Running head: EXPLORING ENGAGEMENT THROUGH SMARTPHONE USAGE

Student Engagement: The Effects of Smartphone Technology on Outdoor Experiential Education

Anthony J. Blasucci
University of Georgia
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Introduction

In recent years, the widespread use of smart phones is changing the very culture of

society. People are spending a significantly increased amount of time interacting with a variety

of mobile devices. One area that has significantly lagged behind in--and even in some cases

discouraged--the use of smart phones is the outdoor recreation industry. Outdoor recreation

involves activities that take place outside, and in the context of a university setting, includes

experiential education where development and practical application of skills is incorporated into

the experience (Phipps, 1991). Many outdoor institutions see the use of technology as a

distraction to the natural environment that is their classroom. The National Outdoor Leadership

School discourages use of technology by participants on expeditions in order to escape societys

distractions while learning leadership skills. Outward Bound, another leader in outdoor

education, forbids the use of mobile devices during their courses (Outward Bound, 2015). By

separating trip participants from their smartphones during trips and educational sessions, these

organizations intend to minimize sources of distractions and increase participants engagement.

What if engagement could be increased even more by embracing the use of technology in this

capacity instead of discouraging it?

The aim of the current study is to leverage the use of smart phone technology to increase

engagement during participants experiential learning over the course of outdoor recreation trips.

Smartphones are mobile while having all of the capabilities of a computer, including access to

social media (Davis, 2015). This study is to allow participants to use smartphones for access to

the Internets vast resources, instant connectivity with peers through social networks, and the

many features available for capturing ones experience (i.e. video, pictures, audio recordings, or

blogs).
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Statement of the Problem

In the field of outdoor recreation, there is a gap in the knowledge of how encouraging the

use of smartphones on an outdoor trip can be used to enhance the quality of student engagement

in the subject material. The proposed study will investigate how mobile technology can improve

the experience of trip participants. By assigning a series of tasks to be completed on the students

smartphone before, during, and after an outdoor excursion, an analysis of learner engagement

can be conducted. Compared to previous studies that have considered the use of smartphone

technology in student learning, what makes this study unique is focusing on experiential learning

sessions during outdoor trips. Material instruction offered in the field of outdoor recreation is

generally more hands-on than typical lecture-based instruction. Traditional outdoor recreation

programs utilize the wilderness as the classroom in which participants develop their leadership

and teamwork skills through experiential learning (National Outdoor Leadership School, 2014).

There have not been specific case studies that focus on leveraging smart phones in an outdoor

recreation capacity.

Purpose of the Study

This study examines how the use of smart phones can potentially enhance engagement in

student trip participants through the use of social networking websites. According to Ellison,

Steinfield, and Lampe, Social network sites (SNSs)allow individuals to present themselves,

articulate their social networks, and establish or maintain connections with others (p. 1143). The

college students that will participate in this study have grown up with smart phones as a part of

their lives with constant access to social media, and therefore, this is an opportunity to adapt the

current form of instruction to better fit the learning styles of the individuals going through the
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outdoor programs. The study seeks to investigate whether using smartphones as a collaborative

learning tool can have an impact on student engagement.

Review of the Literature

This literature review contains research from the fields of outdoor education, psychology,

technology, and social sciences. These fields pertain to the current study because they examine

how the use of technology in the outdoors can affect the behavior and learning outcomes of

individual learners in the experiential learning process. Very little research exists on adapting

outdoor programs to specifically use smartphones as an engagement enhancing strategy.

Technology in Education

Woodcock, Middleton, and Nortcliffe (2012) conducted a study in which they explored

how students used smartphones to support their learning. Out of the 272 student survey

participants, 69% reported ownership of a smart phone device. A grouping of 88 students

reported that they currently use cell phone applications as a learning aid. Also, 76% of the

remaining smartphone owners were interested in using an application if it could help them with

their academic studies. Most participants were unaware of how the specific use of smartphones

could enhance their learning, but once this concept was suggested to them, they were genuinely

interested in the possibilities of using this technology for learning.

Buck, McInnis, and Randolph (2013) conducted a recent review of literature on the

impact of smartphone technology in the classroom. They found that integrating the use of

technology in the classroom allows students benefit from working autonomously and at their

own pace. It also can engage particular students in ways that complement their own learning

styles (visual, auditory, and kinesthetic). Students using mobile devices for education are

learning valuable technology skills by interacting with virtual classroom software, online
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discussion boards, electronic flash cards, and many other education applications. The researchers

found that students no longer prefer traditional lecture-based instruction and would rather use

captivating technologies to support their learning. This research into the impact of technology in

the classroom highlights the fact that instructors need to recognize how to best implement these

new teaching aids in order to have a positive effect on student performance.

