3.

1 INTRODUCTION

- A TEAM is a small number of people with complementary skills who are

committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which
they hold themselves mutually accountable

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A WORKING GROUP AND A TEAM

Working Group
Strong, clearly focused leader
Groups purpose is the same as the
broader organizational mission
Individual work products
Runs efficient meetings
Measures its effectiveness indirectly Measures performance directly by
by its influence on others
Discusses, decides, and delegates
Team
Individual and mutual accountability
Specific team purpose that the team
itself develops
Collective work products
Encourages open-ended discussion
and active problem-solving meetings
assessing collective work products
Discusses, decides, and does not read
work together

3. 2 WHAT IT MEANS TO BE AN EFFECTIVE TEAM MEMBER

Take responsibility for the success of the team

Be a person who delivers on commitments
Be a contributor to discussions
Give your full attention to whomever is speaking and demonstrate this by asking
helpful questions
Develop techniques for getting your message across to the team
Learn to give and receive useful feedback

Characteristics of an effective team

Team goals are as important as individual goals
The team understands the goals and is committed to achieving them
Trust replaces fear and people feel comfortable taking risks.
Respect, collaboration, and open-mindedness are prevalent.
Team members communicate readily, diversity of opinions is encouraged.
Decisions are made by consensus and have the acceptance and support of the
members of the team

3.3 TEAM ROLES

Team Sponsor is the manager who has the need for the output of the team
Team Leader convenes and chairs the team meetings using effective meeting
management practices

Three Styles of Leadership

- Traditional or autocratic leader
- Passive leader
- Facilitative leader

Traditional Leader Passive Leader Facilitative Leader

Directive and controlling Hands off Creates open environment
No questions just do it Too much freedom Encourages suggestions
Retains all decision-making Lack of guidance and Provides guidance
authority direction
Nontrusting Extreme empowerment Embraces creativity
Ignores input Uninvolved Considers all ideas
Autocratic A figurehead Maintains focus; weighs
goals vs. criteria

Facilitator a person trained in group dynamics who assist the leader and the team
in achieving its objectives by coaching them in team skills and problem-solving tools,
and assisting in data-collection activities.
 Process observer a member of the team appointed on a rotating basis to observe
the process and progress of the meeting

3.4 TEAM DYNAMICS

Student of team behavior have observed that most teams go through five stages of
development.

1. Orientation (forming): The members are new to the team. They are probably both
anxious and excited, yet unclear about what is expected of them and the task they are to
accomplish. This is a period of tentative interactions and polite discourse, as team members
undergo orientation and acquire and exchange information.

2. Dissatisfaction (storming): Now the challenges of forming a cohesive team become

real. Differences in personalities, working and learning styles, cultural backgrounds and
available resources (time to meet, access to and agreement on the meeting place, access to
transportation, etc) begin to make themselves known. Disagreement, even conflict, may
break out in meetings. Meetings may be characterized by criticism, interruptions, poor
attendance, or even hostility.

3. Resolution (norming): The dissatisfaction abates when team members establish group
norms, either spoken or unspoken, to guide the process, resolve conflicts, and focus on
common goals. The norms are given by rules of procedure and the establishment of
comfortable roles and relationships among team members. The arrival of the resolution
stage is characterized by greater consensus seeking and stronger commitment to help and
support each other.

4. Production (performing): This is the stage of team development we have worked for.
The team is working cooperatively with few disruptions. People are excited and have pride in
their accomplishments, and team activities are fun. There is high orientation toward the
task, and demonstrable performance and productivity.

5. Termination (Adjourning): When the task is completed, the team prepares to disband.
This is the time for joint reflection on how well the team accomplished its task, and the
reflection on the functioning of the team.

Psychosociological Conditions

Safety.
Inclusion.
Appropriate level of interdependence
Cohesiveness.
Trust.
Conflict Resolution.
Influence.
Accomplishment.

3.5 EFFECTIVE TEAM MEETINGS

Effective meeting requires planning.

The optimum time to retain all members concentration is 90 min.
A meeting should have a written agenda, with the name of the designated person to
present each topic and an allotted time for discussion of the topic.
The team leader directs but does not control discussion.
Discussion begins only when it is clear that every participant understands what is
intended to be accomplished regarding that item.
Decisions made by the team in this way should be consensus decisions.

Content of the Summary of Meetings

 a. when did the team meet
b. what were the issues discussed (in outline form)
c. decisions, agreements, or apparent consensus on issues
d. next meeting date and time
e. homework for next meeting
3.6 PROBLEMS WITH TEAMS

Characteristics of a Good Team Member

Respect other team members without question

Listens carefully to the other team members
Participates but does not dominate
Self-confident but not dogmatic
Knowledgeable in his or her discipline
Communicates effectively
Disagrees but with good reason and in good taste

Characteristics of a Disruptive Team Member

Shows lack of respect for others

Tends to intimidate
Stimulates confrontation
Is a dominant personality type
Talks all the time, but does not listen
Does not communicate effectively
Overly critical

3. 7 PROBLEM SOLVING TOOLS

Many strategies for problem solving have been proposed. The one that have been used and
found effective is a simple three-phase process.

Problem definition
Cause finding
Solution finding and implementation

This table lists the tools which are most applicable in each phase of the problem-solving
process.

