affect t he
dist ance bet ween t he plat es of t he capacit or. I n eit her inst ance, t he am ount
of capacitance stored will be affected as well as measurement accuracy.
Table 5- 1 Dielectric constant for Solid

Dielectric Dielectric
Material Material
constant Constant

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Acetic Acid (36o F) 4.1 Paper 45.0

Aluminum 6.1 Phenol 2.0
phosphate 4.8 Polyethlylene 4- 5.0
Asbestos 2.7 Polypropyllene 1.5
Asphalt 5.0 Porcelain 5- 7.0
Bakelite 11.4 Pot assium Carbonat e 5.6
Barium sulfate 9.1 (60o F) 4.3
Calcium carbonate 3.9 Quart 4.3
Cellulose 3- 5.0 Rice 3.5
Cereals 14.2 Rubber (hard) 3.0
Ferrous oxide 3.7 Sand (silicone dioxide) 3- 5.0
Glass 25.9 Sulphur 3.4
Lead oxide 14.3 Sugar 3.0
Lead sulfate 9.7 Urea 3.5
Magnesium oxide 7.0 Teflon 2.0
Mica 2.5 Zinc sulfide 8.2
Napthalene 45.0
Nylon
Continuation: Table 5- 1
Material Dielectric constant Dielectric constant
Loose Packed
Ash (fly) 1.7 2.0
Coke 65.3 70.0
Gerber (Oat meal) 1.47 Not tested
Linde 5A molecular
1. Sieve dry 1.8 Not Tested
2. 20% moisture 10.4 Not tested
Polyethylene 2.2 Not Tested
Polyethylene powder 1.25 Not Tested
Sand- reclaimed foundry 4.8 4.8
Cheer 1.7 Not Tested
Fab (10.9% moisture) 1.3+ 1.3+
Tide 1.55
VEL (0.8% moisture) 1.25 1.25
Table 5- 3 Dielectric constant for Liquids

Material Temp. Dielectric Material Temp. Dielectric
o o
F Constant F Constant
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Acetone 71 21.4 Hexane 68 1.9

Ammonia - 30 22.0 Hydrogen Chloride 82 4.6
Ammonia 68 15.5 Hydrogen sulfide 48 5.8
Aniline 32 7.8 Isobutyl Alcohol 68 18.7
Aniline 68 7.3 Keosene 70 1.8
Benzene 68 2.3 Methyl Alcohol 32 37.5
Bromine 68 3.1 Methyl alcohol 68 33.1
Butane 30 1.4 Methyl ether 78 5.0
Carbon Dioxide 32 1.6 Napthalene 68 2.5
Carbon Tetrafloride 68 2.2 Octane 68 1.96
Castor oil 60 4.7 Oil, transformer 68 2.2
Chlorine 32 2.0 Pentane 68 1.8
Chlorocyclohexane 76 7.6 Phenol 118 9.9
Chloroform 32 5.5 Phenol 104 15.0
Cumene 68 2.4 Phosphorous 93 4.1
Cyclohexane 68 2.0 Propane 32 1.6
Dibromobenzene 68 8.8 Styrene (phenylethene) 77 2.4
Didromohexane 76 5.0 Sulphur 752 3.4
Dowtherm 70 3.36 Suphuric Acid 68 84.0
Ethanol 77 24.3 Tetrachloroethylene 70 2.5
Ethyl Acetate 68 6.4 Toluene 68 2.4
Ethylene Chloride 68 10.5 Trichloroethylene 61 3.4
Ethyl Ether - 40 5.7 Urea 71 3.5
Ethyl ether 68 4.3 Vinyl ether 68 3.9
Formic Acid 60 58.5 Water 32 88.0
Freon- 12 70 2.4 Water 68 80.0
Glycerine 68 47.0 Water 212 48.0
Glycol 68 41.2 Xylene 68 2.4
Heptane 68 1.9
B- 4.2 Conductivity
A com m on arrangem ent is shown in Figure 5- 3. Two elect rodes are posit ioned in a
t ank. One ext ends t o t he m inim um level; t he ot her is posit ioned so t hat it s lower
edge is at t he m axim um level. The t ank is grounded and funct ions as t he com m on,
or t hird elect rode. Usually, a st illing well is provided t o ensure t hat t he int erface is
not disturbed and to prevent false measurement.
The t erm inals of t he elect rodes are connect ed t o relays, which t ransm it signals t o a
display or cont rol device. I f t he process level cont act s any port ion of t he elect rode
t hat ext ends t o t he m inim um level, a conduct ive pat h is est ablished t hrough t he
grounded t ank t o t he elect rode. I f t he level falls below t his elect rode, t he pat h is
int errupt ed given t hat t he gas or vapor is nonconduct ive. The level condit ion m ay
t hen act ivat e a device, which sounds an alarm or energizes a cont rol device t o
operat e a pum p, feed cont roller or ot her processing equipm ent t hat aut om at ically
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File No. : TRG - 010600
adjusts the system level.
I f t he level rises t o t he point t hat bot h elect rodes are in cont act wit h t he conduct ive
material, current will flow through both electrodes and the tank, or common.
A relay connect ed t o t he elect rode posit ioned at t he m axim um level will det ect t he
high level and t ransm it a signal t o an alarm or a cont rol device t o correct t he
condition.
Advantages:
Low cost and simple design.
No m oving part s in cont act wit h t he process m at erial. These advant ages
make this type of system an effective method of detecting and indicating level
for many water- based materials.
Limitations:
The process substance must be conductive.
Only point detection measurements can be obtained.
The possibilit y of sparking also m akes t his m et hod prohibit ive for explosive or
flammable process substances.
Application:
A m at erial's abilit y t o conduct elect ric current can also be used t o det ect level. This
m et hod is t ypically used for point m easurem ent of liquid int erfaces of relat ively high
conduct ivit y. These liquids include wat er- based m at erials such as brine solut ions,
acids, caustic solutions, and certain types of beverages. Conductivity applications are
usually limited to alarm devices and on/off control systems.
Figure 5- 3 Conductivity Switch