Yu (2012) conducted a literature review of smartphone use in higher education. The

researcher argues that smartphones are inevitable learning tools in the higher education system

and [m]obile learning (M-learning) is a learner-centric education format in contrast with

lecture-based learning which is teacher-centric (p. 836). The researcher sought to present a

framework for future research that will explore the digital gap between the teachers and students.

The study observed three main ways that smartphones are being currently used for education:

using the web browser to access information on the Internet, the use of downloadable

applications, and the scanning of two dimensional barcodes that link users to more information

on the corresponding object. The use of M-learning in higher education will allow learning to

occur outside of the classroom and anywhere a mobile device can be used.

Liaw (2008) conducted a case study on the Blackboard system to investigate students

perceived satisfaction, behavioral intention, and effectiveness of E-learning. E-learning is

defined as learning that uses electronic media, most notably the Internet. The data was collected

from 424 university students using a survey containing questions on demographic information,

the users E-learning experience, and attitudes towards E-learning. The study revealed that

although students used theInternet frequently, their experience level with E-learning was low.

This suggested that Universitys implementation of E-learning environments would still be

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marketable. Liaw found that multimedia instruction, interactive learning activities, and E-

learning system quality are all critical predictors of E-learning effectiveness.

Social Media

According to a study conducted by Ellison, Steinfield, and Lampe (2007), there is

positive relationship between certain kinds of Facebook use and the maintenance and creation of

social capital (p. 1161). The network of these relationships that make up social capital will

contribute to a high functioning society. A survey was completed by 286 undergraduate students

in the United States to examine exact usage trends of the Facebook platform. They found that

because of Facebooks widespread use (94% among survey participants) and ease of access, it

allows users to lower the barriers to participation and engage more frequently with friends and

acquaintances.

Salomon (2013) conducted informal research on various methods to engage students with

technology and reported that the social media platform, Instagram, has been the most effective

tool among a few other social media tools in engaging students with activities at a university

library. Specifically, out of the four social media resources used by the library (Facebook,

Twitter, Pinterest, and Instagram), Instagram provided the most rewarding interactions. Based on

Salomons findings, this platform does best at reaching a young, diverse, urban demographic

embodied by the university students they serve. Instagram focuses its content into user generated

images and short videos that can be viewed by peers within the network or also shared across

multiple other social media platforms. One example of how the application has been used to

engage in teaching and learning was a photo post of Civil War surgical tools. The library took a

snapshot of an exhibit they were featuring and added the caption: Can anyone guess what that

saw was used for? (p. 410). This led to dialogue in the comments section, where students were
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making guesses and interacting with the librarian to learn about the content in the photo

(Salomon, 2013).

Engagement

Fredricks et al (2011) discuss engagement of students in a classroom setting in terms of

three type of engagement: cognitive, behavioral, and emotional. Cognitive engagement is defined

as The students level of investment in learning; it includes being thoughtful and purposeful in

the approach to school tasks and being willing to exert the effort necessary to comprehend

complex ideas or master difficult skills. (Fredricks et al., 2004, p. 2). Behavioral engagement

focuses on participation and includes activities related to academics, social settings and

extracurricular involvement (as cited in Fredricks et al, 2011). Emotional engagement focuses on

the spectrum of reactions that students have to their surroundings (as cited in Fredricks et al,

2011). Fredricks et al (2011) defines engagement and reports on 21 different instruments that

assess engagement as a resource for educators in addressing the issues of low achievement and

dropout rates. It discusses the reasoning behind the increased interest in student engagement as a

strategy for school improvement, exploring the connection of disengagement and dropout rates,

and the utilization of engagement as a program outcome. The characteristics of the tools

reviewed are applicable in measuring engagement in upper elementary though high school

students.

Experiential Learning

Estes (2004) conducted a literature review on the way experiential learning practices

were actually being implemented and explored inconsistencies in how those methods differ from

the expressed goals of experiential learning. The primary focus of the article was examining the

effectiveness of teacher-centric facilitation verses student-centered facilitation in the context of

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experiential learning. The researcher states that When student-centered facilitation techniques

are used to both guide the experience, and students subsequent reflection on the experience,

experiential learning will be at its best (Estes, 2004, p. 151).

Table 1.

