Tensioned cable bolt reinforcement - an integrated case study

A G Thompson
Rock Technology, Perth, Western Australia

C R Windsor
Rock Technology, Perth, Western Australia

ABSTRACT: Tensioned cable bolts have been studied during and after their installation. The investigations have included the development of
theories and computer programs, laboratory testing of the individual components and monitoring of cable bolt systems in the field. The cable bolt
system configuration and the stressing equipment directly influence the tension immediately following installation and during service. New
procedures are presented for design and installation of tensioned cable bolts.

RESUME: Verroux du cble chargs a t tudi pendant et aprs leur installation. Les enqutes ont inclus le dveloppement de thories et
ordinateur programme, essai du laboratoire des lments individuels et coute de systmes du verrou du cble dans le champ. Le cble verrouille
configuration du systme et le matriel de l'accentue directement influence le tension immdiatement installation suivante et pendant service.
Nouvelles procdures sont prsentes pour la conception et l'installation de verroux du cble chargs.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Gezerrte Drahtseil-Blitze sind gelernt worden whrend und nach ihrer Installation. Die Untersuchungen haben die
Entwicklung von Theorien eingeschlossen, und Computer programmieren, Laboratorium-Prfung von den individuellen Bestandteilen und
Mithrkontrolle von Drahtseil-Blitz-Systemen in das Feld. Die Drahtseil-Blitz-System-Form und die Laden-Ausrstung direkt Einflu der
Spannung sofort folgende Installation und whrend Dienstes. Neue Vorgehene sind hat prsentiert fr Absicht und Installation von gezerrten
Drahtseil-Blitzen.

1 INTRODUCTION Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4

Cable bolting in surface and underground mining has evolved from

ground anchor technology. Ground anchors are routinely tensioned
using established procedures (Habib, 1989) that ensure the resulting
tension in the anchor is predictable and consistent. The stringent
requirements (BSI, 1989) are not directly applicable to cable bolts in
mining operations. However, less exacting procedures have evolved to
address the basic requirements of productivity and safety associated
with the installation of large numbers of cable bolts in sometimes
hazardous conditions.
This integrated study consists essentially of two parts:
1. The methods used to introduce tension into cable bolts.
2. The interaction between tensioned cable bolts and rock.
The methods of stressing have been investigated theoretically and in
laboratory and field tests. The investigations have addressed the
immediate effects of tensioning, the influence of blast vibrations on
tension and the long term effectiveness of cable tension.
A reinforcement system consists of 3 main components; the
reinforcement element, an internal fixture and an external fixture.
Testing and monitoring of the individual components, their interactions Primary Internal Fixture
and the overall reinforcement system have been used to improve the Secondary Internal Fixture
understanding of tensioned cable bolts.
Figure 1. Possible configurations for tensioned cable installations.

2 CABLE BOLT SYSTEMS AND TENSIONING

The various arrangements of cable bolt systems currently in popular use
are shown in Figure 1. The internal fixture may consist of a mechanical
expansion anchor similar to those used for rock bolts or it may be a cement
or resin grout used to fill the annulus between the reinforcement element
and the borehole. The external fixture is most usually a barrel and wedge
fitting. The properties of the external fixture and its placement have the
most influence on the results of the stressing process.
In general, two stages are involved in the stressing process:
Stage 1: Tensioning. This involves the application of a
tensioning force to the cable to establish an initial tension. During
tensioning, the surface hardware is pushed, and held tightly, against the
rock face.
Stage 2: Relaxation. This involves securing the external
fixture to the cable and removal of the tensioning force. A reduction of
cable tension usually accompanies this second stage to leave a residual
tension in the cable bolt.
The initial tension that can be produced in the element and the
residual tension depend on the cable bolt system configuration, the
installation procedures, the stressing equipment and the values of
several critical parameters.
2.1 Stressing Equipment
The stressing equipment for cable bolts consists essentially of a hollow
hydraulic cylinder, an anchor to grip the cable and an auxiliary assembly to

Rock Technology
push on the bearing plate. Four alternative assemblies are shown in PB
R
Figure 2. These assemblies result in the tensioning force being distributed
SW
differently between the barrel and the wedge of the external fixture. The
design of the assembly influences the initial tension produced during W
tensioning and the residual tension after relaxation. Relaxation is due
mainly to the displacements between the cable and the external fixture. SW
PW
SC
2.2 Properties of Cable Bolt Components

The component configurations and properties, the procedures used to C

install the system and the interactions between the components dictate
system performance. It was shown by Thompson (1992) that the SC
performance of the system could be quantified using simple equations T Pi
and computer software that emulate the tensioning and relaxation stages.

