Marbury v.

Madison 1

Marbury v. Madison
Marbury v. Madison

Supreme Court of the United States

Argued 11 February, 1803

Decided 24 February, 1803

Full case name William Marbury v. James Madison, Secretary of State of the United
States

Citations [1]
5 U.S. 137 (more)
1 Cranch 137; 2 L. Ed. 60; 1803 U.S. LEXIS 352

Prior history Original action filed in U.S. Supreme Court; order to show cause why
writ of mandamus should not issue, December 1801

Subsequent history None

Holding

Section 13 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 is unconstitutional to the extent it purports to enlarge the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court beyond
that permitted by the Constitution. Congress cannot pass laws that are contrary to the Constitution, and it is the role of the Judicial system to
interpret what the Constitution permits.

Court membership

Case opinions

Majority Marshall, joined by Paterson, Chase, Washington

Cushing and Moore took no part in the consideration or decision of the case.

Laws applied

U.S. Const. arts. I, III; Judiciary Act of 1789 13

Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 [1] (1803) is a landmark case in United States law and in the history of
law worldwide. It formed the basis for the exercise of judicial review in the United States under Article III of the
Constitution. It was also the first time in Western history a court invalidated a law by declaring it "unconstitutional",
a process called judicial review.[2] [3]
This case resulted from a petition to the Supreme Court by William Marbury, who had been appointed by President
John Adams as Justice of the Peace in the District of Columbia but whose commission was not subsequently
delivered. Marbury petitioned the Supreme Court to force Secretary of State James Madison to deliver the
documents, but the court, with John Marshall as Chief Justice, denied Marbury's petition, holding that the part of the
statute upon which he based his claim, the Judiciary Act of 1789, was unconstitutional.
Marbury v. Madison was the first time the Supreme Court declared something "unconstitutional," and established the
concept of judicial review in the U.S. (the idea that courts may oversee and nullify the actions of another branch of
government). The landmark decision helped define the "checks and balances" of the American form of government.
Marbury v. Madison 2

Background of the case

In the presidential election of 1800, Thomas Jefferson defeated John
Adams, becoming the third President of the United States. Although
the election was decided on February 17, 1801, Jefferson did not take
office until March 4, 1801. Until that time, outgoing president Adams
and the Federalist-controlled 6th Congress were still in power. During
this lame-duck session, Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1801.
This Act modified the Judiciary Act of 1789 in establishing ten new
district courts, expanding the number of circuit courts from three to six,
and adding additional judges to each circuit, giving the President the
authority to appoint Federal judges and justices of the peace. The act
also reduced the number of Supreme Court justices from six to five,
effective upon the next vacancy in the Court.[4] [5]

On March 3, just before his term was to end, Adams, in an attempt to

stymie the incoming Democratic-Republican Congress and
William Marbury administration, appointed 16 Federalist circuit judges and 42 Federalist
justices of the peace to offices created by the Judiciary Act of 1801.
These appointees, the infamous "Midnight Judges", were all located in the Washington and Alexandria area. One of
them was William Marbury, a native of Maryland and a prosperous financier. An ardent Federalist, Marbury was
active in Maryland politics and a vigorous supporter of the Adams presidency. He had been appointed to the position
of justice of the peace in the District of Columbia. The term for a justice of the peace was five years, and they were
"authorized to hold courts and cognizance of personal demands of the value of 20 dollars."[6]

On the following day, the appointments were approved en masse by the Senate; however, to go into effect, the
commissions had to be delivered to those appointed. This task fell to John Marshall, who, even though recently
appointed Chief Justice of the United States, continued as the acting Secretary of State at President Adams's personal
request.[7]
While a majority of the commissions were delivered, it proved impossible for all of them to be delivered before
Adams's term as president expired. As these appointments were routine in nature, Marshall assumed the new
Secretary of State James Madison would see they were delivered, since "they had been properly submitted and
approved, and were, therefore, legally valid appointments."[8] On March 4, 1801, Thomas Jefferson was sworn in as
President. As soon as he was able, President Jefferson ordered Levi Lincoln, who was the new administration's
Attorney General and acting Secretary of State until the arrival of James Madison, not to deliver the remaining
appointments. Without the commissions, the appointees were unable to assume the offices and duties to which they
had been appointed. In Jefferson's opinion, the undelivered commissions, not having been delivered on time, were
void.[7]
The newly sworn-in Democratic-Republican 7th Congress immediately set about voiding the Judiciary Act of 1801
with their own Judiciary Act of 1802 which reversed the act of 1801 so that the Judicial branch once again operated
under the dictates of the original Judiciary Act of 1789. In addition, it replaced the Court's two annual sessions with
one session to begin on the first Monday in February, and "canceled the Supreme Court term scheduled for June of
that year [1802] ... seeking to delay a ruling on the constitutionality of the repeal act until months after the new
judicial system was in operation."[9] [10]
Marbury v. Madison 3

