Power Plant Engineering by DR Ramachandran-P2P

(For B.E.
Mechanical Engineering Students)
(As per New Syllabus of Leading Universities)
Dr. S.Ramachandran, M.E., Ph.D.,

Professor and Research Head
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
SATHYABAMA UNIVERSITY
Jeppiaar Nagar, Chennai - 600 119
AIR WALK PUBLICATIONS

(Near All India Radio)
80, Karneeshwarar Koil Street
Mylapore, Chennai - 600 004.
Ph.: 2466 1909, 94440 81904
Email: aishram2006@gmail.com,
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www.airwalkpublications.com
First Edition : 20-06-2004
Second Edition : April 2016
and
POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
SYLLABUS
Unit 1: Coal Based Thermal Power Plants

Rankine Cycle - Improvisations - Layout of modern coal power
plant, Supercritical Boilers, FBC boilers, Turbines, Condensors,
Steam and Heat rate, Subsystems of Thermal power plants - Fuel
and handling, Draught system, Feed water treatment, Binary cycles
and Cogeneration systems.
Unit 2: Diesel, Gas Turbine and Combined Cycle

Power Plants
Otto, Diesel, Dual and Brayton Cycle - Analysis and
Optimisation, Components of Diesel and Gas Turbine power plants.
Combined Cycle Power Plants. Integrated Gasifier based Combined
Cycle systems.
Unit 3: Nuclear Power Plant

Basics of Nuclear Engineering, Layout and subsystems of Nuclear
Power Plants, Working of Nuclear Reactors : Boiling Water Reactor (BWR),
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), CANada Deuterium- Uranium reactor
(CANDU), Breeder, Gas Cooled and Liquid Metal Cooled Reactors. Safety
measures for Nuclear Power plants.
Unit 4: Power from Renewable Energy

Hydro Electric Power Plants - Classification, Typical Layout
and associated component including Turbines. Principle, Construction
and working of Wind, Tidal, Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV), Solar
Thermal, geo Thermal, Biogas and Fuel Cell power systems.
Unit 5: Energy, Economic and Environmental issues

of Power Plants
Power tariff types, Load distribution parameters, load curve,
Comparison of site selection criteria, relative merits & demerits,
Capital & Operating Cost of different power plants. Pollution control
technologies including Waste Disposal Options for Coal and Nuclear
Power Plants.
1
Contents
I. Coal Based Thermal Power Plants

1.1 Rankine Cycle (Simple Steam Power Cycle) ............... 1.1
1.2 Improvisations - Modern Trends in Rankine Cycle
Improvements .... ..................................................................... 1.12
1.2.1 Reheat Cycle...................................................... 1.12
1.2.2 Advantages (or) effects of Re-heating ............ 1.15
1.2.3 Disadvantages ................................................... 1.16
1.3 Methods of Reheating...................................................... 1.16
1.3.1 Gas Reheating................................................... 1.16
1.3.2 Live-Steam Reheating ...................................... 1.17
1.3.3 Combined gas and live steam reheater ..... 1.18
1.4 Regenerative Cycle (Bleeding Cycle) ............................. 1.29
1.4.1 Advantages of Regenerative cycle................... 1.40
1.5 Layout of Modern Coal Power Plant (or)
Layout of Steam Power Plant ........................................ 1.44
1.5.1. Coal and ash Circuit ..................................... 1.45
1.5.2 Air and Flue gas circuit................................. 1.45
1.5.3 Feed water and steam flow circuit ............... 1.46
1.5.4 Cooling Water Circuit...................................... 1.47
1.6 Selection of Site For A Steam Power Plant................ 1.47
1.7 Super Critical Boilers...................................................... 1.50
1.7.2 Benson Boiler.................................................... 1.53
1.7.3 Loefler Boiler .................................................... 1.56
1.7.4 Velox boilers...................................................... 1.57
1.8 Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) Boilers .................... 1.59
2
1.8.1 Conversion of Oil fired boilers to fluidized

bed boilers................................................................... 1.62
1.8.2 Types of Fluidised Bed Combustion system. 1.63

(i) Bubbled fluidised bed combustion
system ............................................................... 1.63
(ii) Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion

system (CFBC) ................................................. 1.66
(iii) Pressurised Fluidised Bed

Combustion system.......................................... 1.68
1.9 Steam Turbines ............................................................... 1.72

1.9.1 Types of steam turbine.................................... 1.73
1.9.2 Impulse Turbine ............................................... 1.73
1.9.3 Reaction turbine ............................................... 1.77
1.9.3.1 Velocity diagram for reaction turbine
blade ...... ..................................................................... 1.78
1.9.3.2 Degree of reaction ......................................... 1.79

1.10 Steam Condensers.......................................................... 1.80
1.10.1 Jet condensers................................................. 1.80
1.10.2 Surface condenser........................................... 1.81
1.11 Capacity of a Steam Power Plant............................... 1.84
1.12 Sub System of Thermal Power Plant ......................... 1.85
1.12.1 Boiler Accessories ........................................... 1.85
1.11.13 Cooling tower ................................................1.104
1.11.13.1 Type of Cooling towers ..................1.105
1.11.13.2 Atmospheric (or) natural draft
cooling towers. .................................................1.105
1.11.13.3 Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers1.107

3
1.11.13.4 Air Cooled or Dry-type Cooling

System...............................................................1.108
1.12 Boiler Mountings ...........................................................1.112
1.13 Fuel and Ash Handling ................................................1.114
1.13.1 Handling of coal ............................................1.114
1.13.2 Ash handling and dust collecting system...1.124
1.14 Draught ..... .....................................................................1.134
1.14.1 Classification of Draught ..............................1.135
1.14.1.1. Natural draught .........................................1.135
1.14.1.2. Artificial draught .......................................1.137
1.14.2 Forced draught ...............................................1.138
1.14.3 Induced draught.............................................1.139
1.14.4 Balanced draught...........................................1.140
1.15 Stockers ..... .....................................................................1.141
1.15.1 Overfeed stokers..............................................1.142
1.15.2 Under feed stokers .........................................1.146
1.15.3 Pulveriser.........................................................1.148
1.15.3.1 Unit (or) Direct system...............................1.150
1.15.3.2 BIN (or) Central System ............................1.152
1.16 Feed Water Treatment..................................................1.153
1.16.1 Need for feed water treatment .....................1.153
1.16.2 Arrangements for Feed Water Treatment ...1.154
1.17 Binary Vapour Cycle .....................................................1.160
1.18 Waste Heat Recovery / Cogeneration System ...........1.168
Waste Heat Boilers .........................................1.169
4
2. Diesel, Gas Turbine and Combined Cycle Power

Plants
2.1 Otto Cycle ... ..................................................................... 2.1
2.2 Diesel Cycle ..................................................................... 2.9
2.3 Mixed/Dual Cycle . ........................................................... 2.17
2.4 Brayton Cycle ... ............................................................... 2.29
2.5 Diesel Engine Power Plant ............................................ 2.33
2.6 Types of Diesel Power Plants ........................................ 2.35
2.7 Layout of Diesel Power Plant........................................ 2.37
2.8 Diesel Engine Used For Diesel Power Plants............. 2.44
2.8.1 Selection of Engine Type................................. 2.45
2.8.2 Super charging ................................................. 2.47
2.9 Gas Turbine Power Plant............................................... 2.49
2.9.1 Gas turbine ....................................................... 2.49
2.10 Classification of Gas Turbine Power Plants .............. 2.50
2.11 Layout of Open Cycle Gas Turbine Power Plant ..... 2.52
2.12 Working of Gas Turbine Power Plant........................ 2.53
2.13 Fuels For Gas Turbines................................................ 2.54
2.13.1 Fuel qualities .................................................. 2.55
2.14 Gas Turbine Materials .................................................. 2.56
2.15 Open and Closed Cycles ............................................... 2.58
2.15.1 Open cycle gas turbine .................................. 2.58
2.15.2 Closed cycle gas turbine................................ 2.60
2.16 Reheating, Regeneration and Intercooling.................. 2.62
2.16.1 Intercooling...................................................... 2.63
2.16.2 Reheating......................................................... 2.64
5
2.16.3 Regeneration.................................................... 2.65

2.17 Combined Power Cycles ................................................ 2.66
2.18 Combined Gas Turbine and Diesel Cycles................. 2.70
2.19 Integrated Gasifier Based Combined Cycle (IGCC)
System ................ ..................................................................... 2.72
3. Nuclear Power Plant

3.1 Introduction. ..................................................................... 3.1
3.2 Basics of Nuclear Engineering....................................... 3.1
3.3 Radioactivity ..................................................................... 3.2
3.4 Nuclear Reactions ........................................................... 3.7
3.5 Nuclear Fission and Chain Reaction ............................ 3.8
3.6 Layout of Nuclear Power Plant..................................... 3.10
3.7 Site Selection For A Nuclear Power Plant.................. 3.12
3.8 Nuclear Reactor ............................................................... 3.14
3.9 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) ........................................ 3.18
3.10 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) .............................. 3.19
3.11 CANada Deuterium Uranium (CANDU) reactor....... 3.21
3.12 Gas Cooled Reactor ....................................................... 3.24
3.13 Fast Breeder Reactor .................................................... 3.26
3.14 Liquid Metal Cooled Reactor ....................................... 3.27
3.15 Safety Measures For Nuclear Power Plant ............... 3.29
4. Power From Renewable Energy

4.1 Hydel Power Plants......................................................... 4.1
4.2 Essential Elements of Hydel Power Plant................... 4.2
4.3 Site Selection For Hydel Power Plant ......................... 4.21
4.4 Working of Hydro Electric Power Plant ...................... 4.24
6
4.5 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines............................. 4.26

4.5.1 Impulse turbine ................................................ 4.27
4.5.1.1 Working of a Pelton Wheel ............... 4.30
4.5.2 Reaction turbine ............................................... 4.30
4.5.2.1 Francis Turbine .................................. 4.31
4.5.2.2 Axial Flow Reaction Turbines .......... 4.32
4.6. Working Principle of A Kaplan Turbine ..................... 4.33
4.7 Turbine Governing ........................................................... 4.35
4.7.1 Working of oil pressure governor................... 4.36
4.8 Selection of Turbine ........................................................ 4.38
4.9 Micro Hydel Development............................................... 4.50
4.9.1 Components of Micro hydel power plant ...... 4.51
4.9.2 Power from a micro hydro plant................... 4.53
4.9.3 Suitable conditions for micro-hydro power... 4.54
4.9.4 Turbines for micro hydro power .................... 4.54
4.10 Turgo Turbine ............................................................... 4.55
4.10.1 Working of Turgo Turbine............................ 4.55
4.10.2 Load factor...................................................... 4.56
4.10.3 Load control governors .................................. 4.57
4.10.4 Electrical power from micro hydro plant ... 4.57
4.10.5 Economics of micro hydel plant .................. 4.58
4.10.6 Low cost grid connection .............................. 4.60
4.10.7 Advantages of Micro hydro plant ................ 4.62
4.11 Wind Energy and Wind Power.................................... 4.62
4.11.1 Advantages of Wind energy .......................... 4.63
4.11.2 Disadvantages of Wind energy ..................... 4.63
7
4.11.3 Characteristic of a good wind power

plant site ..................................................................... 4.63
4.11.4 Wind-Electrical generating power plant...... 4.64
4.11.5 Wind Turbine Types ...................................... 4.65
4.11.6 Types of wind mills....................................... 4.67
4.11.7 Performance of wind machine...................... 4.69
4.12 Tidel Power Plant .......................................................... 4.70
4.13 Pumped Storage . ........................................................... 4.76
4.13.1 Types of pumped storage plant.................... 4.77
4.14 Solar Power Plants ........................................................ 4.81
4.14.2 Solar Central Receiver system...................... 4.87
Heliostats (Mirrors) ......................................... 4.88
4.15 Solar Photovoltaics (SPV) ............................................. 4.90
4.16 Geo Thermal Power Plant............................................ 4.94
4.16.1 Geothermal sources ........................................ 4.96
4.16.2 Hydrothermal convective system................... 4.97
4.17 Ocean Energy Conversion (OTEC) Plant ...................4.102
4.17.1 Types of OTEC ...............................................4.105
4.17.2 Closed-cycle OTEC System ...........................4.105
4.17.3 Open-Cycle OTEC system..............................4.106
4.17.4 Hybrid OTEC System....................................4.106
4.17.5 Important points about OTEC .....................4.107
4.18 Biogas Power Plant .......................................................4.109
4.19 Fuel Cell.... .....................................................................4.115
4.20 MHD Power Plant .........................................................4.118
1. Open cycle MHD ...................................................4.120
8
2. Closed cycle MHD .................................................4.122

3. Closed Cycle MHD with Liquid metal ..............4.123
5. Energy, Economic and Environmental Issues of

Power Plants
5.1 Economics in Plant Selection ......................................... 5.1
5.2 Important Terms and Definitions.................................. 5.3
5.3 Economics of Power Generation .................................... 5.10
5.3.1 Land, building and equipment cost and
installation cost .......................................................... 5.11
5.3.2 Depreciation cost .............................................. 5.12
(i) Straight line method ................................. 5.12
(ii) Sinking fund method ............................... 5.13
(iii) Diminishing value method ..................... 5.15
5.3.3 Insurance ........................................................... 5.16
5.3.4 Management cost .............................................. 5.16
5.3.5 Operating cost................................................... 5.16
5.3.6 Total cost........................................................... 5.16
Customer charges ............................................ 5.17
5.3.7 Cost of power generation ................................ 5.17
5.4 Power Tariffs .... ............................................................... 5.18
5.4.1 Aim of tariffs .................................................... 5.18
5.4.2 Selection of tariffs ............................................ 5.18
5.4.3 Types of tariffs ................................................. 5.19
1. Flat demand rate ....................................... 5.19
2. Straight line meter rate ............................ 5.20
3. Step meter rate ........................................... 5.21
9
4. Block meter rate ......................................... 5.22

5. Two-part tariff or Hopkinson demand
rate .................................................................... 5.23
6. Three-part tariff (or) Doherty rate........... 5.23
7. Wright demand rate................................... 5.24
5.5 Choice of Power Plant and its Site .............................. 5.27
5.6 Electric Load (or) Power Distribution System ............ 5.30
5.7 Load Duration Curves..................................................... 5.34
5.7.1 Important terms and definition ..................... 5.34
(i) Load curve .................................................. 5.34
(ii) Residential load ........................................ 5.34
(iii) Industrial load......................................... 5.35
(iv) Municipal load ......................................... 5.35
(v) Irrigation load ........................................... 5.35
(vi) Traction load ............................................ 5.35
(vii) Commercial load..................................... 5.35
(a) Residential load curve.............................. 5.35
(b) Industrial load curve for one shift ........ 5.36
(c) Municipal load curve................................ 5.36
(d) Traction load curve .................................. 5.37
(e) Commercial load curve............................. 5.38
(f) Load duration curve.................................. 5.38
5.8 Pollution and its Control ................................................ 5.40
5.8.1 Air Pollution by Thermal Power Plants....... 5.40
5.8.2 Control of Atmospheric Pollution by
Thermal Power Plants .............................................. 5.44
10
5.8.3 Water Pollution By Thermal Power Plant

and its Control........................................................... 5.49
5.8.4 Instrument used to monitor pollution ........... 5.50
5.8.4.1 CO2 recorders...................................... 5.50
5.8.4.2 Automatic controls for feed water.... 5.52

5.8.4.3 Automatic combustion control........... 5.54
5.8.5 Indian Boiler Act ............................................. 5.56
5.8.6 Boiler Inspection............................................... 5.57
5.8.7 Boiler Performance........................................... 5.59
5.8.7.1 Boiler Testing ................................................ 5.61
5.8.7.2 Boiler Trial .................................................... 5.62
5.8.8 Boiler safety regulations as per Indian
Boiler Act .................................................................... 5.67
5.9 Nuclear Waste Disposal and Safety.............................. 5.68
Chapter - I
COAL BASED THERMAL

POWER PLANTS
1.1 RANKINE CYCLE (Simple Steam Power Cycle)