2.2.1 External Fixture Figure 3. Forces on the cable and anchor components during
tensioning.
The forces on the various components of the external fixture (face plate,
barrel and wedge) during tensioning are shown in Figure 3. Equilibrium
equations for the various components are used to predict that the initial
2.2.1.1 Wedge/Cable Friction
tension during installation (Ti) is given by:
Ti = Ki Pi (1) The apparent wedge/cable friction is controlled by the teeth on the inner
surface of the wedge. These teeth are essential for proper anchor
where: Pi = tensioning force performance but they also inhibit installation. A friction angle of 45
and Ki = initial tension reduction factor given by: has been measured in a specially designed test in which a cable was
( )
P w / P i 1 tan tan b tan c
pulled through loaded wedges.
Ki = 1 (2)
( )
tan b 1 tan tan c + tan + tan c 2.2.1.2 Barrel/Wedge Friction
where: c = friction between cable and wedge The condition of the barrel/wedge interface can be assumed to range
b = friction angle between barrel and wedge from lubricated to heavily corroded. The friction angle is between 5
= barrel/wedge taper angle and 25 for this range of conditions.
Pw = wedge force
Pb = barrel force = Pi - Pw 2.2.1.3 Barrel/Wedge Taper Angle

The mechanical deformation properties of the individual components may
be largely ignored during tensioning due to the way the force is applied
with effectively no restriction on displacement. However, this is not so
when assessing the extent of tension loss during relaxation. Estimates of
the properties for individual components common to the cable bolt
systems used in the mining industry are provided in the following sections.
Generally, the barrel/wedge interface angle is about 7. Increasing the
angle reduces the wedge/cable friction. A smaller angle will cause the
wedge to grip the cable more tightly and to be more securely locked into
the barrel.
2.2.1.4 Force/Displacement Characteristic

The overall external fixture characteristic is represented by the movement

Method 1 of the wedge relative to the barrel for various values of the wedge force.
This is a complex interaction of the wedge teeth with the cable and the
tapered wedge surface with the barrel and depends on the friction of the
two interfaces and the radial deformability of the barrel and cable. Special
laboratory tests were set up to simulate wedge displacement relative to the
barrel during tensioning and relaxation. The rate of penetration of the
wedge gradually decreased as the wedge force was increased.
Method 2
2.2.2 Surface Response to Loading

The absolute displacement of the external fixture is controlled by the

response of the hardware and rock to loading by the stressing
equipment. Different size and thickness bearing plates will affect the
magnitude of the displacement.
Method 3
2.2.3 Free Length

The response of the cable element between the internal and external fixtures
is controlled by the properties of the cable and the load transfer between the
cable and its surroundings. The free behaviour of high strength cable is well
established. However, friction between the cable and its surroundings will
Method 4 influence the element behaviour during tensioning and relaxation.

2.2.4 Internal fixture

Wedge Tensioning Reaction

The overall load-displacement behaviour of the cable and internal fixture is
Force Force Grip influenced by the properties of the rock, grout and cable and the interactions
across the interfaces between these components. The overall behaviour for
Figure 2. Methods of tensioning cable bolts particular conditions is best determined by axial tension tests.

Rock Technology
 1.0 0 Method 2: Direct Loading Auxiliary Assembly
INITIAL TENSION FACTOR ( K i) This method of tensioning involves the tensioning force being applied
0.9 20
directly to the wedges of the external fixture. Laboratory and field tests
0.8
40
(Windsor et al., 1984) have measured the residual tension to be about
0.7 30% of the tensioning force. This result is consistent with the range of
60 reduction factors for this method of tensioning presented in Figure 5.
0.6
0.5 80 Method 3: Spring Auxiliary Assembly
The 'spring' assembly provides a compromise between the conflicting
0.4 100
requirements to maximise the initial tension and to minimise relaxation
Pw
0.3 % losses. The spring is compressed during tensioning to apply a force to
Pi
0.2 the wedges. Field tests of this assembly indicated gradually softening of
= 7.5 ( measured ) the spring with repeated use. This was reflected in the measured
0.1 c = 45 ( measured ) reduction in residual tension as expected from Figure 5.
0
0 10 20 30 Method 4: Hydraulic Auxiliary Assembly
BARREL / WEDGE FRICTION ANGLE ( b ) Field trials were performed using a hydraulic assembly in which the
wedge force was applied after cable tensioning. The results were
consistent with Figure 6 which suggests that the application of the
Figure 4. Variation of initial tension factor (Ki) for different wedge force after initial tensioning is the most appropriate method of
magnitudes of wedge force during tensioning. cable stressing. Residual tensions were less dependent on the cable bolt
configurations and relaxation losses following release of the tensioning
force were markedly less than in other methods. Another major
3 CABLE BOLT BEHAVIOUR DURING INSTALLATION advantage is that the wedges do not damage the cable. This is especially
important for cable bolt configurations involving long element lengths
With the above basic component properties and equations it is possible to between the internal and external fixtures.
predict tensioning and relaxation behaviour of various cable configurations
installed using different stressing equipment.
100