Problem-solving tools
Problem definition Cause finding Solution planning and
Brainstorming Gathering data implementation
Affinity diagram Interviews Brainstorming
Nominal group Focus groups How-how diagram
technique Surveys Concept selection
Analyzing Data method
Check sheet Force field analysis
Histogram Implementation plan
Search for root causes
Cause-and-effect
diagram
Why-why diagram
Interrelationship digraph

Problem Definition

Brainstorming. Brainstorming is a group technique for generating ideas in a non-

threatening, uninhibiting atmosphere. It is a group activity in which the collective creativity
of the group is tapped and enhanced. Its objective is to generate the greatest number of
alternative ideas from the uninhibited responses of the group. It is most effective when it is
applied to specific rather than general problems.

There are four fundamental brainstorming principles.

Criticism is not allowed.

Ideas brought forth should be picked up by the other people present.
Participants should divulge all ideas entering their minds without any constraint.
A key objective is to provide as many ideas as possible within a relatively short
time.

An alternative form of brainstorming, called brainwriting, is sometimes used when the topic
is so controversial or emotionally charged that people will not speak out freely on a group.

Affinity diagram. The affinity diagram identifies the inherent similarity between items. It is
used to organize ideas, facts, and opinions into natural groupings.

As the team becomes more comfortable with the organization, create a header card that
broadly describes the content of the group. This often shows that an idea has been put in
the incorrect group. This is a time when discussion is allowed, and people may be called
upon to defend their idea or where it is placed. When we do this for the brainstorming
exercise, we get:

Time constraints
Faculty issues
Lack of interest
Lack of information

Nominal group technique (NGT). The NGT is a method of group idea generation and
decision making. The use of the term nominal in this method comes from the fact that it
often starts out with nominal, i.e., silent and independent idea generation, group activity and
independent evaluation by each team member.

Cause Finding

Pareto Chart. The results of the survey are best displayed by a Pareto chart. This is a bar
chart used to prioritize causes or issues, in which the cause with the highest frequency of
occurrence is placed at the left, followed by the cause with the next frequency of
occurrence, and so on.

It is based on Pareto principle, which states that a few causes account for most of the
problems, while many other causes are relatively unimportant. This often stated as the
80/20 rule, that roughly 80 percent of the problem is caused by only 20 percent of the
cause.

A Pareto chart is a way of analysing the data that identifies the vital few in contrast to the
trivial many.

Cause-and-effect diagram. The cause-and-effect diagram, also called the fish-bone

diagram (after its appearance), or the Ishikawa diagram (after its originator), is a powerful
graphical way of identifying the factors that cause a problem. It is used after the team has
collected data about possible cause of the problem. It is often used in conjunction with
brainstorming to collect and organize all possible causes and converge on the most probable
root causes of the problem.

Why-why diagram. To delve deeper into root causes, we turn to the why-why diagram. This
is a tree diagram, which starts with the basic problem and asks Why does this problem
exist? in order to develop a tree with a few main branches and several smaller branches.
The team continues to grow the tree by repeatedly asking why until the patterns begin to
show up. Root causes are identified by causes that begin to repeat themselves on several
branches of the why-why tree.
Interrelationship diagraph. This is a tool that explores the cause-and-effect relationships
among issues and identifies the root causes. The major causes identified by the cause-and-
effect diagram are laid out in a large circular pattern. The cause and influence relationships
are identified by the team between each cause or factor in turn.

Solution planning and implementation

How-how diagram. A technique that is useful for exposing gaps in the causal chain of
action is the how-how diagram. The how-how diagram is a tree diagram and it starts with a
proposed solution and asks the question How do we do that? The how-how diagram is best
used after brainstorming has generated a set of solutions and an evaluation method has
narrowed them to a small set.

Force field analysis. It is a technique that identifies those forces that both help (drive) and
hinder (restrain) the implementation of the solution of a problem. In effect, it is a chart of the
pros and cons of a solution, and as such, it helps in developing strategies for implementation
of the solution.

Implementation plan. The problem-solving process should end with the development of
specific actions to implement the solution. In doing this, think hard about maximizing the
driving force and minimizing the restraining forces.

Plan-do-check-act (PDCA). The idea behind PDCA is that once a solution is arrived at we
try it out in a small way to see how it works. This is the do stage. Everything that preceded it
in problem solving is the plan stage. In the do stage we collect data to compare with the pre-
existing situation. In the check stage we compare the results with the new solution with the
old conditions (baseline date) to determine whether the change has produced the intended
improvement. If, indeed, the change is positive, then we act to standardize the change in
appropriate policies and procedures. If the change is not positive or if it is not as great as we
need, then we return to the plan stage. The PDCA cycle is a continuous process.

3.8 TIME MANAGEMENT

Time is an invaluable and irreplaceable commodity. An effective time-

management is vital to help you focus on your long-term and short-term goals.

3.9 PLANNING AND SCHEDULING

Planning consists of identifying the key activities in a project and ordering them in
the sequence in which they should be performed.

Scheduling consists of putting the plan into the time frame of the calendar.

The major decisions that are made over the life cycle of a project fall into four areas:

Performance
Time
Cost
Risk

3.9.1 Bar Chart

Bar or Gantt chart

The simplest scheduling tool.
The activities are listed in the vertical direction, and elapsed time is recorded horizontally

Slack- the time by which an activity can exceed its estimated duration before failure to
complete the activity becomes critical
3.9.2 Critical-Path Method

Developed by Du Pont and Remington Rand

Is a deterministic system that uses the best estimate of the time to complete a task
Program evaluation and review technique (PERT) developed for the U.S. Navy
, uses probabilistic time estimates

The basic tool of CPM

- An activity time-consuming effort that is required to perform part of a project.