Status of the judicial power before Marbury

Although the power of judicial review is sometimes said to have
originated with Marbury, the concept of judicial review has ancient
roots. The idea that courts could nullify statutes originated in England
with Chief Justice Edward Coke's 1610 opinion in Dr. Bonhams Case,
8 Co. Rep. 107a. That decision arose under a statute of Parliament
enabling the London College of Physicians to levy fines against
anyone who violated their rules. The College accused a doctor of
practicing without a license and fined him accordingly. Coke found
that their statutory powers violated "common right or reason" because
"no person should be a judge in his own case."[11]

The U.S. Supreme Court stated Bonham's Case did not set a precedent
in the United States to make common law supreme over statutory law:
[N]otwithstanding what was attributed to Lord COKE in
Bonham's Case, 8 Reporter, 115, 118a, the omnipotence of Secretary of State James Madison was ordered by
Jefferson to withhold the commissions.
parliament over the common law was absolute, even
against common right and reason. The actual and practical
security for English liberty against legislative tyranny was
the power of a free public opinion represented by the
commons.[12]

The idea that courts could declare statutes void was defeated in
England with the Glorious Revolution of 1688, when King James II
was removed and the elected Parliament declared itself supreme.
However, it continued to be known in the American colonies and in the
bars of young states, where Coke's books were very influential. The
doctrine was specifically enshrined in some state constitutions, and by
1803 it had been employed in both State and Federal courts in actions
dealing with state statutes, but only insofar as the statutes conflicted
with the language of state constitutions.[13] [14] Sir Edward Coke

A number of legal scholars argue that the power of judicial review in

the United States predated Marbury, and that Marbury was merely the first Supreme Court case to exercise a power
that already existed and was acknowledged. These scholars point to statements about judicial review made in the
Constitutional Convention and the state ratifying conventions, statements about judicial review in publications
debating ratification, and court cases before Marbury that involved judicial review.[15]
At the Constitutional Convention in 1787, there were a number of references to judicial review. Fifteen delegates
made statements about the power of the federal courts to review the constitutionality of laws, with all but two of
them supporting the idea.[16]
Likewise, at the state ratifying conventions, over two dozen delegates in at least seven states indicated that under the
Constitution, the federal courts would have the power to declare statutes unconstitutional.[17] Professors Saikrishna
Prakash and John Yoo point out, with respect to the ratification of the Constitution, that "no scholar to date has
identified even one participant in the ratification fight who argued that the Constitution did not authorize judicial
review of Federal statutes. This silence in the face of the numerous comments on the other side is revealing."[18]
The concept of judicial review was discussed in the Federalist Papers. Alexander Hamilton asserted in Federalist No.
78 that under the Constitution, the federal courts would have not just the power, but the duty, to examine the
Marbury v. Madison 4

constitutionality of statutes:

[T]he courts were designed to be an intermediate body between the people and the legislature, in order, among other things, to keep the latter
within the limits assigned to their authority. The interpretation of the laws is the proper and peculiar province of the courts. A constitution is,
in fact, and must be regarded by the judges as, a fundamental law. It, therefore, belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as the
meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between the two,
that which has the superior obligation and validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, the Constitution ought to be preferred
to the statute, the intention of the people to the intention of their agents.
[19]

The opponents to ratification, known as Anti-federalists, agreed that the federal courts would have the power to
declare statutes unconstitutional, but were concerned that this would give the federal courts too much power. Robert
Yates argued: "The supreme court then have a right, independent of the legislature, to give a construction to the
constitution and every part of it, and there is no power provided in this system to correct their construction or do it
away. If, therefore, the legislature pass any laws, inconsistent with the sense the judges put upon the constitution,
they will declare it void."[20]
A number of courts engaged in judicial review before Marbury was decided. At the time of the Constitutional
Convention, there had been cases in the state courts of at least seven states involving judicial review of state
statutes.[21] Between the ratification of the Constitution in 1788 and the Supreme Court's decision in Marbury in
1803, judicial review was used a number of times in both state and federal courts. One scholar counted thirty-one
cases during this period in which courts found statutes unconstitutional, concluding: "The sheer number of these
decisions not only belies the notion that the institution of judicial review was created by Chief Justice Marshall in
Marbury, it also reflects widespread acceptance and application of the doctrine."[22]
Scholars have pointed out the Supreme Court itself already had engaged in judicial review before Marbury, although
it had not struck down the statute in question because it concluded that the statute was constitutional. In Hylton v.
United States, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 171 (1796), the Court upheld a federal tax on carriages against a claim that the tax
violated the "direct tax" provision of the Constitution.[23] Therefore, the concept of judicial review was familiar
before Marbury.
However, it is important to note that nothing in the text of the Constitution explicitly authorized the power of judicial
review, despite persistent fears voiced by Anti-federalists over the power of the new Federal court system.