3.1 Behaviour During Tensioning 90

( kN)

80 10
Figure 4 shows the variation of the initial tension reduction factor 5
0
predicted from equation 2 as the wedge force is varied from 0% to 70
RESIDUAL TENSION

50
100% of the tensioning force for various barrel/wedge interface 60
conditions. The cable tension that can be induced decreases as more of 75
the tensioning force is applied to the wedge during tensioning. 50

40 100
3.2 Behaviour During Relaxation 30 Pw
% Pi= 100 kN
Pi
The extent of relaxation depends mainly on the wedge force applied 20
during installation and the length of cable between the internal and 10
external fixtures. A computer based procedure has been developed to
0
take into consideration these factors and the properties of the 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
components. Measured characteristics were used for the reinforcing
cable, internal fixture and external fixture whereas the surface response FREE CABLE LENGTH (m)
was estimated.
Figure 5 shows the predicted variations of residual tension as the Figure 5. Residual tension variation with free length when the
wedge force applied during tensioning is varied from 0% to 100% of the wedge force is applied during tensioning.
tensioning force. The relaxation is reduced by increasing the wedge
force applied during installation. The relaxation from the initial tension
decreases as the cable free length increases. The residual tension can be 100
made independent of cable free length by applying high wedge forces. 90
Figure 6 shows the predicted variations of residual tension as the
RESIDUAL TENSION (kN)

80 50
wedge force applied after initial tensioning is varied from 10% to 50% 40
30
of the tensioning force. The residual tensions are generally higher and 70 20
10
less sensitive to variations in free length than for the case where the 60
wedge force is applied during tensioning as shown in Figure 5. Pw
% Pi= 100 kN
50 Pi
40
3.3 Field Evaluation of Methods of Tensioning
30
Four different methods of stressing have been examined under 20
operational conditions. A number of different items of stressing
equipment have been developed and used to demonstrate that different 10
levels of residual tension can be achieved. 0
Method 1: Chair Style Auxiliary Assembly 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The 'chair' assembly ensures that the hydraulic cylinder force is applied FREE CABLE LENGTH (m)
directly to the bearing plate. The residual tension using no wedge force
before releasing the tensioning force are consistent with Figure 5.
Application of an impact force on the wedges can be partially successful Figure 6. Residual tension variation with free length when the
in increasing residual tension. wedge force is applied after tensioning and prior to relaxation.