- An event the end of one activity and the beginning of another. A point of
accomplishment and/or decision

GROUP 4

4.1 INFORMATION PROBLEM

The information needed for an engineering design is more diverse and less readily
available than that needed for conducting a research project, for which the published
technical literature is the main source of information.
Steps in gathering information:
To become familiar with your local information sources.
Develop a personal plan for coping with information.
Develop your own working files of technical and business information that is
important to your work.

Define Problem Gather Concept Evaluation of

Information Generation concepts
Problem
statement Internets Brainstorming Pugh Concept
Benchmarking Patent Functional Selection
QFD Trade decomposition Decision
PDS Literature Morphological Matrices
Project Planning chart
Conceptual Design

Product Configuration Parametric Detail Design

Architecture Design Design
Arrangement of Detailed
Prelim,selection
Physical Robust design drawings and
matls,& mfg.
elements to Modelling or sizing Tolerances specifications
carry out of parts Final Dimen.
function DFM
Embodiment Design

Figure 4.1. Steps in design process, showing early placement of the gathering
information step.

4.2 COPYRIGHT AND COPYING

A copyright is the exclusive legal right to publish a tangible expression of literary or
artistic work, and it is therefore the right to prevent the unauthorized copying by another of
that work.
The present copyright law covers original works of authorship that are literally work
as well as pictorial, graphic, and sculptural work. Important for engineering design is
the fact that the new law is broad enough to cover for the first time written engineering
specifications, sketches, drawing, and models.
Four Factors of U.S. Copyright Act:
The purpose and character of the use-is it a commercial nature or for non profit
educational purposes?
The nature of the copyrighted work-is it a highly creative work or more routine
document?
The amount of the work used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole.
The effect of the use on the potential market value of the copyrighted work. Usually
this is the most important of the factors.

4.3. HOW AND WHERE TO FIND IT

The search for information can be performed more efficiently if a little thought and
planning are used at the outset.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR ENGINEERING DESIGN

Public Sources
o Federal departments and agencies (Defense, commerce, energy, NASA
etc.)
o State and local government ( highway department, departments dealing
with land use, consumer safety, building codes, etc.)
o Libraries (community, university, special)
o Universities, research institutions, museums
o Foreign governments (embassies, commercial attaches)
o Internet (much information is free. Some requires fees)
Private sources
A. Non-profit organizations and services
Professional societies
Trade and labor associations
Membership organizations (motorists, consumers, veterans, etc.)
B. Profit oriented organizations
Vendors
Other business contacts with manufacturers and competitors
Consultants
C. Individuals
1. Direct conversation or correspondence
2. Personal friends, associates, friends of friends
3. Faculty
In reviewing this list you can divide the sources of information, into;
1. People who are paid to assist you e.g. the company librarian or consultant.
2. People who have a financial interest in helping you e.g. potential supplier of
equipment of your project.
3. People who help you out of professional responsibility or friendship.
In seeking information from sources other than libraries, a direct approach is best.
Whenever possible use a phone call rather than a letter. A direct dialogue is vastly superior
to the written word.
It is important to remember that information costs time and money.

4.4 LIBRARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION

The Library

Repository of information that is published in the open or unclassified

literature
Two parameters that describe the efficiency of your information search are:
 number of relevant documents retrieved
Precision = total number retrieved

number of relevant documents retrieved

Recall = number of relevant documentst h e collection

4.4.1 Dictionaries and Enyclopedias

o English language technical dictionaries usually give very detailed definitions and
often very well illustrated. Some useful references are:
o Encyclopedias give a broad overview about a subject.
4.4.2 Handbooks
o Handbooks are compendia of useful technical data. It also provides ample technical
description of theory and its application, so they are good refreshers of material once
studied in greater detail.
4.4.3 Textbooks and Monographs
o Textbooks are manual instructions in any branch of study while monographs are
detailed written studies of a single specialized subject or an aspect of it.
o If you want to find out what books are available in a particular field consult Books in
Print, available in nearly every library or use an Internet book selling service such as
amazon.com

4.4.4 Indexing and Abstracting Services

1. Indexing and abstracting services provide current information on periodical literature,

and they also provide a way to retrieve published literature.
2. Indexing service cites the article by title, author and bibliographic data while an
abstracting service also provides a summary of the contents of the article

4.4.5 Translations
o A translator typically can complete 5 pages a day and can be increased of about 15
pages using a machine translator.

4.4.6 Catalogs, Brochures, and Business Information

An important kind of design information is catalogs, brochures and manuals giving

information on materials and components that can be purchased from outside
suppliers.

4,5 GOVERNMENT SOURCES OF INFORMATION

The Government Printing Office (GPO) is the federal agency with the responsibility for
reproducing and distributing federal documents.
National Technical Information Service (NTIS), a self-supporting agency through sale
of information, is the nations central clearinghouse for U.S and foreign technical
reports, federal databases and software.
In the Philippines, gov.ph is considered to be the official gazette of the Philippines
available online.