Relevant law

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be a Party, the supreme Court shall
have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned [within the judicial power of the United States], the supreme Court shall
have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.
U.S. Constitution, Article III, Section 2, Clause 2

The Supreme Court shall also have appellate jurisdiction from the circuit courts and courts of the several states, in the cases herein after
provided for; and shall have power to issue writs of prohibition to the district courts [...] and writs of mandamus [...] to any courts appointed,
or persons holding office, under the authority of the United States.
Judiciary Act of 1789, 13
Marbury v. Madison 5

The issue
There are three ways a case can be
heard in the Supreme Court: (1) filing
directly in the Supreme Court; (2)
filing in a lower federal court, such as
a district court, and appealing all the
way up to the Supreme Court; (3)
filing in a state court, appealing all the
way up through the state's highest
courts, and then appealing to the
Supreme Court on an issue of federal
law. The first is an exercise of the
Court's original jurisdiction; the second
and third are exercises of the Supreme
Court's appellate jurisdiction.
Inscription on the wall of the Supreme Court Building from Marbury v. Madison, in
which Chief Justice John Marshall outlined the concept of judicial review.
Because Marbury filed his petition for
the writ of mandamus directly in the
Supreme Court, the Court needed to be able to exercise original jurisdiction over the case in order to have the power
to hear it.
Marbury's argument is that in the Judiciary Act of 1789, Congress granted the Supreme Court original jurisdiction
over petitions for writs of mandamus. This raises several issues that the Supreme Court had to address:
Does Article III of the Constitution create a "floor" for original jurisdiction, which Congress can add to, or does it
create an exhaustive list that Congress can't modify at all?
If Article III's original jurisdiction is an exhaustive list, but Congress tries to modify it anyway, who wins that
conflict, Congress or the Constitution?
And, more importantly, who is supposed to decide who wins?
In its answer to this last question, the Supreme Court formalizes the notion of judicial review. In short, the
constitutional issue on which Marbury v. Madison was decided was whether Congress could expand the original
jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
Marbury v. Madison 6

The decision
On 24 February 1803, the Court rendered a unanimous
(4-0) decision,[24] that Marbury had the right to his
commission but the court did not have the power to
force Madison to deliver the commission. Chief Justice
Marshall wrote the opinion of the court. Marshall
presented the case as raising three distinct questions:

Did Marbury have a right to the commission?

Do the laws of the country give Marbury a legal
remedy?
Is asking the Supreme Court for a writ of mandamus
the correct legal remedy?[25]
Marshall quickly answered the first two questions
affirmatively. He found that the failure to deliver the
commission was "violative of a vested legal right."
In deciding whether Marbury had a remedy, Marshall
An engraving of Justice Marshall made by Charles-Balthazar-Julien
stated: "The Government of the United States has been
Fevret de Saint-Mmin in 1808.
emphatically termed a government of laws, and not of
men. It will certainly cease to deserve this high
appellation if the laws furnish no remedy for the violation of a vested legal right." One of the key legal principles on
which Marbury relies is the notion that for every violation of a vested legal right, there must be a legal remedy.
Marshall next described two distinct types of Executive actions: political actions, where the official can exercise
discretion, and purely ministerial functions, where the official is legally required to do something. Marshall found
that delivering the appointment to Marbury was a purely ministerial function required by law, and therefore the law
provided him a remedy.