Rankine Cycle - Improvisations - Layout of modern coal
power plant, Supercritical Boilers, FBC boilers, Turbines,
Condensors, Steam and Heat rate, Subsystems of Thermal power
plants - Fuel and handling, Draught system, Feed water treatment,
Binary cycles and Cogeneration systems.
Rankine cycle is the theoretical cycle on which the

steam turbine (engine) works.
Boiler
Refer the process (4) to (1): Feed water is passing
to the boiler. Heat is added to the water in the boiler. The
water gets heated and becomes dry saturated steam (or)
super heated steam.
Turbine
Refer the process (1) to (2): The high pressure
steam is expanding in the turbine, thus work is produced.
i.e. The turbine rotates. The steam leaves the turbine as
low pressure steam.
Condenser: Condenser is used to convert the low pressure
steam into water. Refer the process (2) to (3). The low
pressure steam is passing through condenser where heat is
liberated from the steam. So the steam becomes water. To
cool the steam, separate cooling water is circulated through
condenser from the cooling tower. This cooling water and
the steam will not mix together in most of the condensers.
1.2 Power Plant Engineering - www.airwalkpublications.com
H ig h Pre ssure S team

H ig h Pre ssure W ater
(1)
(4)
Bo iler
(4)
Q in
W ou t
Steam
Pu m p Turbine
W in
(3)
L ow P ressure Stea m
(2)
Condenser
L ow P ressure
Wa ter (3) (2) L ow P ressure
Steam
Q o ut Fig:1.1 (a)
Pump
Refer the process
T
(3) to (4) The water Qs =
leaving condenser is h 1 -h 4
pumped to the boiler

p 1= p 4
by pump. Usually, 1
pump work is
4
p
1=
p
s1 = s2
neglected since it is
W T = h 1 -h 2
very small work 4
when compared to W p = h 4 -h 3
turbine work output. p 2= p 3
2
3
S
Fig:1.1 (b)
Coal Based Thermal Power Plants 1.3
1 - 2 Turbine work
Turbine work output (Isentropic expansion in Turbine)
W T h1 h2 kJ/kg

Turbine power m h1 h2 kW

where m Mass flow rate of steam in kg/sec.
h1 and h2 can be taken from steam table for

p1 and p2 respectively.
(p1 high pressure (or) boiler pressure (or) inlet to

turbine pressure)
(p2 low pressure (or) condenser pressure)
Also, we can use Mollier diagram to find h1 and h2.
2 - 3 Constant pressure condensation

Q 2 Heat rejecte d h2 h3 kJ/kg

Q 2 in kW m h2 h3 kW
h3 hf at low pressure p2.
3 - 4: Pump Work
W pump W p h4 h3 kJ/kg
vfp1 p2 kJ/kg
where vf for p2 from steam table
p1 and p2 in kPa

Pump power m W p
Net Work
W net W T W p
W T If W p is negligib le
Thermal Efficiency: It is the ratio of net work done to

the heat supplied.
W net
cycle or rankine or thermal
Q supply
4 - 1 Heat Supplied in Boiler: Q supply

(Constant pressure heat supply)
Q supply h1 h4 kJ/kg

Q supplyin kW m h1 h4 kW
Specific steam consumption. SSC (or) steam flow rate
3600 kg
per kW
W net kWhr
W net
Wo rk ratio
WT
Problem 1.1: A steam turbine receives steam at 15 bar and
350C and exhausts to the condenser at 0.06 bar. Determine
the thermal efficiency of the ideal rankine cycle operating
between these two limits. Neglect the pump work.
Solution
p1 15 bar; t1 350 C; p2 0.06 bar
Boiler pressure Condenser pressure
From Mollier diagram,

h1 3147.5 kJ; h2 2264.1 kJ/kg;
h3 hf fo r 0.06 bar 151.5 kJ/kg
h4 h3 W p h3 151.5 kJ/kg . .
[ . W p is negligible ]
W net W T h1 h2 3147.5 2188.1 959.4 kJ/kg
Q s h1 h4 h1 h3 3147.5 151.5 2996 kJ/kg
. .
[ . h4 h3 ]
h M ollier D ia gra m
o
1 3 50 c
h 1 = 31 47 .5 kJ/kg
r
ba
15
a r
6b
0 .0
h 2 = 21 88 .1 kJ/kg
2
s
Fig:1 .2
W net 959.4
rankine 32.023 %
Qs 2996
Problem 1.2: In a rankine cycle, the steam flows to turbine

as saturated steam at a pressure of 35 bar and the exhaust
pressure is 0.2 bar. Determine (using steam table only) (i)
pump work (ii) the turbine work (iii) the rankine efficiency (iv)
the condenser heat flow (v) the dryness fraction at the end of
expansion. The mass flow rate of steam is 9.5 kg/sec.
Solution

p1 35 bar dry saturated; p2 0.2 bar; m 9.5 kg/sec.
To Find h 1
h1 hg for 35 bar 2802 kJ/kg
To Find x2
s1 sg for 35 bar = 6.123 kJ/kg K
Isentropic expansion. So, s1 s2

So, s2 6.123 kJ/kg K T
But at 0.2 bar,

p 1 = p 4 =35bar
sg 7.909 kJ/kg K 1
Since s2 sg ,
6.123 7.909 4
it is wet steam at exit p 2 = p 3 =0.2ba r

3 2
of turbine.
S
So, s2 sf x2sfg fo r 0.2 bar Fig:1.3
6.123 0.832 x27.077
x 2 0.748
Dryness fraction at the exit of turbine x2 0.748
To Find h 2
hf 251.5 ; hfg 2358.4 for 0.2 bar
h2 hf x2hfg for 0.2 bar 251.5 0.748 2358.4
2014.72 kJ/kg
To Find h 3
h3 hf3 251.5 for 0.2 bar.
To Find h 4
vf3 0.001017 m 3/kg for 0.2 bar.
h4 h3 W p
W p vf3p1 p2 0.001017 35 0.2 10 2 3.54 kJ/kg
h4 251.5 3.54 255.04 kJ/kg

To Find Pump Work

W p 3.54 kJ/kg

Pump power m W p 3.54 9.5 33.63 kW
To Find Turbine Work

W T h1 h2 2802 2014.72 787.28

Turbine power m W T 9.5 787.28 7479.2 kW
To Find Rankine Efficiency

W net
rankine
Qs
Q s h1 h4 2802 255.04 2546.96 kJ/kg
W net W T W p 787.28 3.54 783.74 kJ/kg
783.74
rankine 0.30772 30.772 %
2546.96
To Find Condenser Heat Flow Q rej

Q rej h2 h3
2014.72 251.5 1763.22 kJ/kg

Q rej in kW m h2 h3
9.5 1763.22 16751 kW
Problem 1.3: Steam at 10 MPa and degree of super heat of

90C is supplied to a rankine cycle. The condenser pressure is
10 KPa. For mass rate of flow of 1 kg/sec determine (i) Power
output (ii) thermal.
Solution
h1 3100 kJ/kg; h2 1975 kJ/kg from Mollier diagram.
h3 hf3 for 0.1 bar 191.8 kJ/kg
W p h4 h3 vf3p1 p2
vf3 0.001010
for 0.1 bar
h4 h3 vf3p1 p2 191.8 0.001010 100 0.1 10 2
201.89 kJ/kg [ 10 2 for making bar into kPa]
To Find W T , Wp and Q s
W T h1 h2 3100 1975 1125 kJ/kg
W p vf3100 0.1 10 2 0.001010 100 0.1 10 2
10.1 kJ/kg
W net WT Wp 1125 10.1 1115 kJ/kg
Q s h1 h4 3100 201.89 2898.11 kJ/kg

Power output m W net 1 1115 1115 kW
W net 1115
thermal 38.47 %
Qs 2898.11
h
T 1
ar
0b
10
h 1 = 3 10 0kJ/kg
o 4 0 1 oc
90 c
9 0 oc
3 1 1 oc
r
ba
0 .1
4 h 2 = 1 97 5kJ/kg
2
p 2 = 0.1 b ar
3 2
s Fig:1.4 (b) s
Fig:1.4 (a)
Problem 1.4: Dry saturated steam at 15 bar is supplied to a

rankine cycle where exhaust pressure is 1 bar. Find
(a) thermal (rankine), steam consumption per kW, carnot. (b) If
the exhaust pressure is reduced to 0.2 bar by introducing a jet
condenser, then determine % increase in rankine efficiency and
% decrease in SSC. (Apr.96-Madras University)
Solution
Given: p1 p4 15 bar; p2 p3 1 bar; Initially dry
saturated.
W net WT Wp
rankine
Q supply Qs
W T h1 h2
W p h4 h3 vfp1 p2
Q s h1 h4
Find h 1, h 2, h 3 and h4
h1 hg for p1 15 bar 2790 kJ/kg from steam table
(or) from Mollier chart, hs diagram
T h
h1 - h4 r
ba
15
h 1 = 2790 1 ar
p 1= p 4 1b
p4
1
Sa
p1 =
tu
ra
te
s 1= s 2
d
W T = h 1 -h 2
W P = h 4 -h 3
Cu
4 h 2 = 2340 2
rv
e
p2= p3
2
3 s
s
S 1 =S 2
Fig:1.5 (a) Fig:1.5 (b)
15 bar line will cut saturated curve at (1). Draw

vertical line from (1). This vertical line will cut the 1 bar
line at (2).
h2 2340 kJ/kg
h3 hf (for 1 bar from steam table) = 417.5 kJ/kg
vf 0.001043 m 3/kg (for 1 bar)
h4 h3 vf p1 p2
h4 h3 vf p1 p2 417.5 0.001043 15 1 10 2
418.9602 kJ/k g
[15 bar and 1 bar are multiplied by 10 2 to make KPa

. .
. 1 bar 100 KPa ]
To Find W T , Wp and Q s
W T h1 h2 2790 2340 450 kJ/kg
W p vfp1 p2 0.001043 15 1 10 2 1.4602 kJ/kg
Q s h1 h4 2790 418.9602 2371.04 kJ/kg
To Find rankine
W net WT Wp 450 1.4602
rankine 18.92%
Qs Qs 2371.04
To Find Specific Steam Consumption (SSC)

3600 3600
SSC 8.03 kJ/kWhr
W net 448.54
To Find carnot T
Tmax Tmin
carnot
T max
p 1 = p 4 = 15ba r 1
For 15 bar,
tsat tmax 198.3 C 273
471.3 K 4
For 1 bar, 3
p 2 = p 3 =0 .2ba r 2
tsat tmin 99.63 C 273
S
Fig:1.6 (a)
372.63 K
471.3 372.63
carnot 20.936%
471.3
Case (b)
When p2 0.2 b ar
h3 hffo r 0.2 bar 251.5 kJ
vf3 0.001017 m 3/kg (fo r 0.2 bar)
h4 h3 vf3p1 p2
h4 251.5 0.001017 15 0.2 10 2 253.005 kJ /kg
W T h1 h2 2790 2120 670 kJ/kg
W p vf3p1 p2 0.001017 15 0.2 10 2 1.51 kJ/kg
W net W T W p 670 1.51 668.5 kJ/kg
Q s h1 h4 2790 253.005 2536.995 kJ/kg
New rankine
W net 668.5
rankine 26.35 %
Qs 2536.995
Increase in rankine efficiency

h
26.35 18.92 r
39.3 % ba
0.1892 15
h 1 = 279 0 1
New SSC
r
ba
3600 3600 0 .2
SSC
W net 668.5
h 2 = 2120
2
5.39 kg/kWhr
Decrease in SSC
8.03 5.39 Fig:1.6 (b)

s
32.94 %
8.03
1.2 IMPROVISATIONS - MODERN TRENDS IN

RANKINE CYCLE IMPROVEMENTS
Rankine Cycle - Reheating and Regenerative cycle
1.2.1 Reheat Cycle:

If the dryness fraction of steam leaving the turbine
is less than 0.88, then corrosion and erosion of turbine
blades occur. To avoid this situation, reheat is used.
In the reheat cycle, the expansion of steam takes
place in one (or) more turbines. Steam is expanded in the
HP turbine first, then it is reheated. The reheated steam
is again expanded in the LP turbine. Reheat cycle gives
small increase in cycle efficiency. It increases the net work
output.
Reheating means heating the steam between turbine
stages (between HP stage and LP stage).
P 1 - Boiler pressure; P 2 P3 = Reheat pressure; P 4 =
Condenser pressure; T 1 = boiler temperature (or) superheat
temperature; T 3 = Reheat temperature.
R e he ater
2
6 1
Bo iler
HPT LP T
Pu m p
5
C o nd enser
Fig:1.7
T 1
h
3 1
T1 3
C
p 3= T3
p 2=
=C
1
p
2 6
6
4
=C
5 4 p4
S 5
s
Fig:1.8 (a) Fig:1.8 (b)
Note:
If T3 is not given, then we can assume T 3 T1
h1, h2, h3, h4 - Take from mollier chart h s diagram)

(or) from steam table.
h5 hf for condenser pressure.
W p h6 h5 vf P 1 P 2 100
[ vf sp. volume of fluid at condenser pressure]
W T h1 h2 h3 h4
W p h6 h5
W net net work W T W P
Q s hea t supplied h1 h6 h3 h2
W net
thermal
Qs
The ordinary Rankine cycle efficiency can be increased

by increasing the pressure and temperature of the steam
entering into the turbine. When the initial pressure
increases, the expansion ratio in the turbine also increases,
and the steam becomes quite wet at the end of expansion.
This is not desirable because the increased moisture content
of the steam causes corrosion in the turbine blades and so
increase the losses. Due to this, the nozzle and blade is
decreased.
In reheat cycle, the steam is taken out from the
turbine and it is heated by the flue gases in the boiler.
The main purpose of reheating is to increase the
dryness fraction of steam passing through the lower stages
of the turbine. The dryness fraction of steam coming out
from the turbine should not fall below 0.88. By using the
reheat cycle, the specific steam consumption decreases and

thermal also increases. The increase in thermal due to
reheat depends upon the ratio of reheat pressure to original
pressure of steam. The reheat pressure is generally kept
within 20% of the initial pressure of steam:
At low pressure, the of the cycle is reduced.
It is preferred for only high capacity plants, (or)
50,000 kW and the steam pressure range is 100
kgf/cm 2 ab
1.2.2 Advantages (or) effects of Re-heating

Due to reheating, net work done increases
Due to reheating, heat supply increases
Due to reheating, thermal efficiency increases
Due to reheating, the turbine exit steam dryness
fraction increases - so moisture decreases
- so blade erosion becomes minimum - so life of the
turbine will be increased.
It reduces the fuel consumption upto 4 to 5%.

The size of the low pressure turbine blades can
be reduced.
It reduces the steam flow of 15 to 20% with
corresponding reductions in boiler, turbine and
feed water heating equipments.
It also reduces the pumping power.
Less costly materials are used for lower steam
pressures and temperatures to obtain required
thermal efficiency.
It has higher thermal .
It has reduced feed pump power.