Training Department
File No. : TRG - 010600
B- 4.3 Resistance
Resistance type level detectors use the electrical relationship between resistance and
current flow t o accurat ely m easure level. The m ost com m on design uses a probe
consisting of two conductive strips (see Figure 5- 4). One strip has a gold- plated steel
base; the other is an elongated wire resistor.
The st rips are connect ed at t he bot t om t o form a com plet e elect rical circuit . The
upper ends of t he st rips are connect ed t o a low volt age power supply. The probe is
enclosed in a flexible plast ic sheat h, which isolat es t he st rips from t he process
material
When t he probe is inst alled in an em pt y t ank or a t ank cont aining vapor, t he st rips
are only in cont act at t he lower end. When t he circuit is energized, current passes
t hrough t he probe and a base current reading can be t aken. As t he level of t he
process m at erial rises, t he hydrost at ic pressure forces t he resist ance st rips t oget her
up t o t he int erface. This act ion short s t he circuit below t he int erface level, and t ot al
resistance is reduced proportionately. Above the surface, the strips remain separated
and un- shorted.
The resist ance elem ent is wound t o have t wo t o four cont act point s per inch.
Consequently, as the resistance element contacts the base conducting strip, specific
am ount s of resist ance are rem oved from t he circuit . The uniform separat ion on t he
resist ance windings and t he known resist ance per unit lengt h m ake it possible t o
det erm ine t he height of t he int erface. This is accom plished by m easuring changes in
current flow resulting from changes in circuit resistance.
Relative Advantage:
As wit h t he ot her elect rical level sensors discussed, resist ance- t ype level
detectors require relatively little maintenance.