A federal court has a "special obligation to 'satisfy itself not only of its own jurisdiction, but also that of the lower
courts in a cause under review.'"[26] If a court does not have the power to hear a case, it will not issue dicta.
Consequently, with exceptions not applicable here, a federal court must decide whether it has jurisdiction before
discussing the merits of the case.[27] Chief Justice Marshall, however, did not address jurisdictional issues until
addressing the first two questions presented above. Because of the canon of constitutional avoidance (i.e., where a
statute can fairly be interpreted so as to avoid a constitutional issue, it should be so interpreted), courts generally deal
with the constitutional issues only if necessary. In this case, the jurisdictional issue was a constitutional one.[28]
In analyzing the third question, Marshall divided the question further, asking if a writ of mandamus was the correct
means by which to restore Marbury to his right, and if so, whether the writ Marbury sought could issue from the
Supreme Court. Concluding quickly that since a writ of mandamus, by definition, was the correct judicial means to
order an official of the United States (in this case, the Secretary of State) to do something required of him (in this
case, deliver a commission), Marshall devotes the remainder of his inquiry at the second part of the question:
"Whether it [the writ] can issue from this court."
Marshall first examined the Judiciary Act of 1789 and determined that the Act purported to give the Supreme Court
original jurisdiction over writs of mandamus. Marshall then looked to Article III of the Constitution, which defines
the Supreme Court's original and appellate jurisdictions (see Relevant Law above). Marbury had argued that the
Constitution was only intended to set a floor for original jurisdiction that Congress could add to. Marshall disagreed
and held that Congress does not have the power to modify the Supreme Court's original jurisdiction. Consequently,
Marshall found that the Constitution and the Judiciary Act conflict.
Marbury v. Madison 7

This conflict raised the important question of what happens when an Act of Congress conflicts with the Constitution.
Marshall answered that Acts of Congress that conflict with the Constitution are not law and the Courts are bound
instead to follow the Constitution, affirming the principle of judicial review. In support of this position Marshall
looked to the nature of the written Constitutionthere would be no point of having a written Constitution if the
courts could just ignore it. "To what purpose are powers limited, and to what purpose is that limitation committed to
writing, if these limits may, at any time, be passed by those intended to be restrained?"[29] Marshall also argued that
the very nature of the judicial function requires courts to make this determination. Since it is a court's duty to decide
cases, courts have to be able to decide what law applies to each case. Therefore, if two laws conflict with each other,
a court must decide which law applies.[30] Finally, Marshall pointed to the judge's oath requiring them to uphold the
Constitution, and to the Supremacy Clause of the Constitution, which lists the "Constitution" before the "laws of the
United States." Part of the core of this reasoning is found in the following statements from the decision:

It is emphatically the province and duty of the Judicial Department [the judicial branch] to say what the law is. Those who apply the rule to
particular cases must, of necessity, expound and interpret that rule. If two laws conflict with each other, the Courts must decide on the
operation of each.
So, if a law [e.g., a statute or treaty] be in opposition to the Constitution, if both the law and the Constitution apply to a particular case, so that
the Court must either decide that case conformably to the law, disregarding the Constitution, or conformably to the Constitution, disregarding
the law, the Court must determine which of these conflicting rules governs the case. This is of the very essence of judicial duty. If, then, the
Courts are to regard the Constitution, and the Constitution is superior to any ordinary act of the Legislature, the Constitution, and not such
ordinary act, must govern the case to which they both apply.
Those, then, who controvert the principle that the Constitution is to be considered in court as a paramount law are reduced to the necessity of
maintaining that courts must close their eyes on the Constitution, and see only the law [e.g., the statute or treaty].
[31]
This doctrine would subvert the very foundation of all written constitutions.

"In denying his request, the Court held that it lacked jurisdiction because Section 13 of the Judiciary Act passed by
Congress in 1789, which authorized the Court to issue such a writ, was unconstitutional and thus invalid."[32]
Marbury never became a Justice of the Peace in the District of Columbia.[33]

Criticism
At the time, Jefferson disagreed with Marshall's reasoning in this case, saying that if this view of judicial power
became accepted, it would be "placing us under the despotism of an oligarchy."[34] Jefferson expanded on this in a
letter he wrote some 20 years later to Justice William Johnson, whom he had appointed to the court in 1804.[35]
Some legal scholars have questioned the legal reasoning of Marshall's opinion. They argue that Marshall selectively
quoted the Judiciary Act of 1789, interpreting it to grant the Supreme Court the power to hear writs of mandamus on
original jurisdiction.[36] These scholars argue that there is little connection between the notion of original jurisdiction
and the Supreme Court, and note that the Act seems to affirm the Court's power to exercise only appellate
jurisdiction.[37] Furthermore, it has been argued that the Supreme Court should have been able to issue the writ on
original jurisdiction based on the fact that Article III of the Constitution granted it the right to review on original
jurisdiction "all cases affecting public ministers and consuls," and that James Madison, Secretary of State at the
time and defendant of the suit, should have fallen into that category of a "public minister [or] consul."[38]
Questions have also frequently been raised about the logic of Marshall's argument for judicial review, for example
by Alexander Bickel in his book The Least Dangerous Branch.[39] Bickel argues that Marshall's argument implies an
unrealistically mechanical view of jurisprudence, one which suggests that the Court has an absolute duty to strike
down every law it finds violative of the Constitution. Under Marshall's conception of the judicial process in
Marbury, judges themselves have no independent agency and can never take into account the consequences of their
actions when deciding cases.
Marbury can also be criticized on grounds that it was improper for the Court to consider any issues beyond
jurisdiction. After concluding that the Court lacked jurisdiction in the case, the further review regarding the
Marbury v. Madison 8