4.6 INFORMATION FROM THE INTERNET

o The Internet is a computer network interconnecting numerous computers or local

computer networks.
 o Worldwide, the number of host computers on the internet has increased from less
than 100,000 in 1992 to over 18 million 5 years later.
o Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol or the TCP/IP protocol suite is a set of
common technical protocols where computers are linked so that users in a Macintosh
network can communicate with or use the services located
o Packet-switching breaks the data into small fragments
o File Transfer Protocol where many of the public access files, databases and software
on the internet
o Telnet allows your computer to enter the files of another computer and the remote
access of your librarys public access catalog system
o Usenet part of the internet devoted to on-line discussion groups or newsgroups
o World Wide Web an enormous far-flung collection of colorful onscreen documents
that are linked to each other by highlighted words called hypertext and was initially
developed to build a distributed hypermedia system
Hypermedia system written in a hypertext language such as HTML
(hypertext markup language) which aims at giving global access to a universe
of documents
o Locations on the internet are identified by universal resource locators (URL)
o There are tools that allowed users to search the Internet before the advent of the
World Wide Web
Archie software designed to find computer files from Internet servers using
FTP
Gopher menu-driven interface that allows users to access a huge electronic
library of documents on the internet and uses Veronica as search engine
o Search engine used to search in World Wide Web. The most commonly used
general-purpose search engines are:

Web search engines

Name Web address Description
Alta Vista http://www.altavista.digital.com Huge database. Updated daily.
Most eclectic of search engines
Excite http://www.excite.com A search query on Excite
searches the entire Web for
documents containing related
concepts, not just the keywords
HotBot http://www.hotbot.com A new addition among search
engines. Offers many advanced
search features
InfoSeek http://infoseek.com One of the largest databases.
Covers www, Gopher, and FTP.
One of the largest followings
among science/engineering
web sites
Lycos http://lycos.com One of the largest Web indexes.
Database updated frequently
Yahoo http://www.yahoo.com Attracts largest number of
users. Strong topical index of
Web sites. Provides jump points
to other large search engines.

4.6.1 Engineering URLs

Internet Starter Kit on Mechanical Design

Name and organization URL Description
Technical information:
WWW Virtual Library: http://CDR.stanford.edu/html/WW A good place to start.
 Mechanical Engineering W-ME/home.html Provides access to
at Stanford University University ME
departments, ME vendor
pages and a variety of on-
line services
Machine Design magazine http://www.penton.com/md On-line version of Machine
on-line Design
Commercial and
marketing information:
Machine Design Product http://www.pdem.net Product and
Locator manufacturers directory.
Web address directory
Thomas Register http://thomasregister.com Allows search of 155,000
companies, 60,000
product and service
categories and 124,000
brand names. Requires
registration.
Industry Net http://www.industry.net Information on new
products

o Information Handling Services Group (IHS Group) is a major international publisher of

electronic information databases for the technical and business markets.
o The IHS Groups British affiliate ESDU provides electronically more than 200 volumes
of validated engineering design data containing more than 1200 design guides with
supporting software (http://www.esdu.com) which cover 20 subject areas in
structural, mechanical, aeronautical, and chemical engineering.

4.7 PATENT LITERATURE

1. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
- Protection of ideas with patents, copyrights, trademarks, and trade secrets.
Trade Mark
a. Any name, word, symbol, or device that is used by a company to
identify their goods or services and distinguish them from those made
or sold by others
b. Obtained by registration and extends indefinitely so long as the trade
mark is used
Trade Secret
a. Any formula, pattern, device, or compilation of information which is
used in a business to create an opportunity over competitors

2. PATENTS
The congress shall have the power to promote progress in science and the useful
arts by securing for limited times to inventors the exclusive right to their
discoveries.
(Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution of the United States)

-protection begins on the date of the grant of the patent and ends 20 years after the
fillung date of the application (since 1995)

Types of Patents
Utility Patents
-issued for a new useful machine, process, article of manufacture, or
composition of matter
Design Patents
-issued for new ornamental designs
Plant Patents
 -granted on new varieties of plants

General Criteria for Awarding a Patent

1. The invention must be new or novel
2. The invention must be useful
3. It must be nonobvious to a person in the art covered by the patent
Processes that are Not Patentable
Methods of doing business or natural laws or phenomena
Mathematical Equations and methods of solving them
Patent Awarding
-the one who can prove the earliest date of conception of the idea and can
demonstrate reasonable diligence in reducing the idea to practice is awarded with
the patent

TECHNOLOGY LICENSING
The right to exclusive use of technology that is granted by a patent may be
transferred to another party through licensing agreement.
License can be of: exclusive license or non-exclusive license

THE PATENT LITERATURE

Gazette of the U.S. Patent Office
- issued every Tuesday
- contains abstract of and selected figures from each patent
- very helpful for getting quick overview on the US patent literature
Annual Index
- published each year with 2 volumes
- arranged alphabetically by patentees or by subject matter
- used to obtain the patent number
Index to Classification
- a loose-leaf volume that lists the major subject heading into which patents
have been divided
Manual of Classification
- a loose-leaf volume that lists each class, with its subclasses, in numerical
order
CASSIS (Classification and Search Support Information System)
- display all its locations in the Patent Classification System (PCS)
- identify all classifications whose full titles contain designated key words
Patentability Search
- determine whether an invention can be patented and what scope of the
patent protection would be
Infringement Search
- exhaustive search of the patent literature to determine whether the idea is
likely to infringe on patents held by others
Validity Search
- determine the validity of the patent in the courts if you find possible
infringement with an existing patent