The condenser and boiler sizes are small.
The turbine has a very long life.
1.2.3 Disadvantages:
This cycle is more expensive than simple Rankine
cycle.
It occupies more space.
The second stage turbine blades design is
complicated and expensive.
The operation and control reheat rankine cycle is
complicated.
At light loads, the superheated steam will
overheat the blades. To avoid this, the feed water
should be sprayed on the blades.
1.3 Methods of Reheating:
(a) Gas reheating
(b) Live-steam reheating
(c) Combined gas live steam reheater
1.3.1 Gas Reheating

The steam taken from the high pressure turbine (HP)
turbine is sent back to the reheater to reheat the steam to
its initial throttle temperature.
The reheater is normally placed after the superheater

so that the superheater receives the flue gases first and
then the reheater receives flue gases. Since the reheater
should operate at much smaller temperature difference
between the gas and steam, the counter flow heat
exchanger is used for reheating.
To make the steam to be reheated to its initial

throttle temperature in this gas reheating system, the
following disadvantages are faced.
1. Long and large pipe connections are required and
hence cost is more and the pressure drop becomes
higher.
B oiler To cond en ser
S uper h ea ter
H .P L .P
R eheater
Fig:1.9 Steam Reheating with Flu e G ases.
2. For piping system, the expansion and contraction

allowances should be given.
3. The amount of steam stored within the piping and
reheater may cause considerable rise in turbine
speed and it leads to accident in case of failure of
emergency control.
1.3.2 Live-Steam Reheating:
The live steam reheating circuit is shown in Fig.1.10.
The high pressure steam from the superheater is used for
reheating the steam coming out from the HP turbine in a
specially designed reheater.
H ig h Pre ssu re S team

fo r R ehe atin g
B oiler
L .P.T
H .P.T
S upe r
H eate r
L ive S te am
R ehe ater
C ond en sate
Fig:1.10 Steam Reh eatin g w ith Live Steam.
The advantages of live-steam reheating over gas

heating are given here.
1. The operation of this reheating system is simple.
2. The reheater can be placed near the HP turbine

and minimise extra pipe fittings.
3. The control of temperature is easy since varying

combustion condition will not affect the live steam reheater
performance.
4. Wet steam can also be reheated.
5. More than one reheating can be used since the

piping requirements are less.
1.3.3 Combined gas and live steam reheater

The combined gas and live steam reheater system is
shown in Fig.1.11. Live steam reheating system does not
allow the steam to be reheated to its initial throttle
temperature. By using combined reheating system, this
problem can be solved. The live steam reheating system is
To
con dense r
B oiler
H .P.T
S .H . L .P.T
G as
R ehe ater
L ive C ond en sate

S tea m
R ehe ater
Fig:1.11 C om bin ed Live Steam and Reh eating System .
placed in series with the gas reheater. The steam extracted

from HP turbine is first sent to live steam reheater and
then to gas reheater as shown in fig. In order to maintain
a constant final temperature, the supply of live steam to
first reheater is thermostatically controlled.
Problem 1.5: Steam at 90 bar, 480C is supplied to a steam
turbine. The steam is reheated to its original temperature by
passing it through a reheater at 12 bar. The condenser pressure
is 0.07 bar. Steam flow rate is 1 kg/sec. Determine (a) network
output; (b) thermal [neglect the pressure loss in reheating and
boiler. The expansion is isentropic (FAQ)
Given:
p1 boiler pre ssure 90 bar;
T1 boiler tem perature 480C
T3 Reheat temperature T 1 given 480 C

p4 condenser pressure 0.07 bar

o
h T 1 = 480
From mollier chart, 1
3
2
h1 3330 kJ/kg =1
pb
0
=9
p a
h2 2805 kJ/kg 6 2
h3 3440 kJ/kg
7
p c= 0 .0
4
h4 2360 kJ/kg
5
s
h5 hf for 0.07 163.4 Fig:1.12 (a)
h6 h5 vf pa pc 100 vf for condenser pressure
h6 163.4 0.001007 90 0.07 100 172.4625
W T h1 h2 h3 h4
3330 2805 3440 2360 1605 kJ/kg
W p h6 h5 172.4625 163.4 9.0625 kJ/kg
W net W T W p 1595.9375 kJ/kg
Q s h1 h6 h3 h2
3330 172.4625 3440 2805 3792.5375 kJ/kg
3792.5375 kJ/kg
Wnet 1595.9375
thermal 0.4208
Qs 3792.5375
Extra
Compare network done & efficiency of the above cycle

with that of the simple cycle.
The simple cycle is shown here.
h1 3330 kJ/kg
h2 2030 kJ/kg
h3 hf for condenser pressure 163.4 kJ/kg
h4 h3 vf P a P c 100
[vf for condenser pressure P c]
h4 172.4559
W T h1 h2 1300 kJ/kg
W P h4 h3 9.0559 kJ/kg
Q s h1 h4 3157.5441 kJ/kg
Qs 3157.5441
thermal
W net 1290.944 h o
T 1 = 4 80
thermal 40.884 % o
1
0
=9
pa
Note: reheat cycle
W net 1595.9375 kJ/kg

4
.07
=0 2
thermal 42.08% pc
Because of reheating, 3
work output increases and Fig:1.12 (b )

s
also thermal efficiency.

Problem 1.6: In the reheat cycle, steam at 150 bar and

550C enters into the HP turbine. The condenser pressure is
0.1 bar. The moisture content at condenser inlet is 5%.
Determine (a) reheat pressure; (b) cycle efficiency; (c) steam flow
rate per KW. [FAQ]
Solution
Hint: condenser inlet is condition (4)
x4 0.95 h
o
1 T 3 = 550 C
Assumption T1
3
T3 T 1
r
ba
50
=1
1
p
h1 3455 kJ/kg 2
6
ba r
h2 2785 kJ/kg p 4= 0
.1
4
x 4 = 0.9 5
5
h3 3590 kJ/kg s
Fig:1.12 (c)
h4 2460 kJ/kg
h5 hf for condenser pressure vc 191.8 kJ/kg
h6 h5 vf p1 p4 100
[vf is for condenser pressure 0.1 bar]
h6 191.8 0.001010 150 0.1 100
h6 206.9399 kJ/kg
(a) P 3 reheat pressure 12.75 bar
W T h1 h2 h3 h4 3455 2785 3590 2460
1800 kJ/kg
W p h6 h5 206.9399 191.8 15.1399 kJ/kg
Q s h1 h6 h3 h2
3455 206.9399 3590 2785 4053.06
Q s 4053.06 kJ/kg
qs
(b) therm al 0.44037
W net
1 1 kg
(c) SSC 3600 3600 2.01696
W net 1784.8601 kW hr
Problem 1.7: In a reheat rankine cycle, the condenser

pressure is 7.5 bar. The boiler temperature and reheat
temperature are 500C. The moisture content at any stage
should not exceed 15 %. Determine (a) Boiler pressure;
(b) reheat pressure; (c) work done; (d) thermal
Solution
x 2 x 4 0.85 [moisture is 15%]
100
Condenser Pressure P c 7.5 KPa 0.075 bar
From mollier chart h

o
1 T 1 =T 3 = 55 0 c
h4 2215 kJ/kg 3
h3 3460 kJ/kg
1
P
2
h2 2540 kJ/kg
6
75
h1 2990 kJ/kg P 4= 0 .0 4 x 2 = x 4 =0 .85
5
h5 hf for pc 168.65 kJ/kg Fig:1.12 (d )
s
h6 h5 vf p1 p4 100
h6 168.65 0.0010075 340 0.075 100
h6 203.9049 kJ/kg
(a) boiler pressure P1 340 bar; (b) reheat pressure

P2 38 bar
W T h1 h2 h3 h4 2990 2540 3460 2215
1695 kJ/kg
W p h6 h5 203.9049 168.65 35.2549 kJ/kg
(c) W net W T W p 1695 35.2549 1659.7451 kJ/kg
Q s h1 h6 h3 h2 2990 203.9049 3460 2540
Q s 3706.0951 kJ/kg
Qs
(d) the 44.78 %
W net
Problem 1.8: Steam at a pressure of 10 MPa, 500C is

supplied to a reheat rankine cycle. After expansion in the HPT,
the steam is reheated at an optimum pressure to an optimum
temp. The moisture content at LPT exit should not exceed 15%.
Network done is 1600 KJ/Kg. Determine (a) heat supply per kg;
(b) thermal Condenser pressure is 7 kPa.
Solution
Hint: Dont assume T1 T 3 because steam is reheated to

optimum temperature.
P 2 is not given, reheat temperature is not given.

Pc P4 condenser h
o
pressure = 0.07 bar. 1
T
T 1 = 50 0 c 3
3
The moisture content
ba
m in LP turbine is 15%.
00
=1
1
P
2
(ie) x3 0.85
6
h1 3370 kJ/kg 7bar
P 4= 0 .0 4 x = 0.8 5
2
5
h4 2215 kJ/kg s
Fig:1.13
h5 hf for 0.07 bar
h5 163.4 kJ/kg
h6 h5 vf p1 p4 100 173.4629
vf for p c
163.4 0.001007 100 0.07 100
h6 173.4629
W T h1 h2 h3 h4
W p h6 h5 173.4629 163.4 10.0629 kJ/kg
W net 1600 kJ/kg h1 h2 h3 h4 h6 h5
W net W T W P; W T W net W p 1600 10.063
W T 1610.063 kJ/kg
W T h1 h2 h3 h4 h1 h4 h3 h2
3370 2210 h3 h2
h3 h2 450.0626 KJ/Kg
Q s h1 h6 h3 h2 3370 173.46295 450.0626
Q s 3646.5997 KJ/Kg
W 1600
therm al 0.43876
Q s 3646.5997
the 43.876%
Problem 1.9: In an reheat rankine cycle steam at 3 MPa,

450C is supplied to a HPT. The reheat temperature is
450C. Condenser pressure is 4 KPa. The HPT expansion is
limited with dry & saturation. Determine (a) reheat pressure;
(b) net work; (c) the
Solution
From Mollier Chart
h4 2510 kJ/kg h
o
1 4 50 c
h1 3345 kJ/kg 3
ar
h2 2720 kJ/kg 2
0b
=3
D ry &
1
p
Sa turation
h3 3385 kJ/kg
6
4 bar
h5 hf for P c P 4 p 4= 0 .0 4
5
s
121.4 kJ/kg Fig:1.14
h6 h5 vf p1 p4 100
h6 121.4 0.001004 30 0.04 100
h6 124.40798 k J/kg
(a) reheat pressure 2.5 bar

W T h1 h2 h3 h4 3345 2720 3385 2510
1500 kJ/kg
W p h6 h5 124.40798 121.4 3.00798 kJ/kg
W net W T W p 1500 3.00798 1496.99 kJ/kg
Q s h1 h6 h3 h2
3345 124.40798 3385 2720 3885.59 kJ/kg
W 1496.99
the 0.3853
Q s 3885.59
the 38.53%
Problem 1.10: A steam power plant uses the Reheat cycle.

Steam Inlet to turbine 150 bar, 550C Reheat at 40 bar to
550C. Condenser pressure is at 0.1 bar. Using mollier
diagram, find (i) the dryness fraction of steam at exit of turbine
(ii) cycle efficiency (iii) specific steam consumption SSC.
Solution T
o 1 3
5 50 c
From mollier chart, p 1 = 150 bar
h1 3465 kJ/ kg;

p 2 = 4.0 bar 2
h2 3065 kJ/kg; 6
p 3 = 0.1 bar
5 4
h3 3565 kJ/kg x4
S
h4 2300 kJ/kg; x4 0.88 Fig:1.15 (a)
h5 hf at 0.1 bar from steam table 191.8 kJ/kg

Pump work W p
W p vf P 1 P4 100
0.001 [ 150 0.1 100]
14.99 kJ/kg h
1 3 o
5 50 c
W p h6 h5 14.99
h6 h5 14.99 r 2
ba
0
= 15 ba
r
191.8 14.99 p1
=4
0
6 p2
bar 4
P 3= 0 .1 x4
206.79 kJ/kg 5
s
Heat supplied Q s Fig:1.15 (b )
Q s h1 h6 h3 h2
3465 206.83 3565 3065 3758.17 kJ/kg
Turbine Work W T
W T h1 h2 h3 h4
3465 3065 3565 2300 1665 kJ/kg
Net work doneW net
W net W T W P 1665 14.99 1650.01 k J/kg
W net 1650.01
cycle 0.439 43.9%
Qs 3758.17
Specific steam consumption
3600 3600
SSC 2.182 kg/kWhr
W net 1650.01
1.4 REGENERATIVE CYCLE: (Bleeding Cycle)

Assume 1 kg of steam is expanded in the turbine.
Before complete amount of steam is expanded, some
amount of steam (m kg) is extracted (this process is called
bleeding) and utilized for heating the feedwater. So
remaining amount of steam 1 m kg is completely
expanded in the turbine and condensing in condenser.
In the regenerator, m kg of high temperature steam

and 1 m kg of condensate are passing. Heat transfer
from steam to condensate (feed water) takes place. So this
process increases the enthalpy of feed water. Thus the heat
supplied to boiler will be reduced.
Re-generation means heating the feed water by steam

taken from the turbine. The steam is exhausted (or) bled
from the turbine at several locations (before exhaust) and
is supplied to regenerator (feed water heater) to heat the
feed water. Extracting the steam in the turbine before
exhaust is called bleeding.
1kg 1kg
Bo iler
7 1
ble ed in g
m kg 3
Pu m p 2 m kg
(1-m )kg
2
C o nd enser
6 (1-m )kg (1-m )kg

H e at Exchang er (or)
R e ge nerator (or)
1kg Fe ed W ater H eater 5 4
Pu m p 1
Fig:1.16
Energy - balance
Assume 1 kg of working fluid is circulated.
Energy in = Energy out
mass of steam bled

m
mass of steam circulated
Energy entering regenerator = Energy leaving

regenerator.
m h2 1 m h5 1 h6
m h2 h5 mh5 h6
m h 2 h 5 h 6 h 5
mass of steam bled h6 h5 kg of steam bled

m
mas s of steam circulated h2 h5 kg of steam circulated
Take h1, h2, h3 from mollier diagram h s diagram)

(or) from steam table.
h4 hf for condenser pressure p3 p4
h6 hf for regenerator pressure p6 p2 p5
. .
h5 h4 vf p6 p4 10 2 [ . p is in bar;
p 102 kPa]
[vf for condenser pressure P c P 3 P 4]
h7 h6 vf pa pb 10 2 [pb for regenerator pressure

pb
and vf for P b
W T 1 h1 h2 1 m h2 h3
h T1
1
1 kg h
=C 1
p a
2
=C
p b
(1-m )
7 1 kg
m kg
g 7
1k
m ) 6 m kg
(1 - 1 kg
5
3 5 6 2
=C (1-m )
pc 4
(1-m ) (1-m ) 3
4 s
s
Fig:1.17 (a) Fig:1.17 (b )
W P h5 h4 1 m 1 h7 h6
W net W T W P
Q s h 1 h7
W net
thermal
Qs
Problem 1.11: A steam turbine plant equipped with a single

regenerative feed water heating operates with the following
data. Initial pressure 16.5 bar; Initial super heat 93C;
Extraction pressure 2 bar; exhaust pressure 0.05 bar.
Compare regenerative and non-regenerative cycle for (a) the;
(b) network; (c) SSC. [Frequenty Asked University Questions]
Solution
Given data:
P a P 1 16.5 bar tsat 1 202.9 C
Degree of superheat 93C t1 tsat1 t1 295.9 C

P b regenerative pressure 2 bar
P 2 P c condenser pressure 0.05 bar

h
Case (a) non-regenerative 1 o
T 1 =295.9 c
(simple cycle) r
ba
From mollier chart, = 16
.5
p1
h1 3035 kJ/kg; 4
h2 2100 kJ/kg;
0 .0 5 2
p 2=
h3 hf for P 2 137.8 kJ/kg
h4 h3 vf P 1 P 2 100 3
vf for P 2
s
Fig:1.18 (a)
h4 137.8 0.001005 16.5 0.05 100
h4 139.45 kJ kg
W T 1 h1 h2 3035 2100
935 kJ/kg
W p h4 h3
139.4532 137.8 1.6532
W p 1.6532
Q s h1 h4 3035 139.45 2895.568 kJ/kg
W net
thermal 32.23 %
Qs
1 1
SSC 3600 3600 3.85708 kg/kWhr
W net 933.35
Case (b) regenerative cycle
h1 3035 kJ/kg h o
1 T 1 =296 c
=p 1
h2 2610 kJ/kg b ar 1 kg
6 .5
=1
pa 2
h3 2100 kJ/kg g
m k bar
7 1kg =2 (1-m)
pb
h4 hf fo rP c
6
137.8 kJ/kg 5
.0
5
3
=0
pc
h5 h4 vf P b P c 100 (1
-m
)
4
s
Fig:1.18 (b)
h5 137.8 0.001005 2 0.05 100
137.996 kJ/kg
h6 hf for 2 bar P b
h6 504.7 kJ/kg
h7 h6 vf P a P b 100
h7 504.7 0.001061 16.5 2 100
h7 506.24 kJ/k g
W T 1 h1 h2 1 m h2 h3
3035 2610 1 m 2610 2100
h6 h5 504.7 137.996
m 0.148
h2 h5 2610 137.996
kg of steam bled
m 0.148
kg of steam circulated
W T 3035 2610 1 0.148 2610 2100
859.345 kJ /kg
W p h5 h4 1 m 1 h7 h6
137.996 137.8 1 0.148 1 506.24 504.7
1.71 kJ/kg
W p 1.71 kJ/kg
W net WT W p 857.64 kJ/k g
Q s h1 h7 3035 506.24 2528.76 kJ/kg
W
the 0.3392 33.92%
Qs
1
SSC 3600 4.198 kg/kWhr
W net
Simple cycle Regenerative cycle