substantive issues presented was arguably improper.[40] Also, it has been argued that Justice Marshall should have
recused himself on the grounds that he was still acting Secretary of State at the time the commissions were to be
delivered and it was his brother, James Marshall, who was charged with delivering a number of the commissions.[41]
Because the Constitution lacks a clear statement authorizing the Federal courts to nullify the acts of coequal
branches, critics contend that the argument for judicial review must rely on a significant gloss on the Constitution's
terms. Despite such criticisms of Marbury v. Madison, judicial review has been accepted in the American legal
community.

Notes and references

[1] http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 5/ 137/ case. html
[2] "Marbury v. Madison" (http:/ / www. socialstudiesforkids. com/ wwww/ us/ marburydef. htm) (in English). . Retrieved 24 May 2011.
[3] "Judicial Review and the Supreme Court" (http:/ / law2. umkc. edu/ faculty/ projects/ ftrials/ conlaw/ judicialrev. htm) (in English). .
Retrieved 24 May 2011.
[4] Federal Judicial History, The Judiciary Act of 1801 Historical Note 2 Stat.89
[5] Judiciary Act of 1801
[6] Ch.6, Sec. 4, Judiciary Act of 1801
[7] Smith, Jean Edward (1996). John Marshall: Definer of a Nation. New York: Henry Holt & Company; New York. pp.524. ISBN080501389.
[8] Sec. 3d, Marbury v. Madison,AMDOCS: www.vlib.us.
[9] Federal Judicial History, The Judiciary Act of 1802 Historical Note2 Stat. 156
[10] The Supreme Court in United States history, Volume 1. By Charles Warren. Little, Brown, 1922. p 222 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=2KAFAAAAMAAJ& dq=1 C. Warren, "The Supreme Court in United States History"& pg=PA222#v=onepage& q="as soon as the
republicans passed their act"& f=false)
[11] Coke's decision in the Bonham case (http:/ / olldownload. libertyfund. org/ Texts/ LFBooks/ Coke0074/ PDFs/ 0462-01_Pt08_Reports8.
pdf), retrieved 2/12/07.
[12] Hurtado v. California, 110 U.S. 516 (http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 110/ 516/ case. html) (1884)
[13] (See, e.g., Bayard v. Singleton, 1 NC (Martin) 5 (1787); Whittington v. Polk, 1 H. & J. 236 (Md.Gen. 1802) (Samuel Chase, J.); State v.
Parkhurst, 9 N.J.L. 427 (N.J. 1802); Respublica v. Duquet, 2 Yeates 493 (Pa. 1799); Williams Lindsay v. East Bay Street Comrs, 2 Bay
(S.C.L.) 38 S.C.Const.App. 1796)(Thomas Waties, J.).; Ware v. Hylton, 3 Dallas (3 U.S.) 199 (1796); Calder v. Bull, 3 Dallas (3 U.S.) 386
(1798); Cooper v. Telfair, 4 Dallas (4 U.S.) 14 (1800); Vanhornes Lessee v. Dorrance, 28 F. Cas. 1012, 2 Dallas (2 U.S.) 304; 1 L. Ed. 391;
C. Pa. 1795).)
[14] Fletcher, George P.; Sheppard, Steve (2004). American Law in Global Perspective: The Basics. Oxford University Press. pp.132134.
ISBN0195167236.
[15] For a more detailed discussion of the status of judicial review before Marbury, see Judicial review in the United States.
[16] Prakash, Saikrishna, and Yoo, John, "The Origins of Judicial Review," 70 U. Chicago Law Review 887, 952 (2003) (http:/ / www. jstor. org/
stable/ 1600662?seq=1& Search=yes& list=hide& searchUri=/ action/ doBasicSearch?filter=iid%3A10. 2307%2Fi272247& Query=931&
Search. x=0& Search. y=0& wc=on& prevSearch=& resultsServiceName=null).
[17] Ibid., p. 965.
[18] Ibid., p. 974.
[19] Full text of Federalist No. 78 from thomas.loc.gov (http:/ / thomas. loc. gov/ home/ histdox/ fed_78. html)
[20] Anti-Federalist No. 78 (http:/ / teachingamericanhistory. org/ library/ index. asp?document=70)
[21] Prakash and Yoo, "The Origins of Judicial Review," 70 U. Chicago Law Review at 933-39.
[22] See Treanor, William, "Judicial Review Before Marbury," 58 Stanford Law Review 455, 457-58 (2005) (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/
40040272).
[23] Professor Jack Rakove wrote: "Hylton v. United States was manifestly a case of judicial review of the constitutionality of legislation." See
Rakove, Jack, "The Origins of Judicial Review: A Plea for New Contexts," 49 Stanford Law Review 1031, 1030-41 (1997). (http:/ / www.
jstor. org/ stable/ 1229247?seq=1)
[24] Due to illness, Justices William Cushing and Alfred Moore did not sit for oral argument or participate in the Court's decision.
[25] (http:/ / student. education2020. com/ activities/ lecture. aspx?keystr=12619& order=01030110& stbl=2196465) - Lecture: starting at time
16:16, these three questions are described by the teacher almost verbatim to this article, and this school video is in regards to judicial review.
[26] Bender v. Williamsport Area Sch. Dist., 475 U.S. 534, 541 (1986) (quoting Mitchell v. Maurer, 293 U.S. 237, 244 (1934)); accord Steel Co.
v. Citizens for a Better Env't, 523 U.S. 83, 94 (1998)
[27] See Irving v. United States, 162 F.3d 154, 160 (1st Cir. 1998) (en banc), admonishing that the federal courts "have an affirmative obligation
to examine jurisdictional concerns on their own initiative" even if the parties have neglected them; Berner v. Delahanty, 129 F.3d 20, 23 (1st
Cir. 1997), noting "that a court should first confirm the existence of rudiments such as jurisdiction . . . before tackling the merits of a
controverted case").
Marbury v. Madison 9