4.9 EXPERT SYSTEM

- also known as knowledge-based systems
- simulate the role of an expert in solving some problem using an information
database provided by the expert and decision rules for interpreting the data
- each system is an active area of the field of artificial intelligence
- acquires knowledge through knowledge-acquisition software tools from a trained
specialist called a knowledge engineer
 - prime advantage: they capture the knowledge of experts that may otherwise be lost
through death or retirement

Two Major Divisions of an Expert System

1. Knowledge Base
Unique to a particular domain but the interference engine may be common to
many domains of knowledge
Knowledge Acquisition Facility
- component responsible for entering the knowledge into the database
0 acts as an editor;
Assertion Component
- also called working memory or temporary data store
- contains the knowledge about the particular problem being solved
Knowledge Relationships Component
- contains formula showing the relationship among several pieces of
information
if-then production rule
- most common relationship rule
- IF condition THEN action

2. Interference Engine
- contains the control mechanisms for the expert system
Search Strategy
Explanation Tracing provided to retrace the chain of
production rules that led to the development of the
system

GROUP 5

CONCEPT GENERATION AND EVALUATION

Human Sources of Ideas

Generating many ideas requires answering two questions.

o Who are the sources of our ideas?

o How do we get these sources to give ideas?

SOURCES OF IDEAS

Product development team itself

This normally will have representatives who have made, used and been
frustrated by the existing products which we are trying to replace. They will be quick
to see advantages and demerits of any new concepts. Their professional careers
depend on success, so have a large stake. They will be an excellent source.

Product potential customers

These customers are those who will directly benefit from the new products
characteristics. The most important customers are so-called lead users.
These customers frequently will already have tried to modify the product,
improving its utility for their particular goals.

Literature
The trade literature, and indeed trade shows, are the best sources of
information about current products beyond the product team and current customers.

Experts
 Experts are those with particular knowledge of the products that you want to
make. Those retired from your organization or from a competitor may especially
helpful.

Private Inventors
Private inventors can be an important resource, especially for innovations that
go beyond the boundaries of your current thinking.

Consultants
Consultants are the most difficult group to characterize because they are so
diverse. Those who supply special services like schemes for product
development or innovation encouragement, seek to catalyze ideas from
organizations employees rather than produce ideas of their own.

COLLECTING THE IDEAS

Use a common format

Generate ideas freely
Eschew ownership
Encourage eccentricity

Four stimuli to keep going:

Invite criticism of ideas generated by other routes

List all assumptions made in specifications, then dismiss each in turn
Use analogies
Probe opposites

PROBLEM SOLVING STYLES

Two styles of intellectual development

Adaptation is problem solving that uses existing or closely related technology

Innovation is problem solving that uses apparently unrelated information

CHEMICAL SOURCES OF IDEAS

Chemical Methods

Natural product screening takes advantage of the rich variety of active chemical
species present in nature.
Random molecular assembly - molecular fragments are reacted in plasma to see if
the resulting tar contains species which are, for example, pharmacologically active.
Combinatorial chemistry uses robotics to provide a first pass at screening
thousands, even millions, of compounds which may have the desired product
properties.

Natural Product Screening

Three ways in which natural products may be used to produce active chemical species:

If the active ingredient is expensive or impossible to synthesize, it may be isolated

directly from an organism.
A precursor may be isolated from a natural product and then used as building block
for a more complex molecule.
The active ingredient may be identified in a natural product, but then used as model
for a chemical synthesis of an identical or similar molecule.

Random Molecular Assembly

Substitute brute force of free radical filled plasma for any chemical insight
Chemical ideas found randomly
Not thinking about chemical mechanism at all stick to chemical fragments together
Combinatorial Chemistry

Identify possible active ingredients or molecular fragments and test all of them in all
possible combination
Particularly to biochemical problems
Effective for catalyst screening
Can identify active polypeptides and DNA sequences
Significant role in positive and negative synergies in drug cocktail

Sorting Ideas

1. Sort, prune and eliminate unqualified ideas

a. Prepare a list of all ideas
b. Remove irrelevant, folly and redundant ideas
c. Organize the ideas into categories (The Material Will Tell You)
i. Use around five main headings with equal importance
ii. Give rarely more than four subheadings that is a special case for each
main heading
d. Reduce gaps between headings and subheadings
e. Prune unpromising or politically impossible ideas
f. Acknowledge different patterns of thinking in different individuals
2. Matrix-screening

THE RULE OF THE TABLE

Each heading is like the top of the table, covering everything under it
The subheadings are like the tables legs
Four legs is the best number for a table

STRATEGIES FOR IDEA SCREENING

Factors:

Scientific maturity. We will prefer designs based on scientific knowledge that we

already have and understand.
Engineering ease. We will prefer designs that imply straightforward engineering
like that already used in established manufacturing.
Minimum risk. We do not want to take unnecessary chances.
Low cost. We may want a rough estimate of the relative cost of our ideas.
Safety. We want to identify which products are inherently safer or more dangerous
than our benchmark.
Low environmental impact. We will tend to choose products that cause less
pollution.

IMPROVING THE IDEA SCREENING PROCESS

- First, we urge a careful choice of the benchmark.

