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Lecture 3
Digital Modulation, Detection and
Performance Analysis
Prof. Chun-Hung Liu
Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering
National Chiao Tung University
Spring 2017
AWGN Channels
Error Probability
Fading
There are M = 2K possible sequences of K bits, and we say that each bit
sequence of length K comprises a message mi = {b1 , . . . , bK } 2 M where
M = {m1 , . . . , mM } is the set of all such messages.
The messages
PM have probability pi of being selected for transmission,
where i=1 pi = 1 .
Suppose message mi is to be transmitted over the channel during the time
interval [0, T).
Each message mi 2 M is mapped to a unique analog signal si 2 S
= {s1 (t), . . . , sM (t)} where si (t) is defined on the time interval
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Signal Space Analysis
[0, T) and has energy
Z T
Es i = s2i (t)dt, , i = 1, . . . , M.
0
where m 1, . . . , b
= {b K } 2 M is best estimate of the transmitted bit
sequence.
If the signals {si (t)} are linearly independent then N = M , otherwise N<M.
The minimum number N of basis functions needed to represent any signal
si (t) of duration T and bandwidth B is roughly 2BT. (why?)
The basis set may also include a baseband pulse-shaping filter g(t) to
improve the spectral characteristics of the transmitted signal:
si (t) = si1 g(t) cos(2fc t) + si2 g(t) sin(2fc t).
In this case the pulse shape g(t) must maintain the orthonormal
properties (5.5) of basis functions, i.e. we must have
Z T Z T
g 2 (t) cos2 (2fc t)dt = 1 and g 2 (t) cos(2fc t) sin(2fc t)dt = 0,
0 0
Solution: There is
ponly one basis function for ps1 (t) and s2 (t) ,
(t) = 2/T cos(2fc t) where the 2/T is needed for
normalization. The coefficients are then given by
p p
s1 = T /2 and s2 = T /2.
The coefficients {sij }is denoted as a vector si = (si1 , . . . , siN ) 2 RN which
is called the signal constellation point corresponding to the signal si (t) .
The signal constellation consists of all constellation points {s1 , . . . , sM } .
The representation of si (t) in terms of its constellation point si 2 RN is
called its signal space representation and the vector space containing the
constellation is called the signal space.
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Signal Space Analysis
A two-dimensional signal space is illustrated in Figure 5.3, where we show
si 2 R2 with the ith axis of R2 corresponding to the basis function i (t) .
Finally, the inner product < si (t), sk (t) > between two real signals si (t)
and sk (t) on the interval [0,T] is
Z T
< si (t), sk (t) >= si (t)sk (t)dt.
0
Similarly, the inner product < si , sk > between two real vectors is
Z T
< si , sk >= si sTk = si (t)sk (t)dt =< si (t), sk (t) >
0
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Receiver Structure and Sufficient Statistics
Here we would like to convert the received signal r(t) over each time
interval into a vector, as it allows us to work in finite-dimensional vector
space to estimate the transmitted signal.
For this conversion, consider the receiver structure shown in Figure 5.4,
where Z T Z T
sij = si (t) j (t)dt, and nj = n(t) j (t)dt.
0 0
Moreover,
Since r is a sufficient statistic for the received signal r(t), we call r the
received vector associated with r(t).
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Decision Regions and the Maximum Likelihood Decision
We know, given a received vector r, the optimal receiver selects m
= mi
corresponding to the constellation that satisfies
p(si sent|r) > p(sj sent|r), j 6= i
Let us define a set of decisions regions (Z1 , . . . , ZM ) that are subsets of the
signal space RN by
Zi = (r : p(si sent|r) > p(sj sent|r), 8j 6= i).
Clearly these regions do not overlap and they partition the signal space
assuming there is no r 2 RN for which p(si sent|r) = p(sj sent|r) .
If such points exist then the signal space is partitioned with decision regions
by arbitrarily assigning such points to either decision region Zi or Zj .
Once the signal space has been partitioned by decision regions, then for a
received vector r 2 Zi the optimal receiver outputs the message
estimate m
= mi .
(5.36)
i.e. the probability of error equals the probability that the noise n is
closer to the vector si sk than to the origin.
This probability does not depend on the entire noise component n: it
only depends on the projection of n onto the line connecting the origin
and the point si sk , as shown in Figure 5.9.
The event Aik occurs if n is closer to si sk than to zero, i.e. if n > dik /2 ,
where dik = ksi sk k equals the distance between constellation points
si and sk . Thus,
So we can get
where
Note that for binary modulation where M = 2, there is only one way to
make an error and dmin is the distance between the two signal
constellation points, so the bound (5.43) is exact:
dmin
Pb = Q p (5.46)
2N0
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Error Probability and the Union Bound
The minimum distance squared in (5.44) and (5.46) is typically
proportional to the SNR of the received signal. Thus, error probability is
reduced by increasing the received signal power.
Recall that Pe is the probability of a symbol (message) error
Pe = p(m 6= mi |mi sent) , where mi corresponds to a message with log2 M
bits.