W net 933.35 kJ/kg W net 857.64 kJ/kg
the 32.116 % the 33.92%
Note: Work out put slightly decreases and efficiency

increases.
Problem 1.12: A steam turbine operates on a simple

regenerative cycle. Steam is supplied dry saturated at 40 bar
and exhausted to condenser pressure of 0.07 bar. The
condensate is pumped to a pressure of 3.5 bar at which it is
mixed with bled steam from the turbine at 3.5 bar. The
resulting water at saturation is then pumped to the boiler. For
the ideal cycle, calculate. (a) the amount of steam bled per kg
of supply steam and (b) the of the plant, neglecting pump
work. (FAQ)
h
Solution
h1 2800 kJ/kg 1
r
ba
40
h2 2380 kJ/kg p a=
r 2
.5 ba
h3 1880 kJ/kg =3
pb
h 4 h f fo r p c 7 .6 .0 7
3
0
p c=
163.4 kJ/kg
4 .5
s
Fig:1.19
h 4 h5 Neglecting pump work
h6 hf for pb 3.5 bar
584.3 kJ/kg
h6 h7 Neglecting pump work
h6 h5 584.3 163.4
m
h2 h5 2380 163.4
kg of steam bled
0.1899
W T 1 h1 h2 1 m h2 h3
2800 2380 1 0.1899 2380 1880
W T W net 825.058 KJ/Kg [... W p is neglected ]
Q s h1 h7 2800 584.3 2215.7 kJ/kg

W
the 37.237 %
Qs
Problem 1.13: A ideal regenerative cycle operates with steam

supplied at 30 bar and 400C and condenser pressure of 0.10
bar. For this cycle, find (a) WT in KJ/Kg; (b) cycle efficiency;
(c) steam rate in Kg/KW hr. The feed water heater can be
assumed to be direct contact type which operates at 5 bar
(FAQ)
o
3 0 b ar 400 c
1 kg
1
Turbine
5 ba r
2
0 .1 bar
5 ba r
B oiler 3 con dense r
m kg
H eater
4
6
7
P um p 5 P um p
1 kg (1-m )kg Fig:1.20
Solution
h1 3230 kJ/kg
h2 2800 kJ/kg
h3 2195 kJ/kg
h4 hf for P c 191.8 kJ /kg

o
T 1 T 1 = 400 c 1
h 1 kg
b ar
1kg 30
30 b ar p a= 2
1kg r
a
= 5b )
7 5 ba r 2 7 pb kg (1 -m )
(m
m kg (1-m) kg 6
6 1 kg
5 0.1 bar 5 3
4 (1-m) kg 3 0 .1
p c=
(1 -m )
Fig:1.20 (a ) S 4 s
Fig:1.20 (b )
h5 h4 vf P b P c 100
h5 191.8 0.001010 5 0.1 100
h5 192.295 kJ/kg
h6 hf for P b 640.1 kJ /kg
h7 h6 vf P a P b 100
h7 640.1 0.001093 30 5 100
h7 642.83 kJ/kg
h6 h5 640.1 192.29
m
h2 h5 2800 192.29
kg of steam
0.1717
W T h1 h2 1 m h2 h3
3230 2800 1 0.1717 2800 2195
W T 931.107 kJ/kg
W P 1 m h5 h4 h7 h6
1 0.1717 192.29 191.8 642.83 640.1
3.14 kJ/kg
Q s h1 h7 3230 642.83 2587.168 kJ/kg
W
the 35.87%
Qs
1 1
SSC 3600 3600 3.88 kJ/kWhr
Wnet 927.97
Problem 1.14: A steam turbine plant, working on a single

stage of regenerative feed heating receives steam at 3 MPa and
300C. The turbine exhausts to a condenser at 15 KPa while
the bled steam is at 300 KPa. Assuming that the cycle uses
actual regenerative cycle, calculate the thermal efficiency of
cycle. Compare this value with a rankine cycle operating
between same boiler and condenser pressures. (FAQ)
h1 2990 kJ/kg; h2 2540 kJ/kg; h3 2115 kJ/kg;

h4 hf forPc 226 kJ/kg
h5 h4 vf pb pc 100
h5 226 0.001014 3 0.15 100
h5 226.29 kJ /kg
h6 hf for P b 561.5 kJ /kg
h7 561.5 0.001074 30 3 100
h7 564.4 k J/kg
h6 h5 561.5 226.29
m
h2 h5 2540 226.29
kg of steam bled
0.145
W T h1 h2 1 m h2 h3
2990 2540 1 0.145 2540 2115

813.426 kJ/kg
W p 1 m h5 h4 h7 h6
1 0.145 226.29 226 564.4 561.5
3.15 kJ/kg
Q s h1 h7 2990 564.34 2425.6 kJ/kg
W net
the 33.41%
Qs
Simple Rankine cycle

h1 2990 kJ/kg h o
1 T 1 =3 00 c
1 kg
h2 2115 kJ/kg 0 ba
r
=3
pa )
h3 226 kJ/kg kg 2
r (m
ba
=3
pb
h4 229.03 kJ/kg 7 6
(1-m ) kg
W T h1 h2
5 ar
.1 5b 3
2990 2115 =0
p c
875 kJ/kg 4
s
Fig:1.21 (a)
W p h4 h3
229.03 226 h 1
o
T 1 =3 00 c
3.03 kJ /kg 0 ba
r 1 kg
=3
pa
W net W T W P
4
871.97 kJ/kg
Q s h1 h4 r
ba 2
5
= 0.1
2990 229.03 p b
3
2760.97 kJ/kg
Fig:1.21 (b ) s
Wnet 871.97
the 0.3158
Qs 2760.97
31.58%
Note

Mass rate of steam bled m m
. .
[ . m kg of steam circulated /s ]
mass of steam bled
m mass of steam circulated

kg of steam bled kg of steam circulated

kg of steam circulated sec
kg of steam bled
So mass rate of steam bled mm
sec
1.4.1 Advantages of Regenerative cycle

1. Heat supplied to boiler becomes reduced.
2. The heating process in the boiler approaches the
reversible process.
3. Since feed water temperature is high, the range of

temperature in the boiler is minimum. It reduces
the thermal stresses produced in the boiler.
4. Thermal efficiency is increased since the average
temperature of heat addition to the cycle is
increased.
5. Due to bleeding in the turbine, erosion of turbine
due to moisture is reduced.
6. Condenser can be a smaller size.
This type of heating arrangement gives the efficiency
equivalent to the Carnot cycle efficiency. This type of
arrangement cannot be used in practice because steam
becomes too wet in the later stages of the turbine. In actual
practice, the advantage of regenerative heating principle is
taken by bleeding a part of steam from the turbine at
certain stages of expansion and it is used for heating the
feed water in the separate feed heaters. This arrangement
does not reduce the dryness fraction of remaining steam
passing through the turbine.
There are different methods of using the bled steam
for heating the feed water as discussed here.
Methods:
(a) Direct contact heaters
The steam bleed from the different points of turbine
is mixed directly with the feed water to increase the
temperature of feed water and the steam mixed with feed
water is extracted with the help of the pump and supplied
to the boiler.
(1 -m 1 -m 2)k g
To b o ile r m 1 kg m 2 kg
1 kg p b
p1 p2
con de nse r
Fe ed (1 -m 1 ) Fe ed
H e ate r h ea ter
Pum p 1 Pum p 2 Pum p 3

Fig:1.22 D irect C o ntact H eaters
The main disadvantage is that

The pump has to work with hot feed water. So this
system is normally not used in practice.
(b) Drain pump method:
(1- m 1-m 2) kg
To B oile r
con denser
1 kg p b
m 1 kg m 2 kg
1 kg p1 p2
(1- m 1 -m 2 ) kg
(1- m 1 ) (1- m 1 )
m 2 kg
m 1 kg
m 2 kg Fig:1.23
m 1 kg
In this method, the feed water is heated with indirect

contact of bled steam in the heat exchangers. The bled
condensate is extracted by the drain pump discharges into
the feed pipe line. This method also suffers from the same
disadvantage as mentioned in the direct contact heaters
arrangement.
(b) All drains to hot well:

All drains to hot well method is shown in Fig.1.24.
(1 -m 1 -m 2 )kg
pC
To b o ile r
con de nse r
m 1 kg m 2 kg
pC
1 kg
p1 p2
1 kg pa
1 kg (1 -m 1 -m 2 )kg
Fe ed
Fe ed h ea ter
h ea ter m 2 kg
m 1 kg
Fig:1.24 A ll D rain to H ot W ell.
In this method, the condensate of bled steam coming

out from the indirect heat exchangers is fed to the hotwell.
The total condensate (Condensate coming from condenser +
Condensate from bled steam) from the hot well is pumped
to the boiler through the regenerative feed heaters.
(c) Cascade System:
(1 -m 1 -m 2 )kg
C o nd en ser
To b o ile r m 2 kg
m 1 kg
pb
pc
1 kg
4 kg 1 kg pa pa
Fe ed
H e ate r
m 1 kg (m 1 + m 2 )kg
Fig:1.25 C a sca de Sy stem .
In this method, the condensate of bled steam coming

out from the first heat exchanger is passed through the
second heat exchanger and lastly to hot well as shown in
Fig.1.25.
1.5 LAYOUT OF MODERN COAL POWER PLANT (OR)

LAYOUT OF STEAM POWER PLANT
In steam power plant, the water is converted into
steam and the steam expanded in a turbine to produce
kinetic energy which is converted into mechanical energy.
The steam power plant has four major circuits by
which the layout can be studied in detail. These are
Ash To
Stora ge Atm osph ere
Air fro m
a tm osph ere C h im ney
H o t A sh
o r Slag F.D .F an
H a nd ling
Pre he ated air
Air I.D .Fa n
Pre he ater
C o al D u st
h an dling C o llector
Fuel C o ntrol Valve
Tu rbine
G ene rator
Econo mise r
C o al Turbine Exh au st
Su perheater
C oo ling Tow er
Pre pa ration H o t W ate r

Pu m p
C o olin g
Wa ter In
Bo iler H ig h D e ae rator L ow
C o al Feed Pre ssure Pre ssure
Stora ge Pu m p H e ate r H e ate r
Fig:1.26 Steam Po wer P lan t or Therm al Pow er Plan t .

1. Coal and ash circuit

2. Air and flue gas circuit
3. Feed water and steam circuit
4. Cooling water circuit
1.5.1. Coal and ash Circuit:
This circuit consists of coal delivery, preparation of
coal, handling of coal to the boiler furnace,ash handling and
ash storage.
The coal which is received from the mines are stored
in coal storage. This raw coal is sized by crushers and then
this prepared coal is transferred to the boilers.
In the boiler, the coal is burnt and converted into ash.
This ash is usually quenched to reduce the temperature,
corrosion and dust content. Then it is stored at ash storage.
1.5.2 Air and Flue gas circuit
A ir fro m To
A tm o sph ere A tm o sph ere
F.D .F an C h im ne y
P re he a ted A ir
A ir I.D .Fa n
P re he a ter
S u pe r D u st C olle ctor
H e ate r
Fig:1.27 A ir an d F lue G as C ircu it

E c on o m ize r
This circuit consists of forced draught fan,

air-preheater, boiler furnace, super heater, economiser, dust
collector, induced draught (ID) fan and chimney.
The air from the atmosphere is forced into the circuit

by a forced draught fan. This air is preheated in the air
preheater by flue gases. This pre heated air is supplied to
the furnace where this air is converted into flue gases. This
flue gases pass over the boiler tubes by which the water
is converted into steam Then this flue gas is passed to the
super heater where the steam is converted into super
heated steam. Then it is passed to the economiser to heat
the feed water and to the air preheater. The dust in the
flue gases are collected by the dust collector and then left
to atmosphere through chimney.
1.5.3 Feed water and steam flow circuit:
C ontrol Valve
Tu rb in e
G en e rator
E con o m ise r
S upe rh ea ter Tu rbine E xh au st
H ot W a ter
P um p
B oiler
Fe ed H ig h L ow
P um p P re ssu re P re ssu re
H eater D eae rator H eater
F ig:1.28 Feed Water A n d S team Flo w Circuit
This circuit consists of feed pump, economiser, boiler

drum super heater, turbine and condenser. From the hot
well, the feed water is pumped to the economiser where
the water is preheated by the flue gases. This preheated
water is supplied to the boiler drum. In the boiler drum,
the pre heated water is converted into steam by burning
of coal. The steam raised in boiler is passed through the
super heater where the steam is converted into super
heated steam. The super heated steam is expanded in

turbine which is coupled with generator. The expanded
steam is then passed through the condenser in which the
steam is converted into water and this water is
recirculated.
1.5.4 Cooling Water Circuit
This circuit consists of
a pump, condenser and Turbine E xha ust S te a m
cooling tower. In the
condenser, cold water is
C oo ling To w e r
H ot Wa te r
circulated to condense the
steam in to water.The steam
C ooling
is condensed by loosing its Wa te r in
latent heat to the circulating w a te r
Fig:1.29 Co olin g W ater Circuit
cold water. By this, the
circulating water is heated. This hot water is cooled at the
cooling tower, where the water is sprayed in the form of
droplet through nozzles. The cold air enters the cooling
tower from the bottom which cools the sprayed hot water.
The cooled water is collected in the cooling pond and the
same is re circulated again and again. To compensate the
water lost due to vapourisation, the make up water is
added to the pond by means of a pump.
1.6 SELECTION OF SITE FOR A STEAM POWER PLANT

The following consideration should be taken while
selecting the site for a steam power plant.
1. Availability of raw materials
Huge quantity of coal and fuel are required to run a
steam (thermal) power plant. Therefore, it is important to
locate the plant as near as possible to the coal fields to

reduce the transportation cost.
If it is not possible to locate the plant near the coal
field, then it should be located near the railway station or
near to a port.
2. Ash disposal facilities

As a huge quantity of coal is burnt, this results in a
huge quantity of ash too. The ash handling problem is more
serious as compared to handling of coal because it comes
out very hot and is very corrosive. If not disposed properly
it will result in environmental pollution and other hazards.
Therefore there must be sufficient space to dispose this
large quantity of ash.
3. Nature of land
The land should have good bearing capacity about
1 MN/m 2 as it has to withstand the dead load of plant and
force transmitted to the foundation due to working of heavy
machinery.
4. Cost of land
Large area is required to build a thermal power plant,
therefore the land price should be affordable (cheap). For
eg: Large plant in the heart of city will be very costly.
5. Availability of water
Water is the working fluid in a steam power plant,
and a large quantity of water is converted to steam in order
to run the turbine. It is important to locate the plant near
the water source to fulfill its water demand through out
the year.
6. Size of the plant

The capacity of the plant decides the size of the plant,
large plant requires large area and the smaller plant
requires considerably smaller area. Therefore, the size of
the plant and its capacity play an important role in
selection of site.
7. Availability of workforce
During construction of plant, enough labour is
required. The labour should be available at the proposed
site at cheap rate.
8. Transportation facilities
Availability of proper transportation is another
important consideration for the selection of site as a huge
quantity of raw materials (coal & fuel) through out the year
and heavy machinery are to be brought to the site during
the installation.
9. Load centre
The plant must be near to the load centre to which
it is supplying power in order to decrease transmission loss
and minimize transmission line cost.
10. Public problems

The plant should be away from the town or city in
order to avoid nuisance from smoke, ash, heat and noise
from the plant.
11. Future extension

