(Module-12)

RUNWAY
RUNWAY

A runway is a long narrow strip of ground with a hard surface prepared for the
landing and the takeoff of aircraft. Runway may be constructed from gravel, grass,
ice, asphalt or concrete. Most commercial runways are made of asphalt or concrete.

Blast pads, also known as overrun areas or stop ways, are often constructed just
before the start of runway when jet blast produced by large planes during the
takeoff roll could otherwise erode the ground and eventually damage the runway.
Overrun areas are also constructed at the end of runways to stop planes that have
gone wrong while landing or takeoff. Blast pads are not as strong as the main paved
surface of the runway and are marked with yellow chevrons.

There are two types of runways as far as direction is concerned:

1. Primary Runway: The runway that is oriented into the prevailing winds.
2. Crosswind Runway: The runway that is oriented toward the most common
crosswind direction.

Types of RUNWAYS

Single runway
Parallel runways
Intersecting runways
Open-V runways
Boxed runways (two or more sets of perpendicular runways)

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Runway Orientation
Orientation means the angle that the runway centerline makes with the azimuth.
The runways have to be aligned in the right wind direction. Because of the obvious
advantages of landing and taking off into the wind, runways are oriented in the
direction of prevailing winds. Aircraft may not maneuver safely on a runway when
the wind contains a large component at right angles to the direction of travel called
crosswind. Runways should be oriented so aircraft may be landed at least 95% of
the time with a crosswind component not exceeding 13 knots.

Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the
magnetic azimuth in degrees divided by ten. A runway numbered 09 points east
(90o), runway 18 is south (180o), runway 27 points west (270o) and runway 36
points to the north (360o). A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is
named for each direction separately: e.g., runway 33 in one direction is runway
15 when used in the other. The two numbers always differ by 18 (180o)

When the same runway is used from opposite directions the runway is identified by
both orientations (e.g. Runway 09/27)

If there is more than one runway pointing in the same direction (parallel runways),
each runway is identified by appending left (L), Center (C) and Right (R) to the
number to identify its position. For example, Runways One Five Left (15L), One Five
Center (15C) and One Five Right (15R)

For clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced
individually: runway THREE SIX, runway ONE FOUR, etc.

Runways are typically constructed from gravel, snow, ice, grass, asphalt or
concrete. Most commercial runways are asphalt or concrete.

Runway Classification
1. Non-Instrument: Visual Approach procedures only.
2. Non-Precision: Instrument approach with only horizontal guidance
straight-in non-precision instrument approaches only.
3. Precision: Instrument approach utilizing Instrument Landing System (ILS),
Microwave Landing System (MLS) or GPS.

Geometric Standards for Runways

Geometric standards for various runways elements are as follows:

1. Length
2. Width
3. Longitudinal gradient & profile

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 4. Transverse gradient
5. Runway intersections
1. LENGTH

Runway length and width are determined by the type of aircraft using the airport
and their requirements. A runway of at least 6,000ft (1,829m) in length is usually
adequate for aircraft weights below approximately 200,000lb (90,718 kg). Larger
aircraft including wide bodies will usually require at least 8,000ft (2,438m) at sea
level. International wide body flights, which carry substantial amounts of fuel and
are therefore heavier, may also have landing requirements of 10,000ft (3,048m) or
more and takeoff requirements of 1,3000ft (3,962m). The worlds longest runway,
at Qamdo Bamda Airport in Tibet, has a total length of 18,045ft (5,500m). An
aircraft will need a longer runway at a higher altitude due to decreased density of
air at higher altitudes, which reduces lift and engine power. So the aircraft require
higher takeoff and landing speed. An aircraft will also require a longer runway in
hotter or more humid conditions.

Selection of length of a runway is the most important decision in the planning of

landing area. Runway lengths for various types of airports recommended by ICAO
are for sea level elevation and standard atmospheric conditions;

590F or 150C
29.92barometer pressure
Zero effective gradient
No wind

The basic lengths recommended by FAA are based on the same conditions except
that temperature of 1000F (410C above standard) has been included in the length.
Necessary corrections have to be applied for changes in elevation, temperature and
grade, at actual site of construction of the airport.

Corrections for runway length

The following three corrections are required be applied for calculating the lengths of
runways for all types of airports.

1. Correction for elevation

The ICAO and FAA recommends that the length of a runway for standard
conditions at sea level be increased at the rate of 7% per 1000ft (300m)
elevation above mean sea level.

2. Correction for temperature

ICAO recommends that length corrected for elevation, shall be further increased
at the rate of 1% for every 1 0C that the aerodrome reference temperature
exceeds the temperature of the standards atmosphere for that elevation.
However FAA corrects the runway length for the elevation of the airport but not
for temperature, since the basic length at sea level is for a temperature of 1000F.
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 3. Correction for gradient
ICAO does not contain specific recommendations concerning the effect of the
runway gradient on the runway length. Instead ICAO recommends that the effect
of the runway gradient be based on the analysis of aircraft performance.

FAA recommends that the runway length corrected for the effect of altitude be
further corrected for the runway gradient at the rate of 20% for each 1% of
effective gradient. Effective gradient is defined as the maximum difference in
runway profile elevation divided by the entire runway length.

2. WIDTH
A runway is made up of a paved load bearing area and adjacent shoulders. The
runway (paved load bearing area) combined with shoulders is called landing strip.
The shoulders are normally not paved but contains of mechanically stabilized soil
with or without grass cover and are only used during an emergency landing.

Experience show that the distribution of air traffic loading on the runway is such
that the central portion of the paved area is subjected to maximum loading which
goes decreasing towards the edges. Minimum width of landing strip has been
recommended as 500 ft (150m) in non-instrument runways and 1000 ft (300m) in
the case of instrument runway.

3. LONGITUDINAL GRADIENT & PROFILE

Frequent grade changes not only restrict the sight distances and increase the
runway length needed for landing and taking off but also jeopardize the safety of
the aircrafts flying at high speeds during the takeoff operation. It is for this reason
that the ICAO and FAA have limited the maximum longitudinal gradient on any
portion of the runway to 1.5% and maximum effective gradient to 1%.

Longitudinal intersecting grades should be connected with proper vertical curves. A

rate of change of grade of 0.3% for every 100ft length of the vertical curve has
been recommended by ICAO.

4. TRANSVERSE GRADIENT
Runway transverse grades are meant to be provided for purposes of quick drainage.
According to ICAO and FAA, transverse gradient should not exceed by 1.5%.
Minimum value has however not been specified. If the cross-grade is less than 0.5%
drainage may not be satisfactory. Steeper transverse grades are provided for the
shoulders. According to ICAO, for all classes of airports, shoulders should not
exceed 2.5% for 500 wide runway & 5% for 1000 wide runways.

5. RUNWAYS INTERSECTIONS
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When two runways, both at zero grade, intersecting each other, there is no
significant problem for laying out the intersection. But if the runways are at grade,
the design of intersection assumes considerable importance. For appropriate design
of intersection, it is necessary to have smooth profile of each runway at the
intersection, so as to avoid any abrupt change in grade. But we cant provide flat
gradients at intersection as it might results in the ponding of water at the
intersection. So a compromise has to be made by reducing grade of both runways
considerably & by providing adequate drainage facilities at the intersection.

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