- The second way to improve this concept screening matrix is to check the core teams
scores against those of other interested experts.
- The third way we should improve screening process is to make a sensitivity analysis
of the weighting factors.

GROUP 6

INTRODUCTION

o Feasibility Design View usually held to determine whether the resources should
be committed to develop the design further.
o Embodiment Design the next stage of the design process. It is the stage where
the design concept is invested with physical form, where we put meat on the
bones.
 o The term embodiment design comes from Pahl and Beitz and has been adopted by
most European and British writers about design.
o The design process was divided into 3 phases conceptual design, preliminary
(embodiment) design, and detail design.
o Embodiment design is also termed as analytical design because it is the design
phase where most of the detailed analysis and calculations occurs.
o Product Design a broad phase of conceptual design
o Configuration Design the selection of standard modules like pumps, or the design
of special-purpose parts, like short, stubby box beam.
o Parametric Design the determination of the exact values, dimensions, or
tolerances for the critical design parameters.
o Parallel Design the key to shortening the product development cycle time
o Routine Design in this design, the attributes that define the design and the
strategies and methods for attaining them are well known
o Innovative Design in this design, not all attributes that of the design may be
known beforehand, but the knowledge base for creating the design is known
o Creative Design neither the attributes of the design nor the strategies for
achieving them are known ahead of time.

PRODUCT ARCHITECTURE

o Product architecture the arrangement of the physical elements of a product to

carry out its required functions.
o Ulrich and Eppinger designate the physical building blocks that the product is
organized into as chunks.
o The chunk is made up of a collection of components that carry out the functions
o There are two entirely opposite style of product architecture, namely; modular and
integral.
o In a modular architecture, the chunks implement only one or a few functions and
the interactions between chunks are well defined. Example of this is oscilloscope.
o In an integral architecture, the implementation of functions uses only one or few
chunks, leading to poorly defined interaction between chunks.
o Interfaces examples of interfaces are the crankshaft of an engine with a
transmission or the connection between the computer and the CPU. The interfaces
should be designed so as to be as simple and stable as possible. The personnel
computer is an outstanding example of the use of standard interfaces, such that PCs
can be customized, module by module, from parts supplied by many different
suppliers.
o Component standardization allows the component to be manufactured in higher
quantities than would otherwise be possible, with cost savings due to economy scale.
o Black & Decker rechargeable battery pack widely used in many electrical hand
tools and garden tools
o Integral Design often adopted when constrains of weight, space, or cost require
performance be maximized.
o Ulrich and Eppinger propose a four-step process for establishing the product
architecture.
Create a schematic diagram of the product
Cluster the elements of the schematic
Create a rough geometric layout
 Identify the fundamental and incidental interactions

6.3 CONFIGURATION DESIGN

In configuration design, we establish the shape and general dimensions of

components
The term component is used in the generic sense to include special-purpose
parts, standard parts, and standard assemblies or modules.
A part is designed object that has no assembly operations in its manufacture
A standard part is one that has a generic function and is manufactured
routinely without regard to a particular product.
A special-purpose part is designed and manufactured for a specific purpose
in a specific line
An assembly is a collection of two or more parts
A subassembly is an assembly that is included within another assembly or
subassembly
A standard assembly or standard module is an assembly or subassembly
which has generic function and is manufactured routinely.
The form or configuration develops from
the function Figure (yung triangle)
In starting the configuration design, we should follow these steps.
Review the product design specification and any specification developed for
the particular subassembly to which the component belongs
4. Establish the spatial constraints that pertain to the product or the
subassembly being designed
o Create and refine the interfaces or connections between components
o In carrying out the design, it is important to maintain functional independence
in the design of an assembly or components.
The best way to get started with configuration design is to just start sketching
alternative configurations of a part
Drawings are essential for communicating ideas between design engineers and
between designers and manufacturing people.
Sketches are an important aid in idea generation and a way for piecing together
unconnected ideas into design concepts
The elements that comprise the configuration of a part are called features. Typical
features in mechanical design are:
o Solid elements such as rods, cubes, and spheres
o Walls of various kinds
o Add-ons to walls such as holes, bosses, notches, grooves, and ribs
a. Intersections between walls, add-ons, and elements
f. Weighted decision matrix or Pughs selection method (Sec.5.9). -These
methods will point to aspects of the design that may need improvement by a design
iteration.
g. Ullman- characterizes configuration design as refining and patching.
Refining is the act of making an object less abstract. This is a natural process as we
move through the design process.
Patching is the activity of changing a design without changing its level of
abstraction. Patching occurs extensively in configuration design.
SELECTION DESIGN
-A special but not infrequent type of situation in configuration design . By selection
design we mean choosing a component from a list of similar standard parts in a
catalog. Examples: selection of bearings, pumps and small motors.
6.4 PARAMETRIC DESIGN

CONFIGURATION DESIGN
-the emphasis was on starting with the product architecture and then working out the
best form for each component. Qualitative reasoning about physical principles and
manufacturing processes played a major role.
PARAMETRIC DESIGN
- the attributes of parts identified in configuration design become the design
variables for parametric design. Design variable is an attribute of a part whose
value is under the control of the designer.
-Objective: setting the values for the design variables that will produce the best
possible design considering both performance and manufacturability.
Robustness
- means achieving excellent performance under the wide range of conditions that will
be found in service. All products function reasonably well under ideal (laboratory)
conditions, but robust designs continue to function well when the conditions to which
they are exposed are from ideal.
Three ways to improve the robustness of a design:
Improve the design concept that controls the function to be fixed.
Change the value of a critical parameter to an obvious feasible limit
Carry out a systematic optimization of the design variables
Computer-based optimization methods
-can be useful when the design variables are all numerical and continuous functions.
-For the more general case, statistically designed experiments, especially the
Taguchi approach, have met with increasing usage and success.