[28] Supreme Court History: The Court and Democracy, Marbury v. Madison (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wnet/ supremecourt/ democracy/
landmark_marbury. html), pbs.org, retrieved 2/12/07
[29] 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) at 176.
[30] 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) at 177.
[31] 5 U.S. at 177-78.
[32] Marbury v. Madison. In Encyclopaedia Britannica.
[33] Henretta, James A.; David Brody, and Lynn Dumenil (2007). America's History: Volume 1: To 1877 (6th ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's.
pp.218219. ISBN9780312452858.
[34] James Taranto, Leonard Leo (2004). Presidential Leadership (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=zxBAnuWpg5kC). Wall Street Journal
Books. ISBN9780743272261. . Retrieved 2008-10-20.
[35] Thomas Jefferson (1830). Memoir, correspondence, and miscellanies, from the papers of Thomas Jefferson (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=8S0-AAAAYAAJ). Gray and Bowen. pp. 372375 (http:/ / books. google. com. ph/ books?id=8S0AAAAYAAJ& pg=PA372). ..
[36] Reinstein, Robert J. (2004-04-01). "Marbury's Myths: John Marshall, Judicial Review and the Rule of Law" (http:/ / law. bepress. com/
expresso/ eps/ 230). bepress Legal Series. . Working Paper 230.
[37] Full text of the Judiciary Act of 1789 (http:/ / usinfo. state. gov/ usa/ infousa/ facts/ democrac/ 8. htm)
[38] Stone, Geoffrey R.; et al. (2005). Constitutional Law (5 ed.). New York: Aspen Publishers. pp.29-51. ISBN073555014X.
[39] Bickel, Alexander (1962). The Least Dangerous Branch (http:/ / yalepress. yale. edu/ book. asp?isbn=9780300032994). Indianapolis:
Bobbs-Merrill. ISBN978-0300032994. . Retrieved 26 May 2011.
[40] Chemerinsky, Erwin (2006). Constitutional Law: Principles and Policies (3rd ed.). New York: Aspen Publishers. pp.41.
ISBN073555787X.
[41] Sullivan, Kathleen M.; Gunther, Gerald (2007). Constitutional Law. New York: Foundation Press. ISBN9781599412467.