Training Department
File No. : TRG - 010600
INPM Training Manual Part 2 Ultra Sonic and Sonic Devices 79
Application:
When resist ance t ype level m easuring devices are used in closed- process
applicat ions, t he inside of t he prot ect ive sheat h is vent ed t o t he at m osphere if t he
t ank is at at m ospheric pressure. Because it is pressure t hat causes t he resist ance
elem ent t o short out a part of t he probe's resist ance, a special vent ing syst em is
required t o equalize pressure inside and out side t he prot ect ive sheat hing. The
vent ing syst em prevent s pressurized vapor above t he int erface from short ing t he
circuit. It is also necessary to keep the air inside the sheath clean and dry.
Resist ance sensing devices can be used for liquid- gas int erfaces and for slurries or
solids.
Figure 5- 4 Resistance type level detector
B- 5 Ultra Sonic and Sonic Detector
I n level m easuring applicat ions where it is not accept able for t he m easuring
inst rum ent t o cont act t he process m at erial, it m ay be feasible t o use a sonic or
ult rasonic device. These devices m easure t he dist ance from one point in t he vessel,
which is usually a reference point, to the level interface.
Sonic and ult rasonic devices operat e on t he echo principle. When sound waves
cont act solid or liquid surfaces, only a sm all proport ion of t he sound energy in t he
wave penet rat es t he surface. Most of t he sound is reflect ed. The reflect ed sound
wave is an echo. A sound wave is usually generat ed at a frequency of about 1 t o 20
kHz.
Ult rasonic devices differ from sonic devices according t o t heir operat ing frequency
range. For ultrasonic instruments that range is around 20 kHz; for sonic instruments,
t he operat ing range is approxim at ely 10 kHz or below. These inst rum ent s can be
used to detect continuous and point measurement. Continuous level detector designs
are categorized as under- liquid sensors and above- liquid sensors. Point detectors can
Training Department
File No. : TRG - 010600
be used to measure gas- liquid, liquid- liquid, liquid- foam and solid- gas interfaces.
Operating Principle:
Sonic conduct ivit y can be precisely defined for any part icular subst ance under a
given set of condit ions. I n large m easure, sonic conduct ivit y is dependent upon t he
densit y of t he subst ance and t he charact erist ics of it s surface. Sound waves t end t o
pass t hrough m ost gases. The waves lose t heir kinet ic energy t hrough frict ion and
are gradually absorbed. Liquid surfaces are highly reflect ive. Most liquids reflect
m ore sound t han gases, but absorb m ore t han solids. Solid surfaces are also highly
reflective. Substances that tend to reflect sound waves are referred to as live media.
Subst ances t hat do not reflect sound waves are called dead m edia. Sonic level
measuring instruments are dependent on the sound wave striking a live m edium and
reflect ing t he wave. Dead m edia absorb m ost of t he sound energy. Consequent ly,
the reflection or echo is too slight to produce reliable results.
The sound absorption coefficient of a material is defined as:
D=Sound energy absorbed/Sound Energy incident on surface
The value is st rongly dependent upon t he frequency of t he sound wave. I t is also

influenced by cert ain propert ies of t he m edium such as surface porosit y, m at erial
thickness and rigidity.
The importance of the absorption coefficient becomes apparent when it is understood

t hat t he int errupt ion or det ect ion of t he generat ed sound waves is t he basis for point
det ect ion. For cont inuous level m easurem ent applicat ions, m easurem ent s are based
on t he t im e t hat elapses from t he generat ion of t he sound wave t o t he det ect ion of
t he reflect ed wave. Most part icularly for cont inuous m easurem ent s, t he operat ion of
t he echo m et hod depends on t he t ransm it t ed sound wave being reflect ed at t he
interface of the media. Figure 6- 1 illustrates a typical application of this operation.
Advantages and Disadvantages Advantage:

Capabilit y for cont inuous m easurem ent wit hout cont act ing t he process
material.
Minimal maintenance requirements.
Freedom from concern regarding t he im pact of process variables on
m easurem ent accuracy. The t em perat ure and t he consist ency of t he process
material are generally the only factors that must be considered.
Disadvantages:
More expensive and sophist icat ed t han t he m ore convent ional m easuring
systems.
Ult rasonic t echniques are generally reserved for t hose applicat ions in which
t he use of convent ional syst em s would present serious difficult ies and yield
less successful results.

Training Department
File No. : TRG - 010600
Classificat ion of Level Measurem ent using t he Principle of Ult ra sonic

and Sonic Detector
B- 5.1 Point Measurement:
Using eit her t ype of syst em , point m easurem ent is based on t he det ect ion or non-
det ect ion of a t ransm it t ed sound wave. Point m easurem ent devices, which are
com m only used t o m easure liquid- gas or liquid- liquid int erfaces, are t ypically
categorized as single- sensor element or two- sensor systems.
Figure 6- 2 shows a com m on t ype of single- elem ent sonic syst em m ade up of a
t ransm it t er and a receiver. An air gap separat es t he t ransm it t er from t he receiver.
The t ransm it t er generat es sound waves in t he ult rasonic frequency range and t he
receiver det ect s t hese waves. As shown in Figure 6- 2A, t he t ransm it t er and receiver
m ay be cont ained in a single probe, or t he devices m ay be posit ioned on opposit e
sides of t he t ank ( see Figure 6- 2B) . Regardless of which arrangem ent is used, t heir
operation is similar.
When the gap between the transmitter and the receiver is filled with air or vapor, the
sound waves or beam s will be t ransm it t ed t o t he receiver, alt hough t he dead m edia
may absorb some of the energy. The strength of the ultrasonic signal increases when
t he process level rises and t he gap is filled wit h liquid or live m edia. The signal can
then be used to energize a relay to operate an alarm or control device.
Figure 6- 1 Ultrasonic Level Measurement Principles