Parametric design is about setting dimensions and tolerances so as to maximize

quality and performance and minimize cost. Designing to maximize performance and quality
involves the following design procedures.

Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)

a. FAILURE- is any aspect of the design or manufacturing process that renders a
component, or system incapable of performing its intended function.
b. FMEA - is a methodology for determining all possible ways that components can fail
and establishing the effect of failure on the system.
Design for Reliability
- RELIABILITY - is a measurement of the capacity of a system to operate without
failure in the service environment. It is expressed as the probability of performing for
a given time without failure.

6.4.3 ROBUST DESIGN

One of the chef ways of assuring high quality in products is to :
reduce the variability in performance and
manufacture over a wide range of operating conditions.
A process of robust design, as defined by Taguchi, has the following steps:
1. System design
-This corresponds to what we have called product architecture where engineering
principles are used to determine the basic configuration of the system.

2. Parameter design
-Statistical methods are used to set nominal values of design variables that minimize
variability from uncontrollable variables in the environment.
3. Tolerance design
-Further statistical methods are used to set the widest possible tolerances on the
design variables without increasing variability.

6.4.4 TOLERANCES
A small tolerance results in greater ease of interchangeability of parts and less play
or chance for vibrations in moving parts. However, this is achieved at an increased cost of
manufacture.
Dimensions -are used to specify size and location of features in a part.
Tolerance -is the acceptable variation to the ideal or nominal dimension.
 Clearance or allowance - is the minimum space between mating parts.

Within this standard, tolerance is defined for geometric characteristics of form

(straightness, perpendicularity, parallelism), location tolerances (position, concentricity) and
runout.

o BEST PRACTICES
It is much more difficult to give a prescribed set of methods for embodiment design
than for conceptual design, because of the variety of issues that enter into the development
of the configuration and performance of components.
General objective of the embodiment phase of design :
fulfillment of the required technical function, at a cost that is economically feasible,
and in a way that ensures safety to the user and to the environment.
Basic guidelines for embodiment design (According to Pahl and Beitz)
3. Clarity of function -pertains to an unambiguous relationship between the various
functions and the appropriate inputs and outputs of energy, material, and
information flow.
4. Simplicity -refers to a design that is not complex and is easily understood and
readily produced.
5. Safety -should be guaranteed by direct design, not by secondary methods such as
guards or warning labels.
Two important aspects of design that have been identified by French are :
Matching- refers to creating the proper interface between the separate components
so that they can perform as an optimized system.
Disposition- is concerned with parceling out some constrained attribute, often
space, between a number of functions in the best way.

FORCE TRANSMISSION
4. In mechanical systems the function of many components is to transmit forces and
moments between two points. In general, the force should be accommodated in
such a way as to produce a uniformly distributed stress on the cross section.
5. You should be aware that stiffness (resistance to deflection) more than stress
determines the size of most components. Lack of rigidity or stiffness can cause
interference between mating parts, produce misalignment of parts, and lead to
undesirable wear.
To achieve maximum stiffness, use the shortest and most direct force-transmission path
possible. Avoid bending stresses by favoring geometries that result in symmetrical loading.

Self-help
-concerns the improvement of a function by the way in which the components
interact with each other.
Self-reinforcing element -required effect increases with increasing need for the
effect Self-protecting element- designed to survive in the event of an overload
Stability
-concerned with whether the system will recover appropriately from a disturbance to
the system

6.6 INDUSTRIAL DESIGN

Industrial Design
-also called Product Design
-concerned with the visual appearance of the product and the way it interfaces with
the customer
 -dealt chiefly with the function of the design
-deals chiefly with the aspects of a product that relate to the user

Aesthetics
-deal with the interaction of the product with the human senses-how it looks, feels,
smells, or sounds
Ergonomics or Stability
-this activity deals with the user interactions with the product and making use that it
is easy to use and maintain
INDUSTRIAL DESIGNERS
o work from the outside in. They start with a concept of a complete product as it would
be used by a customer and work back into the details needed to make the concept
work.
o often work in independent consulting firms, although large companies may have their
own in-house staff.

VISUAL AESTHETICS
-can be considered as a hierarchy of human responses to visual stimuli.
-Aesthetics relate to our emotions. Since aesthetic emotions are spontaneous and
develop beneath our level of consciousness, they satisfy one of our basic human
needs.
BOTTOM LEVEL- order of visual forms, their simplicity and clarity. These values are
related to our need to recognize and understand objects
Visual perception
-is enhanced by the repetition of visual elements related by the similarity of the
shape, position, color (rhythm).
- Another visual characteristic to enhance perception is homogeneity, or the
standardization of shapes.