Article reviewed Study reported Limitation observed

Woodcock, Middleton, and This study confirmed The participants during the study had
Nortcliffe (2012) that portions of the to come up with their own examples
student population are of how the smart phone device was
already using smart aiding their learning.
phones as a learning The researchers proposed study will
tool. Survey data also be more focused on the types of
indicated that the engagement observed during a semi-
participants, who had structured predetermined set of
not yet utilized these tasks.
devices for that purpose
would be interested in
doing so, once made
aware of the potential
benefits.
Ellison, Steinfield, and Lampe Showed a strong The study does not directly convey
(2007) relationship between the potential impact of social media
using Facebook and sites on group formation amongst
bridging social capital. strangers in an outdoor recreation
Examining the usage of scenario. While it reports the
this social networking benefits of Facebook for maintaining
site suggested that there relationships, it does not frame the
may be benefits to benefits of social interaction in a
users self-esteem. learning context.
Salomon (2013) Salomon reported that The study did not go into detail on
Instagram had higher how Instagram could be leveraged as
levels of engagement a tool to create a collaborative
between the Library and learning environment or how it could
students than other facilitate reflection on learning
social media platforms. experiences.
Buck, McInnis, and Randolph The researchers The study points out methods being
(2013) presented how smart used by students to increase
phones were being used comprehension of material, achieve
by secondary and post- more effective study habits, and
secondary students as an connect with others. The content
instructional aid. They does not adequately address the way
also report on how the engagement is being measured
use of these devices will through the use smart phones.
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decrease the digital

divide by increasing the
accessibility of
information on the
internet.
Yu (2012) Yu discussed the three Although the paper listed
main ways smart phones downloadable applications as a main
are being currently used way that students are using
in higher education. The smartphones, it did not explicitly
concept of mobile state examples of this technology
learning is highlighted could be adapted to the recreation
as being a great benefit industry.
for learning in and
outside of the classroom
setting.
Liaw (2008) The case study The Blackboard system studied in
conducted on the this research provides guidance on
Blackboard system by what components should be present
Liaw reported that in an e-learning system but does not
amongst university focus on how the system can be used
students surveyed the on a mobile device outside
exposure level to e- traditional learning spaces like an
learning environments outdoor trip.
was minimal. Data was
also presented on the
key factors that
determine the success of
an e-learning platform.
Estes (2004) Estes reported on the In the context of an outdoor trip the
perceived disconnect experiential learning goals will need
between the ways to be achieved through a shared
experiential learning central role by the teacher and the
practices should be students.
implemented (student-
centric) versus how they
are frequently used
(teacher-centric).

Summary of Gaps in Literature

There is a lack of research on the potential use for and effects of smart phones on trip

participants engagement. The previous research in a variety of fields has shown the usage trends
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and benefits of integrating smart phones as educational tools in classroom (either face-to-face or

online) settings but has not tested the viability of enhancing experiential learning in the outdoors.

Research Questions

The following research questions guided the study:

1. Can Facebooks Group feature provide a platform for an effective discussion board for

students to further discuss and expand upon their shared experience on an outdoor trip?

2. If students are asked to post images and videos of their experiential learning sessions on

Instagram, how would that activity change their interaction with the material?

3. How do trip participants cognitive, behavioral, and emotional engagement change

through the use of smart phone technology during an outdoor excursion?

Methods

Research Design

This study employs quasi-experimental design due to the convenience sampling of

participants rather than random sampling. Mixed methods including both qualitative and

quantitative data will be used. A mixed methods approach is chosen because of the differences in

reporting between the facilitators (trip leaders) and participants. The qualitative instrument will

be utilized to collect data from the outdoor trip leaders and the quantitative instrument will be

used to collect data from the study participants.

In the context of this research experiment the constant variables are: the agenda of the

outdoor trips, the outdoor living skills taught, and the way the material is presented. The

independent variable is with two levels use vs. non-use of smartphones during the duration of

the outdoor experience. The total number of selected trips will be divided with only half of the

participants exposed to the smartphone intervention. The control group will be asked to refrain
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from using their phones during the trip. The experimental group will be encouraged to complete

a predetermined series of tasks designed around their smart phones meant to engage them in the

material more deeply.

Context and Participants

This study will take place at a public University in the Southeastern United States. The

implementation of this study will occur over a semester between the months of January and May.

Participants will be recruited from the Universitys outdoor recreation program. This program

offers a variety of outdoor trips to students. The participants will vary in age (most likely

traditional students aged 18-24), race, gender, and major of study. However, all of them will be

enrolled at the University. Over the course of the semester, eight of the outdoor trips offered by

the program will be selected for the study. On each of these, there will be anywhere from five to

eight participants. This could yield a sample size of approximately 40 to 64.