Further reading
Smith, Jean Edward (1996). John Marshall: Definer Of A Nation. Owl Books. ISBN080505510X.
Smith, Jean Edward (1989). The Constitution And American Foreign Policy. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing
Company. ISBN0314423176.
Nelson, William E. (2000). Marbury v. Madison: The Origins and Legacy of Judicial Review. University Press of
Kansas. ISBN0700610626. (One introduction to the case)
Clinton, Robert Lowry (1991). Marbury v. Madison and Judicial Review. University Press of Kansas.
ISBN0700605177. (Claims that it is a mistake to read the case as claiming a judicial power to tell the President or
Congress what they can or cannot do under the Constitution.)
Irons, Peter (1999). A People's History of the Supreme Court. Penguin Books. pp.104107. ISBN0140292012.
Newmyer, R. Kent (2001). John Marshall and the Heroic Age of the Supreme Court. Louisiana State University
Press. ISBN0807132497.
Tushnet, Mark (2008). I dissent: Great Opposing Opinions in Landmark Supreme Court Cases. Boston: Beacon
Press. pp.116. ISBN9780807000366.
Sloan, Cliff; McKean, David (2009). The Great Decision: Jefferson, Adams, Marshall and the Battle for the
Supreme Court. New York, NY: PublicAffairs. ISBN1586484265.

External links
Text of Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. 137 (1803) is available from: Justia (http://supreme.justia.com/us/5/137/
case.html) Findlaw (http://laws.findlaw.com/us/5/137.html) LII (http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/
html/historics/USSC_CR_0005_0137_ZS.html)
The 200th Anniversary of Marbury v. Madison: The Reasons We Should Still Care About the Decision, and The
Lingering Questions It Left Behind (http://writ.news.findlaw.com/commentary/20030224_grossman.html)
The Establishment of Judicial Review (http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/data/constitution/article03/13.html)
The 200th Anniversary of Marbury v. Madison: The Supreme Court's First Great Case (http://www.abanet.org/
publiced/lawday/marbury.pdf)
Case Brief for Marbury v. Madison at Lawnix.com (http://www.lawnix.com/cases/marbury-madison.html)
Article Sources and Contributors 10