6.6.2 THE PROCESS OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN

There are two general situations: (1) the industrial designer is part of the integrated product
development (IPDT) from its inception and (2) industrial designers are brought in during
embodiment design to provide styling and to ensure that human factors are given proper
consideration.
3. Determine the customer needs. Since industrial design are skilled in recognizing
issues involving user interaction , they can play a crucial role here.
4. Product Conceptualization. Industrial designers will concentrate on creating the
products form and user interfaces. Close coordination is needed to match these
design concepts of the engineer.
5. Preliminary Refinement - As concepts are being evaluated it is important to have
three-dimensional soft models made from plastic foam of foam-core board.
6. Final Concept Selection Before the final product concept selection is made,
it is usual to construct three-dimensional hard models made from metal or
plastic and painted and textured to be close to the real product.
7. Control Drawings The completion of the industrial design process is the making
of control drawings of the final concept. Control drawings document functionality,
features, sizes, colors, surface finishes, and critical dimensions.
6.7 HUMAN FACTORS DESIGN

Human factors is the study of the interactions between people and the products and
systems they use and the environments in which they work and live. This field also is
described by the terms human factors engineering and ergonomics.

There are four ways that a human interacts with a product:

o As an occupant of workspace the cab of a tractor or a chair before a computer

o As a power source usually muscle power
o As a sensor looking for a warning light
o As a controller determining how much pedal to give beat the red light with your
car

Creating a User-Friendly Design

1. Fit the product to the users physical attributes and knowledge

2. Simplify tasks

3. Make the controls and their functions obvious.

Controls are the parts of the product such as knobs, levers, buttons, and slides that
change the operational mode.

3. Use mapping Make the control reflect, or map, the operation of the mechanism.
The goal should be to make the operation clear enough that it is not necessary to
refer to nameplates, stickers, or the operation manual.
4. Utilize constraints to prevent incorrect action Do not depend on the user
always doing the correct thing. Controls should be designed so than an incorrect
movement or sequence is not possible.
5. Provide feedback The product must provide the user with a clear, immediate
response to any actions taken. This feedback can be provided by a light, a sound,
or displayed information.
6. Provide good displays The sensing characteristic of the human involves such
physiology factors as the visual, tactile and auditory senses. Most human-machine
interfaces require that the human sense the state of the system and then control it
based on the information received.
7. Make controls easy to handle Shape knobs and handles controls differently so
they are distinguishable by look and by touch. Organize and group them to avoid
complexity.
8. Anticipate human errors Human errors are unavoidable. The designer
must anticipate possible errors to minimize them.
9. Avoid awkward and extreme motions for the user of the product Design
the product so that twisting or lengthy arm movements, bending and movements
of spine are not required, particularly if these motions will be repetitive.
10. Standardize It pays to standardize on the arrangement and operation of
controls because it increases the user knowledge.
6.7.2 Design for Serviceability

Serviceability is concerned with the ease with which maintenance can be performed on a
product. Many products require some form of maintenance or service to keep them
functioning properly.

Preventive Maintenance is the service that must take place after some
failure or decline in function has occurred.
Breakdown Maintenance is the service that must take place after some
failure or decline in function has occurred.

Testability is concerned with the ease with which faults can be isolated in defective
components and subassemblies.

6.8 DESIGN FOR THE ENVIRONMENT

Protection of the Earths environment is high on the value scale of most citizens of the
worlds developed countries. A large proportion of our environmental problems are linked
to the selection and use of particular technologies without previous adequate regard for
the environmental consequences.

There is variety of design strategies to extend a products useful life.

Design for durability Durability is the amount of one gets from a product
before it breaks down and replacement is preferable to repair.
Design for reliability Reliability is the ability of a product to neither malfunction
nor fail within a specified time period.
Create an adaptable design A modular design allows for continuous
improvement of the various functions.
Repair Feasibility of replacing nonfunctioning components to attain
specified performance.
Remanufacture Worn parts are restored to like-new condition to attain
specified performance.
Reuse Find additional use for the product or its components after the product
has been retired from its original service.
Recyclability Reprocessing of the product to recover some or all of the materials
from which it is made.
Disposability All materials that are not recycled can be legally and safely disposed
of.

The accepted way of assessing the effects that products and processes have on
the environment is with life-assessment. Life-cycle assessment proceeds in three
stages:

Inventory analysis The flows of energy and materials to and from the product
during its life are determined quantitatively.
Impact analysis Consideration of all potential environmental consequences of
the flows cataloged above.
Improvements analysis Results of the above two steps are translated into
specific action that reduce the impact of the product or the process on the
environment.
6.8.1 Design for Environment

We can divide DFE practices into two broad categories: those involving material recycling
and remanufacture, and those avoiding the use of or production of hazardous substances.

Design for material recovery and reuse

Design for reassembly: Provide for easy access and removal of components. Avoid
embedding a part in an incompatible material. Minimize the use of adhesives and
welds.
Design for product waste minimization: Minimize the amount of material used
by avoiding overdesign. This also saves cost.
Design for waste recovery and reuse in processing: Since the selection of the
material for a part is intimately associated with how it be manufactured, consider as
a part of this decision process the environmental implications for manufacturing.
Design for packaging recovery: Be alert for changes in industrial packaging that
re allowing for the recovery, recycling and reuse of packaging
Avoid the use of hazardous or undesirable materials: Keep up on changes on
government regulations and list of hazardous materials. Avoid all of these if
possible.
Consider the environmental hazards of production workers: The overall design
should consider the people who work on the production line to make the product.
Design for noise reduction: Design the system so that the noise does not exceed a
preset threshold and insulate the source of the noise by enclosing it or by designing
the foundation so that the noise does not escape to the environment.

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