A choice for future extension of the plant should be
made in order to meet the power demand in future.
1.7 SUPER CRITICAL BOILERS

Super critical boiler is a boiler that operates at super
critical pressure (high pressure) to increase the efficiency
of the plant and to reduce the cost of electricity production.
Normally, water tube boilers are generally preferred for
high pressure. In this water tube boilers, the water is
circulated through tubes and their external surfaces are
exposed to the flue gases.
It is the most economical cycle. The working steam

pressure range is 125 bar to 300 bar and temperature is
510C to 600C . Usually sub-critical boiler consists of three
distinct sections as preheater, evaporator and superheater.
And in case of supercritical boiler, only preheater and super
heater are required.
Generally super critical boilers are used for more than

300 MW power plants.
Advantages of super critical boilers:

1. The amount of scale formation is less since the
velocity of water through pipes are more.
2. In this method, light weight tubes with better
heating surface arrangement can be used. It
occupies less space. The cost for foundation, time for
erection are very less.
3. All parts of the system are heated uniformly. So
there is no danger of over heating.
4. The differential expansion is reduced due to uniform
temperature throughout structure. So there is no
leakages of gas (or) air
5. The flexibility is more.
6. The temperature of steam can be raised rapidly

without the use of any control devices.
7. By increasing the temperature and pressure of the
steam, the thermal efficiency of the plant can be
increased by 40 to 42%.
8. The system can be started from cold condition
rapidly.
9. The heat transfer rate is more. The steam side heat
transfer co-efficient for sub critical boiler is 16,500
kJ/m 2hrC and the temperature of steam and
pressure are 180 bar and 538C .
But in super critical boiler, the heat transfer
co-efficient is 2,20,000 kJ/m 2hr C when the steam
is generated at 240 C .
10. The turbo generators connected to super critical
boilers can generate peak loads by changing the
pressure of operation.
The following are some of the important super

critical (High pressure) boilers:
1. La Mont Boiler, 2. Benson boiler, 3. Loefler
Boiler, 4. Velox boiler.
1.7.1 La Mont Boiler: This type of boiler was introduced

by Lamont in 1925. The arrangement is shown in the Fig.
1.30.
It is a forced circulation, high pressure water tube

boiler. The circulation of the water is maintained by a
centrifugal pump. This pump is driven by a steam turbine
using the steam from the boiler. In this boiler, the
separator drum is kept outside the boiler.
C old
B low er A ir in
H ot Air to
C om bu stion
C ham b er
A ir P re hea ter
Feed P um p E cono m ise r
S uper
H eated
S tea m
E xhau st G as
S tea m E vapo rato r
S epara tor
D ru m
C om bu stion C ham b er
C ircula ting
P um p Fire
G ra te
D istrib uting
H eader
Fig1.30. L a-M ont Bo iler.
From the hot flue gases produced from the combustion

of the fuel, the heat is supplied to the water in the
evaporator tubes, super heater tubes, economizer tubes and
the air in the air heater tubes; Then the waste gases move
to the atmosphere through the chimney.
The separator drum separates the steam from water.
Steam passes from the evaporator and feed water is fed
from the economiser to the drum. The steam is separated
from the water. The water is again pumped to the
evaporator by the centrifugal pump via the distributing
header. The separated steam is sent to the super heater

which receives the heat from the flue gases flowing from
the combustion chamber. This super heated steam is then
delivered out through stop valve. An economizer is provided
in the water circuit to preheat the feed water using the
hot gases leaving the boiler.
The feed water is sent inside the boiler through the
economiser. The centrifugal pump is used to circulate the
water to the economizer. The centrifugal pump delivers the
feed water to the headers at a pressure of 2.5 atm above
the drum pressure. In evaporator, water is distributed
through the nozzles.
The steam is going to the superheater before it goes

to the prime mover. A choke is usually fitted at the
entrance to each unit, in order to give a secure uniform
flow of feed water through the pipe lines.
Capacity of boiler:
Steam: 45 to 50 tons
Pressure: 120 atm.
Temperature: 500C
Disadvantage of La Mont boiler:

The major disadvantage is the formation and
attachment of bubbles on the inner surfaces of the heating
tubes. This reduces the heat flow and steam generation.
1.7.2 BENSON BOILER:

In 1927, Benson boiler was developed by Benson in
West Germany. It was the first super critical drumless
boiler.
Construction:
It is a high pressure, vertical, fire tube boiler. The
Fig. 1.31 shows the schematic arrangement of a Benson
boiler. This boiler has no drum and is designed to operate
at critical pressure of 225 bar.
The fuel is burnt on the grate and the hot flue gases
flow over radiant evaporator, convection super heater,
convection evaporator, economiser and air preheater and
Exhau st G as
C o ld
Air Prehea ter Air in
Blow e r
H o t A ir to
Co mb ustion
C h am ber
Wa te r Econo mise r
Fe ed P um p
C o nvection
Evapo rator
Su pe r H eater C o nvection
Steam to
Tu rb ine Su pe r H eater
R a diant
Evapo rator
Fire
G ra te
Fig:1.31 Benson Boiler

then pass through chimney. The feed water is pumped

through the economizer tubes and receives heat from the
flue gases. Then this heated water flows into the radiant
super heater where it receives further heat from the flue
gases and gets evaporated. The remaining water is
evaporated in the convection super heater. The steam now
becomes saturated steam in the convection super heater.
Then the steam is delivered out through the stop valve.
The water is passed to the radiant evaporator through
the economiser. In the economiser, the major amount of
water is converted into steam. The remaining water is
evaporated in the final evaporator absorbing the heat from
the hot gases by convection. The main disadvantage is salt
deposition in this system in the transformation zone when
all remaining water is converted into steam. To avoid this,
for every 4000 hrs, after working periods, the boiler is
cleaned by high pressure water. The maximum pressure
obtained from Benson boiler is 500 atm.
Advantages
1. In this system, there is no drum. So the total
weight of the Benson boiler is reduced by 20%, when
compared to other boilers.
2. The erection of Benson boiler is easier and quicker
3. Transformation is easy.
4. It occupies very less space.
5. It can be started very quickly, since it has welded

joints.
6. It is an economical one.
7. Sudden fall of demand creates circulation problems

due to bubble formation in the natural circulation boiler
which never occurs in Benson boiler.
8. Around only 4% of blow down losses are occurred

in Benson boiler.
9. There is no explosion hazards.
1.7.3 LOEFLER BOILER:

The major disadvantage in La Mont boiler is the
deposition of salt and sediment on the inner surface of the
water tubes. It reduces the heat transfer and ultimately
the generating capacity. The salt deposition will increase
overheating.
In Loeffler boiler, this problem is solved by preventing

water from flowing through the boiler tubes. Most of the
steam is generated outside the tubes. The arrangement is
shown in Fig. 1.32.
Water is pressurized by feed pump to the evaporator

drum through the economizer as shown Fig. Over 65% of
the steam coming out of superheater is passed through the
evaporator drum in order to evaporate the feed water
coming from economizer.
The steam circulating pump draws the saturated

steam from the evaporator drum and is passed through the
radiant superheater and then convective superheater.
Nearly 35% of steam coming out of the superheater

is supplied to the H.P. steam turbine. After that, the steam
from H.P turbine is passed through reheater before
supplying to the L.P. turbines.
Exha ust
G ases
Stea m R eh eate r
Fe ed
Pu m p
Fe ed W ate r Exha ust

fro m H ot W ell Stea m to
C o ndenser
Econ omise r
0.35W
Co mbu stion H .P.

C ham ber
Stroker
D irection of G as F lo w 0.65w
Steam Stea m
C ircu la tin g
Pu m p
0.65W
Fe ed in F ig:1.32 Loeffle r B o ile r

Evap orating D rum
This boiler can carry higher salt concentration than

any other type and is more compact than indirectly heated
boilers having natural circulation.
The steam generating capacity of Loeffler boiler is 100
tons/hr and is operating at 140 bar.
1.7.4 Velox boilers:
When the gas velocity exceeds the sound velocity, the
heat is transferred from the gas at much higher rates than
rates achieved with sub-sonic flow. This advantage is used
to utilize the large heat transfer from a smaller surface
area in this boiler. The arrangement is as shown in Fig.
1.33.
Feed W ate r Fuel

Tan k Tan k
Fuel Pu m p
E xhau st To
stea m
A tm osphere
sep era tor
Feed
P um p C om pre sse d A ir stea m in
o
1 50 c S uper
o
H eater
A B 5 00 C
A ir G as
E cono m ise r Water C irculating NRV
P um p C om pre sso r Turbine
E xhau st S tea m
To P rim e
S ection on AB M over
G as Tube
Wa ter Tube
Fig:1.33 Velox Boiler
Air is compressed from air compressor in the range

of 2.5 bar, before supplying to the combustion chamber to
get the supersonic flow of the gases passing through the
combustion chamber and gas tubes. From the combustion
chamber, the burnt gases are passed through the annulus
of the tubes. The heat is transferred from gases to water
while passing through the annulus to generate the
steam.Water steam mixture is formed and it is entered in
the form of spiral flow. Due to the centrifugal force, the
heavier water particles are thrown outward on the walls.
This is used to separate the steam from water.
The separated steam is further passed to superheater
and then supplied to the prime mover. The water removed
from the steam in the separator is again used into the

water tubes with the help of a pump.
The gases coming out from the annulus is passed over
the super heater where its heat is used for superheating
the steam. The gases are used to run the gas turbine as
they carry sufficient kinetic energy. The power output of
the gas turbine is used to run a gas turbine. The exhaust
gases coming out from the gas turbine are passed through
the economizer to utilize the remaining heat of the gases.
The electric motor is used to supply the extra power

required to run the compressor.
Capacity of Velox boiler: 100 tons/hr.
Advantages:
1. The combustion rate is more.
2. It is more compact.
3. It has greater flexibility.
4. It can be quickly started even though the separator
has a storage capacity of about 10% of the maximum
hourly output.
1.8 FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION (FBC) BOILERS

The coal available in India is of low quality, high ash
content and low calorific value. The traditional grate fuel
firing systems have got limitations and are
techno-economically unviable to meet the challenges of
future. Fluidized bed combustion has emerged as a viable
alternative and has significant advantages over
conventional firing system and offers multiple benefits -
compact boiler design, fuel flexibility, higher combustion
efficiency and reduced emission of noxious pollutants such
as SOx and NOx. The fuels burnt in these boilers include

coal, washery rejects, rice husk, bagasse & other
agricultural wastes. The fluidized bed boilers have a wide
capacity range of 0.5 T/hr to over 100 T/hr.
When the high velocity gas is passed through a
packed bed of finely divided solid particles, the particles
become suspended in the gas stream and the packed bed
becomes a fludised bed. When the gas velocity is very high,
the fludised bed become turbulent and rapid mixing of
particles occurs. Ultimately, the behaviour of mixture of
solid particles and gas become a fluid. Burning of a fuel in
such a state is known as Fludised Bed Combustion. The
boiler plant using this fludised bed combustion is known
as fludised bed boilers.
The FBC system arrangement is shown in Fig.1.34.
Wa lls
Flue G a ses
... ............... . ... ...... . . ... ..... .... ....... ............

. . . . . . . .. . . . . ..... ........ .. . .
Steam . ..... . . .. . . ...... . .. ..... .. . . .
... ............. .. .. ... ........ ... ... ......... .. . . ... ................... Ash
... . ....... . .... . .. .. .... . . .......... ..... .. C o ve r
.......... .. . ............... . .. . .. . ........ .. ..... .
.. . . . ... . . . . . . . ..... ... . . . . . .. ... ..
. .... .. ... ...... .... . ..... . .. ........ .
. .......... . ......... ... .. . ..
. ....... . ..... . . ..... .
Bu bb le
......... .. . ......... ..
. . . . . ..
... ....... . .... . . .
. ..... . ........... ... ...... ..

... .. .... . . . .
......... .... .......
..... ..... . . . . .... .

. ..... .. ... . .... .. .......... .
.. ....
. . .. . .
H e at Ab so rbing
.... .... .. .. ..... ..
. . . . . . ..
........ ..............
Fu el a nd Tubes
... .......
..
.
.
D o lom ite .. . ... .. . ... . Wa ter
. ... . . . .... .
D istrib utor
Plate
Fig:1.34 FBC System

Air
At higher velocities, bubbles disappear, and particles

are blown out of the bed. Therefore, some amounts of
particles have to be recirculated to maintain a stable
system - circulating fluidised bed.
Fluidization depends largely on the particle size and

the air velocity. The mean solids velocity increases at a
slower rate than does the gas velocity. The difference
between the mean solid velocity and mean gas velocity is
called as slip velocity. Maximum slip velocity between the
solids and the gas is desirable for good heat transfer and
intimate contact.
If sand particles in a fluidized state is heated to the

ignition temperatures of coal, and coal is injected
continuously into the bed, the coal will burn rapidly and
bed attains a uniform temperature. The fluidized bed
combustion (FBC) take place at about 840 C to 950 C. Since
this temperature is much below the ash fusion temperature,
melting of ash and associated problems are avoided.
The lower combustion temperature is achieved

because of high coefficient of heat transfer due to rapid
mixing in the fluidized bed and effective extraction of heat
from the bed through in-bed heat transfer tubes and walls
of the bed. The gas velocity is maintained between
minimum fluidisation velocity and particle entrainment
velocity. This ensures stable operation of the bed and avoids
particle entrailment in the gas stream.
The fuel and inert material dolomite are fed on a

distributor plate and air is supplied from the bottom of the
distributor plate. High velocity of air keeps the solid fuel
in suspended condition during burning.
The heat is generated rapidly and transferred to the

water passing through the tubes immersed in the bed and
the steam is generated.
The inert material is used for controlling bed
temperature. The heat generated by the combustion is first
used for keeping up the temperature of the inert material
and the balance is absorbed by the heat transfer surfaces.
Sintered ash, fused alumina, sand, mullite and zirconia are
some suggested inert materials for FBC.
Since the FBC system behaves like a violently boiling
liquid, the heat transfer rate to the tube surface is quite
high. Normally, 50% of the heat released in the bed is
absorbed by the tubes immersed in the bed. Hence, the
weight of the material and size of the boiler are
considerably reduced.
Since the operating temperature of the bed is low and
uniform, it prevents the fusion of coal ash and hence the
ash produced is soft and less abrasive. The corrosion and
erosion of submerged tubes are minimised as compared to
conventional methods of combustion.
Since limestone is used as particle bed, control of
SOx and NOx emission in the combustion chamber is
achieved without any additional control equipment.
1.8.1 Conversion of Oil fired boilers to fluidized bed
boilers
Nowadays, oil fired boilers are slowly shifting to
fluidized bed boilers. For that, the following modifications
are done.
1. Furnace: Normally, oil fired boiler furnace is small in

volume when compared to coal fired boiler furnace.
Therefore, the furnace has to be suitably enlarged to retain
the capacity. It requires high modification cost.
2. Combustion system: To achieve complete combustion,
excess air has to be supplied. The forced draft and induced
draft fans provided for oil firing may not be suitable for
coal firing needs. To get high flue gas velocity of 15 m/s,
the existing forced draft fan has to be modified (or) replaced
by high capacity fan for smooth running of FBC system.
3. Air system: An air duct below distributor plate with

approximate connection from forced draft fan is needed in
FBC system. Hence special air ducting is needed.
4. Flue gas system: The fly ash from FBC is soft due to
low temperature. But high velocity excess air will lead to
severe erosion. This unwanted erosion can be reduced by
changing the gas path accordingly.
1.8.2 Types of Fluidised Bed Combustion system

There are three types of fluidised bed combustion
system, they are
(i) Bubbling fluidised bed combustion system
(ii) Circulating fluidised bed combustion system
(iii) Pressurised fluidised bed combustion system
(i) Bubbled fluidised bed combustion system

In Bubbling bed combustion system (or) Atmospheric
bed combustion system, coal is crushed to a size of 1 - 10
mm depending upon the quality of coal and type of fuel fed
into the combustion chamber. Air is used for both
Flue G a s
C oal in
H opper
Fuel F eed
Fuel
D istrib utor
E vapo rato r tub es

to m aintain tem p era tu re
Fluidize d bed
A ir P assage
A ir D uct
Fig:1.35 Bubbling Bed Tra m p M a teria l M ove s

Co mb ustion D ow n and C oo ls D o w n
System . B efo re Being R e m oved
fluidization and combustion. Air is allowed to pass through

bed after preheating, [preheating of air is done by the
exhaust flue gases]. The rate at which air is blown through
the bed determines the amount of fuel that can be reacted.
The bed consists of sand and coal. To maintain the
temperature of the bed, an evaporator tube is used which
passes through the bed and extractes heat. Very little
materials leaves the bubbling bed (i.e) only 2 to 4 kg of
solids are recycled per ton of fuel burned.
When evenly distributed air passes upwards through
a finely divided bed of solid particles such as sand on a
fine mesh, the particles are not undisturbed at low velocity.
As the air velocity is gradually increased to a stage the
individual particles are suspended in the air stream, then
the bed is known to be fluidized. With further increase in
air velocity produces bubble formation, vigorous turbulance
and rapid mixing. Hence bubbles are formed near the
distribution plate and continuous to rise and erupt near
the bed surface and ejects particles from its surfaces. Solid
particles are driven upward by the bubble movement.
Hence, the intensive particle circulation due to bubble
movement promotes good air and solid mixing. The bed of
solid particles exhibits the property of a boiling liquid and
assumes the appearance of fluid called bubbling fluidized
bed.
If the sand particles in fluidized state is heated to
the ignition temperature of coal, then the coal is injected
continuously in to the bed, the coal will burn rapidly due
to the heat transfer between sand and coal and bed attains
an uniform temperature. Then the fluid bed combustion
takes place at about 840C to 950C. Since the temperature

is much below ash fusion temperature, melting of ash and
associated problems are avoided.
The low combustion temperature is achieved because
of high coefficient of heat transfer due to rapid mixing of
fluidized bed and effective extraction of heat from the bed
by heat transfer tube and walls of the bed.
(ii) Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion system

(CFBC)
The circulating fluid bed combustion technology has
evolved from conventional bubbling bed combustion to over
come some of the drawbacks associated with bubbling bed
combustion. CFBC provides greater flexibility in burning
wide range of coal and other fuels without reduction in
efficiency and with reduced pollution.
The CFBC technology uses fluidised bed principle.