Rock Technology
4 CABLE BOLT AND ROCK MASS INTERACTIONS
Field investigations have been performed at various sites over a number
years. These investigations have examined the short term or immediate
response of rock to cable bolt tensioning, the response of tensioned cable
bolts to blast induced vibrations and the long term stability of tensioned
cable bolts in stable rock. Investigations in which the cable bolt response
was influenced by changes in excavation geometry during mining have
been reported previously. For example, Thompson et al. (1995) described
the performance of tensioned cable bolts during mining of an open pit and
Windsor et al. (1984) reported the performance of tensioned cable bolts
during mining of open stopes.
One major investigation was undertaken to study the response of a
bedded formation of shale to tensioned cable bolts. Four cable bolts with
free lengths ranging from 4 metres to 16 metres were instrumented with
continuous strings of strain gauge type extensometers (Windsor and
Worotnicki, 1986) that were able measure compression and tension. A
rock extensometer was also installed at the centre of the closely arranged
array of cable bolts. Both axial and radial displacement distributions were
measured by the extensometers as each cable assembly was stressed.
The research findings from this investigation are in conflict with the
notion that tensioned cable bolts generally induce an additional normal
stress across discontinuities within the rock mass. The strains measured
by the extensometer strings were localised to regions near the surface
plate and internal fixture, even though the cable bolt tensions were
uncharacteristically high (~1000kN) for a standard cable bolt plate.
This finding was also supported by computational modelling of the
response of a transversely isotropic half-space, loaded uniformly by a
square plate. It is suggested that the finding is generally true of all
loaded zones continuously connected to the rock mass where the plate
loading may be dissipated over a larger volume of rock. However, this
is not the case for isolated zones such as individual rock blocks.
Littlejohn et al. (1977) measured the variations in anchor forces due
to blasting in an open pit and found that the anchor forces generally
increased due to rock mass loosening. By contrast, monitoring of cable
bolts in more or less stable areas near large scale open pit blasts showed
significant tension losses due to either movement of the bearing plate or
the internal anchor. Long term monitoring of cable bolts also showed
loss of tension due to creep of the rock and internal fixtures.
5 PRACTICAL OUTCOMES
The relatively low capacity of cable bolts means that when pre-
tensioned they cannot stress the rock mass and limit displacements to
the same extent as ground anchors. However, pretensioning is desirable
for a number of reasons. Pretensioning is required to hold the surface
restraint system firmly against the rock surface to improve the resilience
to blast vibrations. Pretensioning may also reduce the ease with which
discontinuities open. This in turn maintains the inherent shear strength
of the rock mass and improves its overall performance. However,
tensioning does not increase the internal stiffness of the cable bolt
response. This is governed by the load transfer characteristics between
the reinforcement element and the rock.
The installation of a pre-stressed cable bolt involves a two stage
process of tensioning and relaxation. The residual tension achieved in
the cable bolt is a function of the process of tensioning, the initial
tension, the process of relaxation, the stressing equipment and relations
describing the behaviour of individual components and the rock mass
and their interactions.
Popular cable bolt installation procedures involving short free
element lengths result in low residual pretensions that are insufficient to
prevent loosening of the external fixture by blast vibrations. To avoid
this happening, we suggest that a residual tension of greater than 40-50
kN is required.
Some auxiliary installation assemblies result in the cable being
damaged by the wedges. One promising method using a spring in the
auxiliary assembly was found to be of variable reliability due to the
spring softening with repeated use.
Rock Technology
It is suggested that the most desirable method of installing a tensioned
cable bolt is to use a hydraulic cylinder to set the external fixture prior
to releasing the tensioning force. This method allows higher levels of
force to be applied to the wedges, without damaging the cable and
makes the residual tension less dependent on the element free length.
Furthermore, if this installation procedure is adopted, it is not necessary
to de-couple the cable to facilitate tensioning. This means that the
internal system stiffness may be maintained, providing an additional
advantage to the reinforcement when in service.
A computer simulation of the mechanics of cable tensioning has been
developed to assist operators in understanding the differences in
behaviour of different tensioning methods and cable bolt configurations.
6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
It has been established that a cable bolt is best represented mechanically
by a system of components. It was found that in order to understand the
behaviour of the system during and after installation both the behaviour
of individual components and their interactions needed to be defined
and understood. An integrated approach, involving theoretical analyses,
computer program analyses, laboratory testing, in situ testing and in situ
monitoring was adopted to study the components and their interactions
during various installation processes, immediately after installation and
during service.
The research program has led to the development of new design and
installation procedures for tensioned cable bolts. This is of considerable
significance to the mining industry.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the management of the BHP Iron
Ore for providing the field sites used in these investigations. The
researchers also wish to acknowledge the invaluable assistance of BHP
Iron Ore staff, particularly Peter O'Bryan and Greg Caswell for
planning, scheduling and assisting with site activities.
We wish to acknowledge the invaluable expertise and assistance of
Glynn Cadby for the design, fabrication and setting up of the various
items of electronic equipment. We also wish to thank Patrick Carden,
Mark Diederichs, Jean Hutchinson, Bob Middleton and Rosalie
Thompson for their assistance with the various field investigations.
REFERENCES
BSI 1989. British Standard Code of practice for Ground anchorages.
London: British Standards Institution.
Habib, P. (editor) 1989. Recommendations for the design, calculation,
construction and monitoring of ground anchorages (3rd edition).
Rotterdam: Balkema.
Littlejohn, G.S., P.J. Norton and M.J. Turner 1977. A study of rock
slope reinforcement at Westfield open pit and the effect of blasting
on prestressed anchors. Proc. Conf. on Rock Engineering, 297-310.
University of Newcastle Upon Tyne.
Thompson, A.G. 1992. Tensioning reinforcing cables. Rock Support
(Kaiser and McCreath, Eds.), 285-291. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Thompson, A.G, C.R. Windsor, W.V. Robertson and I.G. Robertson
1995. Case study of an instrumented reinforced pit slope. Proc.
35th US Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Lake Tahoe, June.
Rotterdam: Balkema.
Windsor, C.R., S. Bywater and G. Worotnicki 1984. Instrumentation
and Observed Behaviour of N663 Trial Stope, Race Course Area,
Mount Isa Mines. AMIRA Geomechanics of Underground
Metalliferous Mines Project Report No. 23. Melbourne: CSIRO
Division of Geomechanics.
Windsor, C.R. and G. Worotnicki 1986. Monitoring reinforced rock
mass performance. Large Rock Caverns (K.H.O. Saari, Ed.), V2,
1087-1097. London: Pergamon.