Intervention and Its Implementation Procedures

The use of social media posts on Facebook and Instagram will provide opportunities for

students to think critically about the material and formulate a creative post that summarizes in

that moment how they are feeling about the topic. The students will then be asked to comment on

each others posts thus creating interactive conversations that may contribute to a higher level of

engagement. The exact smart phone tasks the experimental group will be asked to complete are

as follows:

During the pre-trip information meeting students will be asked to join the

corresponding trips Facebook group. Then they will be asked to introduce

themselves to each other providing name, hometown, major, favorite outdoor

activity, hobbies, and year in school.

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The trip leaders will start a discussion thread in the Facebook group about

creating a meal plan for the weekend excursion. Participants will then work

collaboratively online to plan meals for the trip.

On the departure date of the trip students will be prompted to write a short post of

what they hope to get out of this experience and any specific skills they would

like to learn. One of the trip leaders will then lead a discussion in the Van on route

to the destination about these learning outcomes and goals.

Once arriving at the trailhead a group picture will be taken of all members of the

team and uploaded to the group site. Additionally, individual photos will be taken

by group members of each other with their packs on to complete a before and

after picture activity to be completed post-trip.

From then on students will be encouraged to post photos to Instagram along the

way with captions detailing either fun facts they have learned on the trip or

thoughts and feelings about their experience in nature.

At basecamp that evening participants will use the audio recording feature on the

smartphone device to tape their own thorn and rose moments around the campfire.

The thorn and rose activity requires students to reflect on their day and come up

with a specific example of a challenge they experienced so far (the thorn) and

positive highlight of the day (the rose). This recording will capture a snapshot of

the mindset of the participants that can be reflected upon later for further

examination.

The trip leaders will instruct participants on a plethora of outdoor living skills

including tent set up, bear bag hanging, fitting a backpack, use of backcountry
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stoves, and many others. Students will then test their own mastery of those skills

by working in teams to make short instructional videos on a topic of their choice

to post to the groups Facebook page.

On the way back from the trip students will comment on each others postings and

give feedback.

Data Collection

The student trip leaders who work for the Universitys Outdoor Recreation department

will complete a training program familiarizing them with the goals of the study and how they are

to administer the intervention on their trips. These trip leaders are individuals in possession of

technical outdoor activity skills, group facilitation skills, and the aim to provide a positive

outdoor experience for their participants. Trip leaders will be recruited from an existing staff of

outdoor trip leaders but will be given the option of volunteering to participate in the study. Their

outdoor trip leading experience will vary slightly depending on how many semesters they have

been employed, but will all have had the same training on the material they use for instruction.

The data will be collected during weekend length outdoor adventure trips. Trip leaders will

propose an activity for the group to complete and then directly observe how the participants

engage the material, each other, and the smart phones. One instance may be asking the group to

work in pairs to either make a short video or photo collage using the topic of fire building. The

leader will walk around and engage the students as they complete their task while taking mental

notes on the methods and results of the participant engagement. The researcher will also examine

the social media content uploaded by trip participants to track participant compliance with study

requirements.
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Each participant will be given a post trip survey that they will report their levels of

engagement by answering questions on a five-Likert scale. The survey was a modified version of

Engagement versus Disaffection with learning (EvsD) (Chi, Skinner, and Kindermann, 2010).

Examples of modified questions include: I tried hard to perform the required smart phone

tasks, The instructional activities on this trip caused me to have deeper thoughts and ideas

about the material, I used my smartphone to work on unrelated material during the trip, and I

plan to continue to interact with the people from this trip on our Facebook group.

In addition to the self-reported the trip participant tool, the researcher will conduct semi-

structured interviews with the trip leaders after each completed trip to collect observation data on

student engagement. These interviews will be recorded and take place within 72 hours of the trip

returning. There will be a scripted set of questions asked of the trip leaders to ensure consistency

in the data collection but there will be flexibility with the flow of conversation in the interview

setting. The following items are representative of trip leader interviews: In what ways did you

observe the smart phone intervention affecting the engagement of participants?, Were there

any specific usage patterns you noticed regarding the smart phones , Which assigned tasks did

the participants appear to enjoy the most?, How do you think the smart phone intervention

should be structured to enhance any benefits you observed?, and When do you feel are the

most appropriate times during an outdoor trip to use this intervention?

Data Analysis Plan

The survey responses will be compared between the experimental and control groups.