The coal is crushed to 6 - 12 mm size and limestone is
injected into the furnance (or) combustor. Since limestone
is used as bed particle control of sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen oxide emissions in the combustion chamber is
achieved without any additional control equipment.
Special design of air nozzle is provided at the bottom

of the bed which allows flow of air without clogging.
Primary air fan provides the preheated fluidised air.
Secondary air fan provides preheated combustion air.
Nozzle in the furnance walls at various levels distribute
the combustion air in the furnance.
There are no steam generation tubes immersed in the

bed because circulating bed is designed to move a lot more
solids out of the furnace area and to achieve most of the
L ig ht P articles
S econ dary
A ir Fan
Particles
S uper
H e avy
H e ater
M echan ica l
S ep era tor
C yclo ne
E co no m iser
Cyclone
C om b ustion Air
Pre H eate d
A ir
H e ater
F lu e G ases
B ed Ma terial
Furn ace R eturn
C oal in
P re H e ated
Fluidize d B ed A ir
S pecia l
d esign air
n ozzle
P rim ary Air F an

Fig:1.36 Circulated Fluidized Bed Com bu stion
heat transfer outside the combustion zone (i.e) convection

section. Some circulating bed boiler units have external
heat exchangers.
Working
When a preheated air supply is given at the bottom
at high pressure, it lifts the bed material (limestone) and
coal particles and keeps it in suspension. The coal
combustion takes place at 840 900C at this suspended
condition, fine particles and partly burned coal ash and bed
material are carried along with the flue gases to the upper
areas of the furnace and then it passes through the
mechanical cyclonic separator which separates light and
heavy particles. The heavy particles are collected by
mechanical cyclone separator and circulated back to
furnance. Hence the name circulating fluidised bed
combustion. The hot gases from the cyclone passes to the
heat transfer surfaces and go out of boiler.
The particle circulation provides efficient heat transfer

to the furnance walls and longer utilization time for carbon
and limestone utilization.
(iii) Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion system

Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion (PFBC) system
is used for large coal burning applications. The operating
efficiency of PFBC is increased by introducing differential
air pressure.
In PFBC, coal is injected into pressurised bed of

850 900C. The bed consists of 90 - 95% of coal ash and
desulphurisation sorbent. When the air flows through the
bottom of the furnace it suspends the particulates in air,
where rapid combustion takes places. Then the gases from
H ot
G ases
1 2 B ar
G as
Turbine
G ene rator
Tem p
o
= 850 c
P re ssu re
Ve sse l
M echan ical
C yclon e
S epera tor
To E lectrostatic
P re cip itato r
S tea m
S tea m G e ne rato r
Lim esto ne
C oal an d
Turbine
Wa ter
C o nde nser
Air
B ed C yclon e
A sh A sh
Fig:1.37 P ressu rised F luidised Bed Co mb ustion
the combustion chamber passes through a mechanical

cyclonic separator where large particles are separated and
sent back to fluidised bed. The hot combustion gases from
the fluidised bed combustor drives the gas turbine.
The steam turbine is driven by steam received in
tubes which is immersed in the fluidised bed. The
condensate from the steam turbine is pre-heated using
waste from the gas turbine exhaust and then it is taken
as fluid water for steam generation.
The PFBC system can be used for combined cycle
power generation. By using gas and steam turbines in this
way, the electricity generated will be more efficient than
the conventional system. (i.e) efficiency will increase by 5%
to 8%.
Advantages of Fluidised Bed Combustion boilers
1. Any type of fuel - solid, liquid (or) gaseous fuel (or)
domestic and industrial waste can be used in FBC
system. Any type of combustible matter can be
burned by adjusting the factors such as size, air
velocity and rate of feed.
2. High combustion intensity can be achieved and it
can be varied with variation in air pressure supplied
to the combustor. Hence the FBC combustor is much
smaller than the conventional furnaces. Due to this,
the capital and running cost of the fludised bed
boiler system is cheaper.
3. High heat transfer rate is possible to the surfaces
immersed in the bed because solid mixing is
extremely rapid.
4. Since the combustion temperature can be controlled

accurately, volatization of ash constituents like
alkali metals are avoided. Also, since ash particles
are not melted, they are soft and non-abrasive.
5. FBC system design can be done very fast because
of its simplicity, small size of plant and corrosion
and erosion problem are less.
6. In FBC system, the unwanted sulphur retention
equipment and combustion system are dolomite,
hence there is no need of separate big gas cleaning
system.
7. In FBC system, the combustion is stabilized even at
700 C 900 C. Since this temperature is well below
the temperature at which the ash sinters, the vast
bulk of ash can be tapped from the bottom of the
bed. Also, this low combustion temperature prevents
the formation of NOX.
8. High combustion efficiency.
9. High ash content coal can be burnt efficiently.
10. The solid fuel need not to be pulverized.
11. At bed temperature around 800 C 900C, the
volatization of alkali compounds does not occur and
hence the deposition of the tubes is minimised.
The FBC system is more popular and attractive
because the high ash content fuels like tar sands, oil shales,
and coal refinery slurry can be burned at ease. A
commercial FBC water tube boiler plant is shown here in
Fig. 1.38.
S tea m O ut
To e xha ust
S olid B ed
Fuel D osing Wa te r Tu be B oiler
. . . .. . . . .. .. .. . .. .... . .. . . .. .
. . . . . . . . . .. .
. . .. .. . . . . . . .. . .................... .................. ... .. ...
.. . . . . . .
C him n ey
.. .. . . .. ... .. .. .. ....
.
. . .. .. . . . . . . ........ .... ........
. . .. . . . .... . ............ .
. .. . . . .. ........ .. .. .... .....
. .
. . .. . .. ....... . . . . . .
. . . ..
. . .
.
... .... ..... . . ....... ..... .... .. ..
C yclone
.. .. .. .. ........ . .... . .. .
. ........................
C hain G rate ............... .. ...... ...... .. .........
.................. ..... ...... . .... ....
S troker .. . ....... .. . ....
. ..
M om entu m
S epe rator
.... .
Fan ...... . ....... ..... .. .. . ..
.........
. ......... A sh
R ocks an d M eta ls
Fig:1.38 Com mercial FBC Water Tube Boiler Plant
1.9 STEAM TURBINES

Steam turbines are one of the most versatile and
oldest prime movers that transform the potential energy of
the steam into kinetic energy and later in turn transformed
into mechanical energy - rotation of turbine shaft.
Working principle
The steam energy is converted into mechanical work
by expansion through the turbine. The expansion takes
place through a series of fixed blades and moving blades.
Each row of fixed blade and moving blade is called stage.
The moving blades rotate on the central turbine rotor and
fixed blades are concentrically arranged within the circular
turbine casing which is designed to withstand the steam
pressure.
1.9.1 Types of steam turbine

Steam turbine can be classified
1. According to the design of the moving blade (steam
flow) turbine is classified into two types.
(a) Impulse turbine
(b) Reaction turbine
2. According to the number of pressure stage.
(a) Single stage turbine
(b) Multi stage turbine
3. According to the direction of steam flow
(a) Axial turbine
(b) Radial turbine
1.9.2 Impulse Turbine
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the
steam flow into high speed jets due to the expansion of
steam in the nozzles. These high speed jet contains
significant kinetic energy which is converted into shaft
rotation by the moving blades, as the steam jet changes
direction. There is a pressure drop at the fixed blades, with
net increase in the steam velocity across the stage. The
steam leaving the moving blades has maximum velocity.
The loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity is called
the carry over velocity or leaving loss.
This can be better understood by passing a velocity
diagram.
V1
V r1 V f1
1 1
U
Vw 1
U Vw 2
2 2
V f2
V2
V r2
Fig:1.39 Velocity Diagram For M ovin g Blade.
Where
U Linear velocity of moving blade
V1 & V2 Absolute velocity of steam at entry

and exit respectively
Vw & Vw V elocity of whirl at the entry

1 2
and exit respectively

Radial component of V 1 & V 2 respectively
V f Ve locity of flow at entry of moving blade

1
axial com ponent of V 1
V f Velocity of flow at exit & m oving blade

2
Axial com ponent of V 2
V r & V r Relative velocity at entry and exit

1 2
1 angle with the tangent of the wheel at which
the s team enters, also called nozzle angle.
2 angle which the discharging steam makes with
the tangent of the wheel at the exit
1 Entrance angle of moving blade
2 Exit angle of moving blade
The steam jet issuing from the nozzle at a velocity of

V 1 strikes the blade at an angle 1. V w is the tangential
1
component of the jet which perform work on the blade. The

axial component Vf1 does work but causes the steam to flow
through the turbine. The blades move with a tangential
velocity of U . The entering steam jet has a relative velocity
V r1 which makes an angle 1 with the tangent of wheel.
The steam then glides over the blade without any shock
and discharges at a relative velocity of V r2 at an angle
2 with the tangent of blade. The absolute velocity V 2 of
leaving steam make an angle 2 to the tangent at the

wheel.
In order to have simplicity while solving problem, it
is an usual practice to combine the two vector diagram as
shown in Fig. 1.40. The diagram has been obtained by
superimposing the inlet velocity diagram on the outlet
diagram in order to coincide the blade velocity U.
Vw
V w1 V w2
U
E F
A 2 1 1 2
B
V r1
V f1 V2 V f2
V1 V r2
C D
Fig:1.40
Work done on blade

The work done on the blade may be found out by the
law of change of momentum of the steam jet during its
flow over the blade.
Force on the wheel Mass of stress Acceleration

m V w V w
1 2 ...(1)
Note:
V w is actually negative as the steam is discharged
2
in the opposite direction to blade motion, therefore

consideration should be given to the fact that the values of

V w & V w are to be added while solving the problems:
1 2
1. Work done on blades/sec

Force distance travelled/sec

m V w V w U
1 2
. .
m Vw U . V w Vw V w
1 2

m Vw U
kW
1000 ...(2)
1.9.3 Reaction turbine

The reaction turbine is turned by reactive force rather
than a jerk or impulse in case of impulse turbine. In
reaction turbine, there are no nozzles, instead, the blades
that project radially from the periphery of the rotor are
formed and mounted so that the space between the blades
have a shape like nozzle. This blades are mounted on the
revolving rotor therefore they are called moving blades.
Fixed blades of the same shape as of the moving blade

are fastened to the casing in which the rotor revolves. Fixed
blade guides the steam into the moving blades as shown
in Fig.1.41.
A reaction turbine is moved by three forces
1. Reactive force produced on the moving blades as the

gas increases in velocity as it expands in the
nozzle-shaped spaces between the blades.
2. Reactive force produced on the moving blades when
the steam changes direction.
M oving Bla de
Fixe d B lad e
E nte rin g
S tea m
Fig:1.41 Reactio n Tu rbine B lading
3. The push of the steam impinging upon the blades.

The reaction turbine which are used now a days are
really impulse-reaction turbine as the expansion of steam
and heat drop occurs in both fixed and moving blades.
1.9.3.1 Velocity diagram for reaction turbine blade

In reaction turbine blades, the steam continuously
expands at it flows over the blades. The effect of the
continuous expansion of steam during the flow over the
blade is to increase the relative velocity of steam.
Note:
V r V r for reaction turbine

2 1
V r Vr for impulse turbine

2 1
Fig:1.42 Velocity Diagram for Reaction Turbine.
1.9.3.2 Degree of reaction

It is given by the ratio of heat drop over moving
blades to the total heat drop in the stage.
Heat drop in moving blades
Rd
Heat drop in the stage
hm

hf hm
hf heat drop in fixed blade

hm heat drop in moving blade
When 1 2 and 2 1 ,
the mo ving blade and fixed blade must have the same
shape (symmetric al shape) if the degree o f reac tio n in 50%.
This type o f turbine is also kno w n as Parsons reaction
turbine.
1.10 STEAM CONDENSERS

Steam condenser is a device in which the exhaust
steam of a turbine is condensed by means of cooling water
below atmospheric pressure. By decreasing the exhaust
pressure of steam below atmosphere, the efficiency of the
power plant is greatly improved. The condensed steam is
called condensate which can be reused in the boiler, saving
the cost of water. This also reduces, the capacity of the
water softening plant.
The condensers are mainly classified into two types,

namely
Mixing type or Jet condensers.

Non-Mixing Type or Surface condensers.
1.10.1 Jet condensers
In this type of condensers, the exhaust steam from
turbine (prime mover) and cooling water come in direct
contact with each other and as a result, the steam
condenses into water. So, these condensers are also called
as Direct contact condensers. Usually water is
introduced in the form of a spray from a jet. The
temperature of the condensate is the same as that of the
cooling water leaving the condenser.
As the condensate is not free from salt and pollutants,

it cannot be used as feed water to the boiler. Hence these
condensers are preferred only where ample good quality
water is available.
Jet condensers are divided into two types
Parallel flow condensers: Here steam and cooling

water flow in the same direction.
Counterflow condensers: Here steam and cooling

water flow in opposite directions.
Jet condensers are never used in modern power plants
and hence are not discussed here.
1.10.2 Surface condenser

A surface condenser is a commonly used term for a
water-cooled shell and tube heat exchanger. These
condensers convert steam to water at a pressure below
atmospheric pressure. Here, the exhaust steam and cooling
water do not come in contact.
1.10.2.1 Classification of surface condensers

The cooling water flow through a series of tubes and
the exhaust steam passes over these tubes. Condensation
of a steam is due to heat transfer by conduction and
convection.
Surface condensers are mainly of two types

1. Two flow condenser
2. Multi flow condenser

Two flow condenser consists of air tight cast iron
cylindrical shell. A number of water tubes are
fixed in the tube plates as shown in Fig.1.43.
If the cooling water is impure, condenser tubes
will be made up of red brass.
In two flow steam condenser, cooling water travels
twice once from inlet-water box to end water box and once
from end water box to outlet water box.
In multi flow condenser, the rate of heat exchange is
rapid but the power required to circulate the cooling water
is also more.
E xha ust
C ylindric al S team
S hell
C oo ling
W ater
O u tle t
Water W ater
B ox Wa ter Tub e s
B ox
C oo ling
W ate r
In let
To W et A ir P um p
Fig.1.43 Tw o Flow Su rface Con denser
According to the direction of flow of steam, the surface

condenser can be classified as,
(a) Down flow surface condenser
(b) Central flow surface condenser
(c) Inverted flow surface condenser
(a) Down flow surface condenser

In Down flow surface condenser, steam enters through
the top of the condenser vessel and it comes down over the
S tea m an d
A ir
Tubes
A ir a nd
S tea m
C onden sate
Fig:1.44 Dow n F low Cond en ser.
cooling water pipes. Then the steam starts to condense, the

pressure as well as temperature of the condensate get
decreased. Two separate pumps are employed for the
extraction of condensate and the air. The air exit is shielded
from the down stream of the condensate by means of baffle
plate and thus air is extracted with only a comparatively
small amount of water vapour. The condensate is extracted
from the bottom of the condensate with the help of the
condensate extraction pump.
(b) Central flow surface condenser
It is also shell type S te a m an d A ir
cross flow heat exchanger at
the center of which is
located the suction of an air
extraction pump so that the
Tu be s
entire steam moves radially
A ir C o oling
inward and comes in better A ir
S e ctio n
contact with the surfaces of
nest of the tubes in which
the cooling water flows. The
steam condensate is extracted
from the bottom by the C o nd en sa te
condensate extraction pump.