However, system designers are typically more interested in the bit error
probability, also called the bit error rate (BER), than in the symbol error
probability, since bit errors drive the performance of higher layer
networking protocols and end-to-end performance.
So we would like to design the mapping of the M possible bit sequences to
messages mi , i = 1, . . . , M so that a symbol error associated with an
adjacent decision region, which is the most likely way to make an error,
corresponds to only one bit error.
With such a mapping, assuming that mistaking a signal constellation for a
constellation other than its nearest neighbors has a very low probability,
we can make the approximation Pb Pe
log2 M
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Passband Modulation Principles
The goal of modulation is to send bits at a high data rate while
minimizing the probability of data corruption.
In general, modulated carrier signals encode information in the
amplitude (t) , frequency f(t), or phase (t) of a carrier signal. Thus, the
modulated signal can be represented as
Example 5.4:
For square signal constellations, where si1 and si2 take values on
(2i 1 L)d, i = 1, 2, . . . , L = 2l , the minimum distance between signal
points reduces to dmin = 2d , the same as for MPAM.
MQAM with square constellations of size L2 is equivalent to MPAM
modulation with constellations of size L on each of the in-phase and
quadrature signal components.
Common square constellations are 4QAM and 16QAM, which are
shown in Figure 5.18 below.
These square constellations have M = 22l = L2 constellation points,
which are used to send 2l bits/symbol, or l bits per dimension.
The time and frequency domain properties of the Raised Cosine pulse
are shown in Figures 5.26-5.27.
The tails of this pulse in the time domain decay as 1/t3 (faster than for
the previous pulse shapes), so a mistiming error in sampling leads to a
series of intersymbol interference components that converge.
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Pulse Shaping
The SNR is often expressed in terms of the signal energy per bit Eb or per
symbol Es as
where Ts is the symbol time and Tb is the bit time (for binary modulation
Ts = Tb and Es = Eb ).
For data pulses with Ts = 1/B , e.g. raised cosine pulses with =1, we have
SNR = Es /N0 for multilevel signaling and SNR = Eb /N0 for binary signaling.
The approximate conversion typically assumes that the symbol energy is divided
equally among all bits, and that Gray encoding is used so that at reasonable
SNRs, one symbol error corresponds to exactly one bit error. These assumptions
for M-ray signaling lead to the approximations
s Ps
b and Pb
log2 M log2 M
p
This yields the minimum distance dmin = 2A = 2 Eb . Thus, we have
(6.6)
Since the symbol energy is split between the in-phase and quadrature branches,
we have s = 2 b . Therefore, we have
p 2 (6.8)
Ps = 1 [1 Q( s )] .
(6.11)
From (5.57), for the received vector x = rej represented in polar coordinates, an
error occurs if the ith signal constellation point is transmitted and
2
/ (2(i 1.5)/M, 2(i 0.5)/M )
The joint distribution of r and can be obtained through a bivariate
transformation of the noise n1 and n2 on the in-phase and quadrature branches
[Proakis, Chapter 4.3-2], which yields
Since the error probability depends only on the distribution of , we can integrate
out the dependence on r, yielding
By symmetry, the probability of error is the same for each constellation point.
Thus, we can obtain Ps from the probability of error assuming the constellation
point s1 = (A, 0) is transmitted, which is
Many of the approximations or exact values for Ps derived above for coherent
modulation are in the following form:
p
Ps ( s ) M Q M s , (6.33)
where M and M depend on the type of approximation and the modulation type.
In particular, the nearest neighbor approximation has this form, where M is the
number of nearest neighbors to a constellation at the minimum distance, and M
is a constant that relates minimum distance to average symbol energy.
Pout = p( s < 0) = p s ( )d ,
0
where 0 typically specifies the minimum SNR required for acceptable
performance.
Inverting this formula shows that for a given outage probability, the required
average SNR s is
0
s = .
ln(1 Pout )
where Ps ( ) is the probability of symbol error in AWGN with SNR , which can be
approximated by the expressions in Table 6.1
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Average Error Probability
For a given distribution of the fading amplitude r (i.e. Rayleigh, Rician, log-
normal, etc.), we compute p s ( ) by making the change of variable
p s ( )d = p(r)dr.
For example, in Rayleigh fading the received signal amplitude r has the Rayleigh
distribution
r r 2 /2 2
p(r) = 2
e , r 0,
and the signal power is exponentially distributed with mean 2 2. The SNR per
symbol for a given amplitude r is
r 2 Ts
= ,
2 n2
where n2 = N0 /2 is the PSD of the noise in the in-phase and quadrature branches.
Differentiating both sides of this expression yields
rTs
d = 2
dr.
n
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Average Error Probability
Then we can have
(6.55)
(6.56)
(6.57)
Integrating (6.6) over the distribution (6.57) yields the following average
probability of error for BPSK in Rayleigh fading.
An outage is declared when the received SNR per symbol due to shadowing and
path loss alone, s , falls below a given target value s0 .
Clearly whenever s > s0 , the average error probability will be below the
target value.