The recorded trip leader interviews will be analyzed for trends of engagement as well as insight

on how they feel the smartphone devices could be further utilized. The quality of participant
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postings will be determined by the interactions on the social media outlet (i.e. likes, comments,

shares, etc.).

Expected Findings

Overall the researcher expects the group who actively uses their smart phones during the

outdoor trips will have higher levels of engagement and have a better connection to each other

and the material. The predicted effects of the intervention on each research question will be

examined in this section.

By first interacting with other participants virtually using Facebooks group feature, the

researcher predicts that after participants are outside of the structured trip environment, students

will continue to interact with more frequency than students not engaging in intervention. After

establishing a routine and social precedence for commenting on each others media content it

will be easier for these participants to keep in touch. The group feature will enable students to

have continued discussions on the outdoor living skills learned and shared experiences of the

trip.

The social media postings by participants on the trip will bring them closer to the

material because it will require them to reflect more frequently and intentionally on the content

being taught. If the intervention is successful the researcher expects one possible side effect, an

increase in the students desire to continue to develop outdoor living skills compared with the

control group.

Smart phone usage during the trip will increase cognitive engagement by challenging the

students to process the information being taught and create their own content displaying the

comprehension level of the material. Behavioral engagement is predicted to be high due to the

fact that participants are already documenting their life experience through social media in the
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real world, therefore completing structured activities with their phones should come as second

nature. As the students get to know each other over the duration of the trip and virtual

environments they will develop strong relationships that will improve emotional engagement.

Limitations of the Study

Due to the fact that this study will be partially carried out in an outdoor setting, there may

be difficulty connecting to a cellular network. The participants may also have a variety of

cellular providers that may or may not function in certain geographical areas. If some of the

smart phones are able to connect while others are not it will alter the number of postings during

the experiment and skew the data. When the researcher begins to analyze the content posted to

social media sites, it may be the case that individual privacy settings on the participants

accounts prevent the viewing of the material. This technical limitation will need to be addressed

with all volunteers before the study to ensure that everyone gives consent for the researcher to

view their social media posts.

Adverse weather conditions may impact the study in two capacities. The first, being the

actual usage of smart phones on any of the given trips. A trip that experiences fair weather

conditions would most likely have an easier time engaging with smart phones during activities

than one that is in constant fear of damaging their devices in the rain. Changes in weather

conditions also affect the availability of cellular service for smart phones to have access to in

locations where service is limited. The other situation is that if weather is severe enough or

forecasted to be severe, trips get cancelled. This would impact the number of participants in the

study and the variation of experiences that participants would partake in.

Limitations of the data collection methods include the lack of direct access to participants

by the researcher, trip leader observations, and bias that may occur from the participants during
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self-report survey. During the post trip interviews with trip leaders the researcher will attempt to

gain insight into the specific types of engagement occurring between the participants and their

smart phones. The subjective nature of different individuals observations will be less consistent

than if the researcher were able to observe and report on each trip. The training of trip leaders to

conduct the field portion of this study will be standardized but attention to detail, ability to recall

past events, and interpretations of engagement types will vary between leaders causing an

inconsistent dataset. The self-report survey used by participants to record levels of engagement

during certain tasks may not adequately show a need for the intervention if the same levels of

engagement are reported by both the experimental and control groups. These trips are designed

to actively involve participants in every step of the experience so a group who is not using smart

phones may end up with the same survey results as the group who was, leading to confusion

about the role these devices played in engagement.

Implications of the Study for Research and Practice

The proposed study is important for future research because it may reveal new

engagement benefits of smartphone use that can be then adapted to outdoor experiential learning

contexts similar to one in this study. Further research can be done on how to utilize smart phone

interventions in fields traditionally not associated with a need for technical support. While this

study closely examines the effect of smart phone usage on outdoor experiences, more research

should be done to identify what other technological approaches have the greatest impact on

participant engagement.

By testing methods of smartphone integration into outdoor trip participants, instructional

materials and research findings can be shared in the outdoor education field and may lead to a

paradigm shift towards acceptance of technology as an engaging tool. By incorporating the use
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of smart phones before, during, and after an outdoor trip, university recreation programs may

gain an advantage in access to more participants over social media. This could lead to improved

marketing performance, revenue increases resulting from higher trip enrollment, and leveraging

the current participants networks on these mobile platforms could widen the recruitment

potential to a much larger population. Another possible implication within university recreation

programs is the opportunity to develop learning outcomes surrounding student engagement and

technology that fall within the strategic plans of the departments, divisions, and institutions that

the programs function within.

Running head: EXPLORING ENGAGEMENT THROUGH SMARTPHONE USAGE

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