Fig.1.45 C entral F low C ond en ser
(c) Inverted flow type

Here, the air extraction pump is located at the top of
the condenser. The steam enters through the bottom and
flows upwards in cross flow with the cooling water flowing
in the tubes. The steam after being condensed on the outer
surface of water tubes is removed by the condensate
extraction pump situated at the bottom of the condenser.
1.10.2.2 Advantages of surface condenser

Improves plant efficiency.
Auxiliary power requirement is less.
Any kind of feed water can be used.
There is no mixing of cooling water and steam.
So the condensate can be reused as boiler feed
water directly.
This condenser develops high vacuum and hence
is suitable for large power plants.
1.10.2.3 Disadvantages of surface condenser

High manufacturing and maintenance cost.
Requires large floor space.
Requires large quantity of cooling water.
1.11 CAPACITY OF A STEAM POWER PLANT

Steam rate: It is defined as the rate of steam flow (kg/hr)
required for producing unit shaft output (1 kW), therefore
3600
Steam rate kg/kWh
W net
Heat rate: It is rate of heat input required for producing

unit output (1 kW)
3600
Heat rate Q1 kJ/kWh
W net
Where Q 1 is heat added per kg of steam
1.12 SUB SYSTEM OF THERMAL POWER PLANT

The sub systems of thermal power plant are the
auxiliary plants required for the plant for its proper
operation and for the increase of their efficiency.
Some of the sub systems are discussed as follows:
1.12.1 Boiler Accessories

The appliances used to increase the efficiency of the
boiler are known as boiler accessories.
The important boiler accessories are:
1. Feed pump,
2. Economiser,
3. Air preheater,
4. Superheater,
5. Steam separator and so on
6. Injector.
1. Feed pumps
Feed pumps are used to deliver water to the boiler.
It is essential to use a feed pump because the quantity of
water supplied should meet amount of water evaporated
and supplied to the engine.
D elivery Air C ock

Valves
Steam
Suction
Valves
Steam Stuffing
C ylinder D rain C ross
Box H ead
C ock Water D rain
Piston C ylinder Plug
R od
Fig:1.46 F eed P um p
Basically two types of pump are in use

1. Reciprocating feed pump
2. Rotary feed pump
Reciprocating feed pump consists of a cylinder and a
piston. The piston displaces water as it reciprocates inside
the cylinder. The reciprocating pump may be of two types.
(i) Single acting pump and
(ii) Double acting pump
They are continuously run by steam from the same
boiler to which water is to be fed.
Rotary feed pumps are of centrifugal types and are
commonly run either by a small steam turbine or by electric
motor.
The duplex feed pump is a double acting reciprocating
feed pump. In this pump, there are two simple engine
cylinders placed side by side. The pressure of steam acts
directly on the piston to pump the water. Each pump has

one steam cylinder and water cylinder.
2. Economiser
It is a device in which the waste heat of the flue
gases is utilized for heating feed water.
The uses of a economiser has many advantages

1. The temperature range between various parts of the
boiler is reduced which results in reduction of stress
on the inner wall of boiler drum due to uneven
thermal expansion.
2. Evaporate capacity of the boiler is increased.
3. Less fuel is required to turn the feed water into
steam.
W orm W heel P ulley
H ot
Water Safety
valve
Scrape
So ot F eed
C h am ber Water
Fig.1.47 G reens Vertical Tube Econo miser

4. Overall efficiency of the plant is increased.

Greens vertical tube economiser is shown in Fig.1.47.
Economiser is used to preheat the feed water using
furnace flue gases.
It consists of a large number of cast iron vertical
tubes. These tubes are connected at the top and bottom by
two horizontal pipes and are placed in the main flue
between the boiler and the chimney. The water is pumped
to the lower horizontal pipe and then flows through the
vertical tubes.The water becomes heated by absorbing heat
from the flue gas which passes over the tubes. The hot
water enters the upper horizontal pipe and is fed to the
boiler. To remove the deposits of soot from the surface of
the tubes, scrapers are provided. These scrapers move up
and down slowly by means of a chain passing over the
pulleys to remove the soots.
3. Air preheater:
Air preheater is an Flue G as Inlet
auxiliary system that Air
increase the temperature of O utlet
air before it enters the

furnance. It is generally
placed after the economiser Air
- ie in between economiser inle t
and chimney.
Flue G as To
Preheated air accelerates O utlet C h im ney
the combustion and facilitates So ot
H o pper
the burning of coal.
So ot
Fig:1.48 Air Preh eater
There are two types of air preheaters (a) recuperative

and (b) regenerative.
In a recuperative air preheater, the heat from the flue

gases is transferred to air through a metallic medium. In
a regenerative air preheater, air and flue gases are made
to pass alternatively through the matrix. When the hot
gases pass through the matrix it transfers heat to the cold
air. The preheating of air helps the burning of low grade
fuel, thus permitting a reduction in excess air and thereby
increasing the efficiency. The overall efficiency of the plant
may be increased by 10% by its one.
4. Super heater
The function of the super heater is to increase the
temperature of the steam above its saturation point.
Super heater steam has the following advantages.
1. Steam consumption by the turbine is reduced.
2. Loss due to condensation is reduced.
3. Erosion of turbine blade is eliminated.
4. Efficiency of the plant is increased.
A superheater is located in the path of the hot furnace

gases. Fig.1.49. shows a Sudgens superheater.
When the superheater is in operation, the valve A is

closed. The wet steam from the boiler enters the right
heater through the valve C. The steam flows through the
number of U tubes where it receives heat from the hot
flue gases and becomes superheated. The superheated
steam then passes to the discharge header and then to the
M ain S team P ipe

A B
S top
Valve
Wa ter L evel
C B oiler H2
H1 H eaters
B oiler H andle
Ste el Tub e s
B ottom Flue D ow n Take
D am pe r
Fig:1.49 S udg en s S uper Heater
main steam pipe connected to one end of the discharge

header through the valve B.
The overheating of the superheater tubes is prevented
by using a damper which is controlled by the Handle. It
controls the flow of flue gases to the superheater chamber.
When the damper is horizontal, the hot flue gases pass over
the U tubes (superheated tubes). But when the damper is
vertical, the hot flue gases directly pass to the bottom flue
without superheating. Thus degree of superheating is
controlled by changing the position of damper.
5. Steam separator
The steam generated may be either wet steam (or)
dry steam (or) superheated steam. The wet steam must be
seperated from the dry steam before letting it enter the
main steam line. This separation is done by steam

separator. It prevents the wet steam from entering the
main steam line, thus prevents the turbine blades from
corrosion.
6. Injector
An injector is used to feed water into vertical and
locomotive boilers using steam from the same boiler. It
consists of three jets - steam jet, suction jet, combining and
delivery jet.
The steam expands in the steam nozzle where its
pressure drops but its velocity increases. As the steam
passes across space between steam and suction nozzles a
vacuum is developed in the suction chamber. The water is
drawn into the suction chamber from the feed tank. The
high speed steam jet takes the water along with the steam
into the combining and delivery jet. Here the steam is
condensed and mixed with the water. The delivery jet is so

designed that a considerable amount of kinetic energy of
the jet changes into pressure energy which is sufficient to
force the water in the boiler. There will be no overflow
when the steam and water are in proper ratio. For the
injector to act properly there is a definite relation between
the quantity of steam and water entering the injector.
7. Wagon tippler
It is the machine used to tip the coal from the wagon.
The coal tipped is directly fed to conveyor belt which takes
the coal to the coal mills.
8. Coal mills
Coal feeds in the coal mill are converted into
pulverised form and they are fed to the boiler furnance.
9. Boiler furnance
It is the chamber in which fuel burns and fire blows.
10. Boiler Drum

It contains feed water for boiling.
11. Electro Static Precipitator (ESP)

ESP is located between the boiler and the chimney,
it extracts the fly ash from the flue gases and thus prevents
the fly ash from entering the atmosphere. Electrodes are
used to attract the fly ash when the flue gas coming out
of the boiler is passed through the ESP.
Working Principle:
In this, the dust particles are separated from flue
gases by electrostatic attraction. It has two steps of
operation. One is charging of dust particles and other is to
collect dust particles. In charging section, the flue gas is
ionized and in collecting section dust particles are collected

on the collector electrodes.
Construction
The Fig. 1.51(a) shows the general layout of an
electro static precipitator. In a single stage electrostatic
precipitator, a pair of electrodes serve both the particle
charging and collecting function and in two stage electro
static precipitator, two pair of electrodes are used - one for
charging and other for collecting. The discharge electrode
is connected to the high tension power supply. The collector
G ro un ded D ust C olle ctin g P late s

C ylind ers
D ust C le a n
L ad en + G as
G as in O ut
C harged
W ire s G ro un ded 4 00 V A .C R ectifi e r
C hargin g
S ectio n Tra nsfo rm er
Fig:151 (a) L ayout of Different Com p onents of Electrostatic P recipitato r
Electro- Static Precip itaor
C le a n
G as ou t
D ischarge
H igh Ten sion Ele ctrode s
R e ctifier R e ceiving
H ig h Te nsion
Transform er E le ctrodes
C ontrol E arth E a rth
P anel D ust
L ad en { E arth
G as in
D ust
Fig:1.51 (b ) G eneral Arrangem ent of an E lectrostatic Precip itator
Fig:1.51 E lectro - Static Precipitator
electrode is earthed. An electro static field is setup in

between two electrodes. A weight is kept to align the
electrode along the cylinder axis.
In Fig.1.51(b) the flue gas is passing through the
bottom of the precipitator. When gas moves upward, the
dust particles and the flue gases are ionized by the high
voltage (30,000 to 60,000 volts) applied between the
conductors. The electro static field exerts a force on the
dust particles and they are driven towards the grounded
plates. The dust particles are deposited on the collector
electrodes and they are removed by rapping (Shaking
motion given to electrode) by means of cams. The dust
particles are collected in hopper and removed periodically.
Advantages:
1. Best suitable for high dust laded gases.
2. Very small particles, mist and fly ashes enter the
atmosphere.
3. The dust is collected in dry form and can be
removed in dry or wet form.
4. Maintenance cost is less compared to other types.
5. It has efficiency of 99.5%.
Disadvantages:
1. Power requirement is high for charging the dust
particles and fly ash.
2. Space requirement is more than wet system.
3. Efficiency varies inversely with the gas velocity
4. The dust carried with the gases increases with an
increase of gas velocity. Electrical equipments are
needed for conversion of low voltage to high voltage.

This increases the capital cost.
Even though its cost is more, it is frequently used
with pulverised coal firing system because of its
effectiveness.
12. Chimney
It is used to release flue gas into the atmosphere.
The chimney is constructed 2.5 to 3 times of height

of the power plant. The main purpose of this is to emit the
flue gas at a considerable height to avoid nuisance to the
surrounding people.
There are two types of loads acting on the chimney

namely
1. Its own weight which is considered to act as a

single vertical force acting through the centroid
2. Wind pressure, which is considered to act as a
horizontal force acting on the centroid of vertical
projected area. It is found, from the experiments,
that the wind pressure acting on a cylinder is 2/ 3
times of vertical plane surface of same projected
area and shape. For design considerations, the wind
pressure on the chimney, is taken as 1.5 kN/m 2
Three different types of chimney and their design
considerations are given below.
1. Steel Chimney
This type of chimney is preferred for short exhaust
stacks where the draft is created by fan. To increase the
life of the chimney, these are lined with bricks. The erection
period of this type of chimney is less compared to that of
other types. This type of chimney is constructed by welded

section and erected by horizontal welding joints (or) by
riveting.
Because of low capital cost of the chimney, the
number of steel chimney constructed were increased
considerably, But the sulphur content in the flue gas
created severe problems such as acid condensation and
severe attack inside surface of brick, concrete and steel
chimneys. This has been rectified by the insulation of the
steel chimneys by aluminium cladding.
Cold air inversion is being faced by the system

when several number of boilers are attached to a single
chimney. In order to avoid this nowadays, One boiler - One
chimney pattern is used.
The chimneys in the gas turbine power plants often

face the thermal shock brought by an increase in
temperature of about 450 500C during a period of full
load. The steel chimneys are capable of handling this
because of thin wall and high coefficient of expansion of
steel.
2. Site constructed chimneys

Site constructed chimneys of brick (or) concrete are
used where very tall chimneys are necessary for power
stations (or) where the life requirement is more than 30
years.
Nowadays perforated radial bricks are used, instead

of common bricks, as they give better results. The
perforations aid the structural stability. The crushing
strength of perforated radial brick is more than that of the
design value required in the actual practice.
Another common material that is used for building

chimneys is pre-casted reinforced concrete. Due to
structural difficulties, it is limited to chimneys of height
around 80m. There are two methods 1. Jump forming
where the shuttering is moved up the stack in steps (or)
2. Slip forming where the shuttering is gradually moved
up with continuous concrete pouring. The second method is
the fastest method of construction. Concrete is not suitable
for chimneys due to its high thermal inertia which leads
to cracking. The steel chimneys are preferred where the
cost factor is important and concrete chimney is preferred
where the life of the chimney is most important.
3. Plastic chimneys
These chimneys are made of glass fiber reinforced
plastic. They cannot be operated at high temperature.
Because at high temperature, the flue gas catches fire and
leads to disintegration of chimney. This kind of chimneys
plays a vital role where a low stress, low temperature
chimney is required for highly corrosive effluents.
Chimney height calculation

Let
H height of chimney above grate level in meters
W weight of air required in kg per kg of fuel
T g Average absolute temperature of chimney gases in K
Ta Absolute temperature of air outside the chimney in K
Pressure density g height of chimney
Mass
Density
Volume
G ro un d G ro un d
L evel L evel
Found ation Found ation

. .. .. .. ..
. .. ... . .. .
. . ..
. . . .. .
. . ..
. .. . .
.
. ..
Fig:1.52 (a) Brick Chim ney Fig:1.52 (b ) Reinforced C him ney
Fig:1.52. Chim ney
Weight of chimney gases produced w kg of fuel burnt
Volume of chimney gases at 273 K volume of 1 kg of air

at 273 K
RT 273
v 0.287
p 1 10 2
v 0.78351 m 3 kg
volume of 1kg of air at Ta
Ta
0.78351
273
Volume for W kg of a ir at T a
Ta
0.78351 W
273
Mass W 273
Dens ity of air at T a }
V olume 0.78351 T a W
273