Training Department
File No. : TRG - 010600
Figure 6- 2 Single Element Sonic System
B- 5.2 Continuous Measurement:
Cont inuous ult rasonic level m easurem ent syst em s are designed t o m easure t he t im e
of flight of a reflect ed sound wave. I n ot her words, it m easures t he t im e required for
an ult rasonic sound wave t o t ravel t o t he process surface and be reflect ed back t o
the receiver. The generic name for such devices is sonar.
Variations of Sound Speed:
The speed of sound, t raveling t hrough various subst ances, changes wit h t he m edia
and wit h t he physical param et ers of a m edium . For exam ple, if t he m edium is air,
sound t ravels at a velocit y of 1129 ft ./ sec., when t he air is at 20 o C. I f t he m edium
were alcohol, t he speed at which sound t ravels at t he sam e t em perat ure is
considerably higher: 3890 ft/sec. A change in the physical parameters will also affect
t he speed of sound. This is especially t rue wit h t em perat ure. I ncreasing t he
t em perat ure of t he air from 20 oC t o 100 oC, increases t he velocit y at which sound
travels to 1266 ft/sec. Provided that information on the temperature and composition
of process m at erials is known, level m easurem ent s can be det erm ined by m easuring
the time of flight.
Sensor Mounting:
In continuous measurement applications, the sensors must be mounted and aimed to

provide t he m ost direct pat h. The t ransm it t er and receiver m ay be enclosed t oget her
in one device, which can be m ount ed at t he bot t om or t op of t he process vessel. For
solid level applicat ions, t he sensors are m ount ed above t he m edium t o be m easured.
The m easurem ent range can vary from 6 inches t o 100 feet , depending on t he
application.
Training Department
File No. : TRG - 010600

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INPM Training Manual 43

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A. General Principles of Operation

A- 1 Direct Level Measurement

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A- 2 Indirect Level Measurement:

Figure 1- 1 Sight glasses

Figure 1- 2 Pressure Gage

Table 1- 1 Specific gravity of commonly used liquids

Material Specific gravity

Figure 1- 3 Water levels at two temperatures

A- 3 Continuous Level Measurement

I n m any processes, cont inuous level m easurem ent is required because it is

Figure 1- 4 Boiler steam drum

A- 4 Point to- Point Level Measurement

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Figure 1- 5 Surge tank

A- 5 Level Measurement System Mathematics

A- 5.1 Constant head for steady Process flow

Figure 1. Basic flow versus head factor

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A- 5.2 Relationship of flow to level in Process vessel

I f t he orifice area is decreased , t he level will rise unt il t he product of a sm aller

Qo 0.897CAo 2 gH standard flow formula (1)

To find H2 at a time t2 , when Qi is initially equal to Qo and is instantaneously

From the table of integral after transformation into standard form,

A- 5.3 Fluid pressure to level relationship.

h= height of the fluid

B. Classification of Level Measuring Devices

B- 1 Visual level Sensor

B- 1.1 Dipstick and Lead Lines

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Advantages of Lead lines over Dipstick

Advantages and Limitation:

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Figure 2- 2 Lead lines

B- 1.2 Sight Glasses and Gage Glasses

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Sight glasses: Sight glasses operat e on t he principle t hat equal pressure on t he

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Figure 2- 6 Gage Glasses

Advantages and Limitations

of fluid when t he process level is changing, allowing t he level in t he t ube t o

Figure 2- 4 Low Pressure sight glasses

B- 1.3 Magnetic- Type Float Devices

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Figure 2- 7 Float cable and weight

Advantage and Limitation:

A variat ion of t he m agnet ic float level m easuring device can be designed t o

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Figure 2- 8 Float and spring Figure 2- 9 Float Collar and Magnet

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Figure 2-10 Magnetic float switches Mechanism.

B- 2 Variable Displacement Devices:

When a body is im m ersed or part ly im m ersed in a liquid, it loses weight equal t o t he

Archim edes principles st at es t hat t he result ant pressure of a fluid on a body

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Level position in intermediate position

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Two important points are demonstrated here:

Figure 3- 2 Displacer Bodies

Classification of Liquid Level Measurement

B- 2.1 Liquid- Liquid Interface Measurement:

t he displacer. This change in weight is a result of t he change in buoyancy caused by