Article Sources and Contributors

Marbury v. Madison Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=436969341 Contributors: 5 albert square, 7&6=thirteen, A. Parrot, A.R., ABCD, Absecon 59, Ahacop, Aitias,
Alansohn, Alex S, Allents, Ammubhave, Andrew c, Andyjsmith, Angela, Animum, Anonymous editor, Anonymous44, Anthony, AnthonyDG, Anythingyouwant, Apparition11, Argyrios
Saccopoulos, Arjun01, Astrale01, AvicAWB, B00P, BD2412, BarberJP, BenWilson, Bender235, BlueDevil, Bob Cigar, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Boongie, BorgHunter, Brendanology, Brentdax,
Brian0918, Broadcaster101, Bronzemedal97, Bryan Derksen, C45207, CanadianLinuxUser, Cdogsimmons, Centrx, Choess, Christopher Parham, Ckpeter, Cliesthenes, Coemgenus, Conversion
script, Corvus cornix, Cquan, Craigtheomnipotent, Cybercobra, Cynical, CzarNick, D, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DJSbass, DLJessup, DMacks, DVD R W, Danglingdiagnosis, DanielCD, DarkAudit,
Darker Dreams, Davidcannon, Dcmacnut, Democracy to information, DerHexer, Didup, Dina, Dolda2000, Driscoth, Drmies, Droll, ESkog, Eastlaw, EchoBravo, Edivorce, Eggishorn, Elfred,
Elise t, Elmo McGee, Enm13, Enochlau, Epbr123, Espoo, Everyking, Excirial, Famspear, Farthur2, Filippowiki, Firebug, Fishmonger 69, Flockmeal, Foofighter20x, Forever Dusk,
FrankCostanza, Froglovers, Furrykef, Fvasconcellos, F, Garion, GcSwRhIc, GeoGreg, GeoffCapp, Glane23, Gloriamarie, Gnat, Gogo Dodo, Good Olfactory, GorillaWarfare, Grafen,
Grahamdubya, Grahamec, Grant.Alpaugh, Ground Zero, Gscshoyru, Guido del Confuso, Gwernol, HJ Mitchell, Harry491, Haukurth, Hephaestos, Hermitage, HexaChord, HighschoolEmo,
Hmains, Hobbitguy, Howcheng, Hut 8.5, Hydriotaphia, Hydrogen Iodide, I dream of horses, I heart cnn, Iflipti, Into The Fray, Iota, Iridescent, J'raxis, J.delanoy, JCO312, JD Caselaw,
JJEagleHawk, JLaTondre, JW1805, JYolkowski, Jackol, Jason Palpatine, Jaxl, JayJasper, Jbapllow, Jcating, Jeff G., Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Jengod, Jersyko, Jesslt386, Jhbdel, Jj137, Jmeggs4261,
Jonathan.s.kt, Jptwo, Jrquinlisk, Jtbandes, K, K8lj, KConWiki, Kasreyn, Kbdank71, Kd4ttc, Kdelong, Kewp, King of Corsairs, KnowledgeOfSelf, Konstantin.Parkhomenko, Kravdraa Ulb,
Kronius, Kuru, Kvdveer, L Kensington, LAZY 1L, LOL, La Pianista, La goutte de pluie, Lacrimosus, Lambiam, LarryJeff, Laurinavicius, LeaveSleaves, Legalskeptic, Legend Saber, Levineps,
Lexo, Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, Lilly granger, Lockesdonkey, Lord Emsworth, Lquilter, Lucasreddinger, MJO, MPerel, MZMcBride, Macrakis, Magog the Ogre 2, Mais oui!, Malatesta,
Malplaquet, Mangojuice, Markles, Marlowe, Mastrchf91, Mateo SA, Meelar, Meno25, Mentisock, Mercury, Mets501, MileyDavidA, Misza13, Mmmbeer, Moulding, Mr. Lefty, Mulad, Nakon,
Nandesuka, NawlinWiki, NerdyScienceDude, Neutrality, Nilfanion, NorsemanII, North Shoreman, Nsaa, NuclearWarfare, OCNative, Oldnavy77, OllieFury, Openstrings, Orsino10, Ortolan88,
Outriggr, OverMyHead, Owen, Panpulha, PaulHanson, Pencil Pusher, Peterb12, PeterisP, Ph89, Philg88, Philip Trueman, Philipp Wetzlar, Piano non troppo, Piratelooksat30some2001, Pishogue,
Plasticspork, Please Don't Block, Pmadrid, Pmanderson, Politepunk, Ponyinc, Pooman444, Possum, Postdlf, ProudPrimate, Puffin, Quadell, Qxz, R. fiend, RG2, Randomjohn, Reaper Eternal,
Recognizance, Red Bowen, ReinforcedReinforcements, RexNL, Reywas92, Rfc1394, Riana, Richard75, Ricky81682, Rjbesquire, Rjensen, Rjfost, Rktect, Rlquall, RockMFR, Rodwilco,
RogerShermanIsBoss, Roguelazer, RoyBoy, Rrius, Ruslik0, S.K., SS451, Sander123, Savidan, Scepia, Schmeitgeist, Seaurchin69, Sebmol, Selket, Sertrel, Shadowlynk, Shivreddy, Shoplifter,
SimonP, Size J Battery, Sjakkalle, Skyler1534, Slon02, SnapLaw, Srikeit, Stevertigo, Stockwellapril, Str1977, StringRay, Studerby, SunSw0rd, Sven Manguard, Swampyank, Swatjester,
Swiftfire242, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tbhotch, Telso, The Utahraptor, TheGWO, TheTrueSora, Theaveng, Tide rolls, Tim!, Titoxd, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tombomp, Tombridge, Tony Fox,
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West.andrew.g, Who, WikiAce, Wikidea, Wikipelli, Woohookitty, WookieInHeat, Writergeek7, Wtmitchell, Wwegamer99, XXxJediKnightxXx, Xcentaur, Xinoph, YUL89YYZ, Yamamoto
Ichiro, Yamla, Zacheus, Zhaladshar, , , 997 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:Seal of the United States Supreme Court.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Ipankonin
Image:Marbury.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marbury.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Goland, Sebmol, Sven, Yakoo, 3 anonymous edits
Image:JamesMadison.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JamesMadison.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jappalang, Jon Harald Sby, Rlbberlin
Image:Coke.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coke.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: DavidCooke, DrKiernan, Filiocht
File:Plaque of Marbury v. Madison at SCOTUS Building.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plaque_of_Marbury_v._Madison_at_SCOTUS_Building.JPG License:
Public Domain Contributors: User:NuclearWarfare
Image:Marshall-john-engraving-LOC-1808.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marshall-john-engraving-LOC-1808.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alfred
Lhr, Mu, Mutter Erde, Sebmol

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