0.78351 T a
Therefore, Pressure at grate due to column of cool air

of H meters height Density height of chimney
273 273
H 1.28 H
0.78351 T a Ta
Similarly,
Volume of chimney gases at T g per kg of air
Tg
0.78351
273
Volume of W 1 kg of chimney gases at T g
Tg
0.78351 W
273
Density of chimney gases at T g
mass W 1 273

volume 0.78351 Tg W
273 W 1
1.293
Tg W
pressure at the grate by column of hot gases of

height H meter Density H kg/m 2
273 W 1 2
1.28 H kg/m
Tg W
1.100 Power Plant Engineering- www.airwalkpublications.com
Pressure P causing the draught pressure due to colum n
of cool air pressure due to co lumn of hot air
273 273 W 1 kg
1.28 H 1.28 H 2
Ta Tg W m

1 W1 1
350 H kg/m 2
Ta W Tg

If draught is measured in h mm of water by U-tube
manometer, then
1 W1 1
h 353 H mm of water
Ta W Tg

. .
[ . 1 kg/m 2 1 mm of w ater column]
Let h be the height of column of hot gases
then
273 W 1 1 W1 1
h 1.293 P 353 H T W T
T W
a g
W Tg
h H 1
Ta
W1
Problem 1.15: The height of chimney is 35 m. Hot gas
temperature inside the chimney is 340C. The temperature of
out side air 25C and the furnace is supplied with 20 kg of
air per kg of coal burnt. Find (a) Draught in mm of water
(b) Draught in meters of hot gases.
Solution:
Given data:
Height of chimney H 35 m
Hot gas temperature T g 340 C 613 K
Outside air temperature Ta 25C 298 K
Weight of air W 20 kg per kg of coal burnt.
(a) Draught in mm of water
1 W1 1
h 353 H
T W Tg
a
1 20 1 1
353 35
298 20 613
353 35 0.0016429
20.3 mm of water
W Tg
(b) Draught in meters of hot gas h H 1
Ta
W1
20 613
35 1 33.568 meters
20 1 298
Problem 1.16: Determine the height of chimney to produce a
static draught of 22 mm of water if the mean flue gas
temperature in chimney is 290C and atmospheric temperature
is 28C. The gas constant for air is 0.287 kJ/kgK. Assume
barometer reading as 760 mm of Hg.
Given data:
Static draught h 22 mm of water
Temperature inside the chimney Tg 290C 563 K
Atmospheric temperature 28C 301 K

Gas constant for air 0.287 kJ/kg K
Gas constant for gas 0.257 kJ/kg K
Solution:
We know that Pv RT
Where P Absolute pressure of gas kN /m 2
v Volume of gas m 3 kg
R Gas constant
T Absolute temperature of gas K
RT
v
P
Difference in pressure = height of chimney air flue
P 22 mm of water w h 9810 0.022 215.82 N/m 2
[w 9810 N/m 3 for water]
1 P
air
v RT
1.01325 102 . .
[ . P 760 m m of Hg 1.01325 bar ]
0.287 301
1.194 kg/m 3
1 P 1.01325 10 2
flue
v RT 0.257 563
0.7 kg/m 3
Height of chimney
P 215.82
44.53 m
air flue g 1.194 0.7 9.81
44.53 m
Problem 1.17: A chimney produces a draught of 15 mm of

water when the temperature of flue gas is 300C and ambient
temperature is 30C. The flue gases formed per kg of fuel burnt
is 26 kg. By taking dia of the chimney as 2 m, determine the
mass of gases flowing through the chimney.
Given data:
h Draught 15 mm of water
Tg Te mperature of flue gas 300 573 K
T a Te mperature of air 30C 303 K
Mass of flue gas 26 kg
Solution
Mass of air required per kg of fuel 26 1
25 kg/kg of fuel
1 W1 1
h 353 H
T W Tg
a
1 25 1 1
15 353 H
303 25 573
15 H 0.52431 H 28.609 m
h height of colum n of hot gases
W Tg
H 1
W1
Ta
25 573
28.609 1
25 1 303

23.412 m of air
Let
V V elocity of flue gases

2gh 2 9.81 23.412 21.432 m/sec
A area of chimney
2
D 22
4 4
26 1
g 353 0.640695
25 573
g 0.640695 kg/m 3
m g g A V mass of flue gas sec
m g 0.640695 21.432
43.138 kg/sec
1.11.13 Cooling tower

It is used to cool the water, and its height is about
140 meters. The hot water is to pumped the tower top and
H o t A ir
H o t w ate r
H o t w ate r
C o oling W ate r
Pu m p Air Air
C o oled Wa te r
C o nd en ser
Fig:1.53 Arrang em ent of a Cooling Tow er
falls down through the tower and is broken into small

particles while passing over the baffling devices. Air enters
the tower from the bottom and flows upwards. The air
vapourises a small percentage of water thereby cooling
water falls down into tank below the tower from where it
is pumped to the condenser and cycle is repeated.
1.11.13.1 Type of Cooling towers

(a) According to the construction material
1. Timber - for small tower
2. Ferro - concrete - for large capacity stations
requiring - high initial cost
3. Multi deck concrete towers - for large steam stations
4. Metallic
(b) According to the nature of air draught
1. Atmospheric (or) natural draught cooling system
2. Mechanical draught cooling tower
(c) Air - cooled (or) dry - type cooling tower
1.11.13.2 Atmospheric (or) natural draft cooling
towers.
In this, the natural air provides the required cooling
without the use of fans. This is further classified into three
types.
1. Natural Draft spray filled towers

In this, the air enters through the lower sides and
flows in the transverse direction across the unit. The
amount of air flow depends on the wind velocity. Its
capacity varies from 50 100 liters per min per m 2 of base
area. This is not suitable for high capacity thermal plants.
The arrangement is shown in the Fig.1.54.
w ater
in
A ir o ut
A ir in
w ater
o ut
Fig:1.54 Atm o spheric S pray- Filled Coo lin g Tower
2. Natural draft packed type tower

It is similar to that of the above type except that
water distributing troughs are used. This helps to have
better surface exposure of water by breaking it into small
droplets. This is rarely used for thermal power plants as
the capital cost and pumping head required are high. This
arrangement is shown in Fig.1.55.
w a ter
in
P a cking
A ir in A ir o ut
w a ter
o ut
F ig:1 .5 5 Pac ked A tm osp heric C oo lin g Tow er
3. Hyperbolic Cooling Tower

This tower is made of steel reinforced concrete
structure mostly stack. The shape of the stack is hyperbolic
in profile and circular in cross section. The operation is
similar to that of Natural draft spray cooling tower.
The air flow is established by chimney action ie due
to density difference between atmospheric air and air inside
the tower. Because of more water vapour and higher RH
value which is lighter than air, the net humidity of the air
becomes lower than the surrounding air. This difference in
density provides necessary draught. Since the difference in
density is very small, the height required is considerably
large.
1.11.13.3 Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers
Mechanical draft towers are mostly preferred than the
natural draft towers because 1. They provide closer
approach to WBT 2. They have reduced spray and wind
losses, 3. They have higher efficiency and 4. They require
less ground area.
Instead of depending on the natural draught and wind
velocity, it employees fans to move air through the tower.
By this, the efficiency of the system is increased and
required amount of air velocity can be readily obtained.
Mechanical draft is classified into three types.
1. Forced draft tower, 2. Induced draft counter flow
tower 3. Induced draft cross - flow tower.
1. Forced Draft Tower

In this, a fan is located at the bottom of the tower
and the air is forced from bottom to the top. This
A ir o ut
W a te r
in
Fa n
A ir in
Fig:1 .56 F orced D raft C oo lin g To wer
2. Induced Draft counter - flow tower

In this type, the fan is located on top of the tower.
This arrangement is shown in Fig.1.57(a). The air enters
louvers located on sides of the tower
3. Induced draft cross-flow Tower

In this, the flow of air is in horizontal direction and
the flow of water is in vertical direction. The fan is centered
at the top. The drift eliminators turn air towards outlet
fan. Lower air static pressure and less resistance to flow
of air are the features of this system.
1.11.13.4 Air Cooled or Dry-type Cooling System

Since the thermal pollution and water requirement
are major problems with the wet type cooling towers, it can
A ir o ut
W a te r
in
A ir in A ir in
W a te r
o ut
Fig:1.57. (a) Indu ced D raft Coun ter flow Cooling Tow er
A ir o ut
w ater in
w ater in
P acking
A ir in A ir in
w ater
out
Fig:1.57. (b) Ind uced Draft Cross Flow Co oling Tow er
be replaced by dry type cooling system. In dry type, the

heat is directly rejected to the atmosphere.
The dry type cooling tower is classified into two types

as
1. Indirect type 2. Direct type
1. Indirect dry type or HELLER COOLING system
S tea m
from
M ech an ical B oiler
Fan
D ra ft
Tow e r S tea m
C ooling Turbine
C oils
D irect
C onta ct
C ond en ser
Wa te r
Turbine
P um p M otor
To C oolin g To B oile r
Tow e r
Fig:1.58 Indirect Dry - Type Coo lin g To wer
The arrangement is shown in the Fig.1.58. The

collected condensate is partially fed to the cooling coil and
partially fed to the boiler. The cooling coil is cooled by the
air. The cold water coming out of the cooling water is sent
to the condenser through the nozzle and water turbine. The
water turbine is used to utilise the pressure and elevation
head between the cooling coil and condenser. There is no
evaporation loss in the system as there is no direct contact.
2. Direct Dry type cooling system
The arrangement of direct dry type cooling system is
shown in Fig.1.59. Through the air cooled coil, the turbine
exhaust is made to flow. A forced fan is used to pass the
air through the coil. In the condensate header, the

condensate is collected and passed to the boiler through
feed pump.
S tea m
H ead er
Tu rbine
Ste am
C ooling S tea m
C oils from
C ooling B oiler
C oils
C ond en sing
h ea der
Forced
Fan
C ond en sate
R ece iver
To B oile r
Fig:1.59 Direct Dry - Type
Cooling System P um p
The major difference between direct and indirect type

of cooling system is that the direct system handles large
amount of steam than lesser amount of steam in the

indirect system.
14. Low pressure heater
It is used to increase the temperature of water at low
pressure, in this way efficiency of system increases.
15. High pressure heater

In HP heater, the temperature of water increases at
high pressure. Thus efficiency further increases.
16. Deaerator
It is used to remove air from water which is
entrapped in the water molecules. It is very important part
because the entrapped air affects air drum badly.
1.12 BOILER MOUNTINGS

The devices used for the efficient operation, proper
maintenance, safe operation, etc are called Boiler
mountings.
The different boiler mountings are given below

1. Water Gauge or Water Level Indicator: It
indicates the level of the water inside the boiler. It
is a glass tube covered with a special glass cover.
It is fitted in front of the boiler. It is used to
maintain the quantity of water at safe level.
2. Pressure Gauge or Steam Gauge: It is the
device used to indicate the pressure inside the
boiler. It is mounted in the front end, at the top of
the steam drum.
3. Safety valves: It is used to maintain safe pressure
inside the boiler. When the pressure exceeds the
limit, the excess steam will be allowed to escape
through the safety valves to the atmosphere to

reduce the pressure inside the boiler. It is mounted
on the top of the steam drum. Different types of
safety valve are given below:
(a) Dead Weight safety valve: It is just like
the dead weight in the household cookers.
Since the heavy weight is required to balance
the steam pressure, it is not suitable for high
pressure boilers
(b) Spring loaded (Rams bottom) safety
valve: The valve is loaded with spring
instead of weights; Here heavy spring force is
needed to balance the steam pressure.
(c) Lever safety valve: The heavy dead weight
is replaced by a lever with a smaller weight.
(d) Excess steam - Low water level safety
valve: The excess steam is allowed to escape
when the steam pressure exceeds the limit.
And when the level of water in the boiler falls
below a certain minimum value, this safety
valve open to prevent bursting.
4. Fusible Plug: It is fitted just above the grate in
the furnace. It is used to extinguish the fire in the
furnace when the water level falls below safe level
to avoid bursting.
5. Stop valve: It is used to control the amount of the
steam passing through the steam pipe. It is hand
operated. It is fitted with the steam pipe.
6. Blow off cock: It is fitted at the bottom of the
boiler. When it is opened during the running of the
boiler, the high pressure steam pushes out the
impurities like mud, sand. etc in the water collected

at the bottom.
7. Feed check valve: The feed check valve is used
to allow the supply of water to the boiler at high
pressure continuously. It prevents the back flow of
water from the boiler, when the pump pressure is
less than the boiler pressure. It is fitted to the shell
slightly below the normal water level of the boiler.
Difference Between Boiler Mountings and Boiler
Accessories:
Sl. No. Boiler Mountings. Boiler Accessories

1. These are used for the These are used to
safe operation of the increase the boiler
boiler. efficiency.
2. They must be provided Optional
in all the boilers
Examples: Examples:
Safety valves, Pressure Economiser, Air pre
gauge heater, Super heater
1.13 FUEL AND ASH HANDLING
1.13.1 Handling of coal:

The coal handling is divided into two types:
1. Out-plant handling.
2. In-plant handling.
1. Out-plant handling.
This handling includes the handling of coal from coal
mine to the thermal power plant. These handlings are done
outside the plant in the following ways.
(a) Transportation by sea or river:

If the power plant is located on the bank of river (or)
near sea shore, then it is most economical to transport the
coal by ships. The coal is unloaded from the ship and taken
to the plant through desired handling methods.
(b) Transportation by rail

The most commonly used means of transportation of
coal is by rail. A railway sliding line is taken to the power
station and the coal is either delivered to the point of
consumption or to the storage yard.
(c) Transportation by Road

This type of coal transportation is used only for small
capacity plants. In this the coal is carried upto the point
of consumption of the power plant. It is the major
advantage in this kind of transportation. Self-tripping
lorries are used for transporting the coal and the lorries
have one (or) two hydraulic cylinder to unload coal from
the lorries after it has been weighed.
(d) Transportation of coal by pipeline:

In this type, the coal is transported through pipeline.
The advantages and disadvantages are listed below.
Advantages:
1. It is unaffected by weather and climate and it is
continuous transport system.
2. It has high degree of reliability and safety since the
moving parts are limited.
3. Transportations are made in large quantities
4. Maintenance and man power requirements are low.
5. Transportation losses are eliminated.
6. It is more economical while dealing with large

volume of coal over long distance.
Disadvantages
1. High capital is required for preparation of coal at
pumping station as well as dewatering and recovery
of coal.
2. Water requirement is high as the water coal ratio
in the mixture is 1:1.
Inplant handling of coal
U n loadin g
Tra nsfer
O ut D oor
Storage
C o vered S tora ge
In P lan t
h an dling
W eigh ing
Fig:1.60 The Operation and Devices Used in Coal Han dling Plant.
In order to handle large quantity of coal inside the

plant, some mechanical handling systems are provided for
smooth, easy and better controlled operation.
The following are to be considered while designing the

inplant coal handling.
1. Inplant transportation should be minimum and

should be simple and sound.
2. There should not be rehandling of coal
3. For better maintenance and inspection, the handling
units should be centralized.
4. The prime-movers used should be of electrical
motors of high residual value.
5. To avoid corrosion and abrasion, the working parts
should be enclosed.
6. It should be capable of delivering coal at peak hours.
2. The inplant coal handling is divided into following
categories
(a) Coal unloading
(b) Coal preparation
(c) Coal storage
(d) Coal transfer
(a) Coal unloading:

The kind of unloading equipment used is based on
the out plant handling. For small and medium capacity
plants, transportation of coal by trucks is more economical.
Lift trucks with scoops are used because these trucks can
unload without additional equipments. Generally rail
transport is used when large quantities of coal is to be
transmitted for long distances. The transported coal are
unloaded into the unloading hoppers or directly to coal
conveyors. For the fastest unloading, the following are used:
Car shakers, rotary car dampers, coal accelerators,
unloading towers and bridges, self-unloading boats, lift

trucks, cranes and buckets. The coal towers, unloading
bridges and self unloading boats are used when the coal is
transmitted by sea.
Coal preparation:
U ncrushed C oal
C oal C rush er
Vibratin g
Separator
C am
B elt C on ve
yo r Hot Gases Ou t
C oa l to Sto rag e H opte r

H ot
C lo sed
G ases
C oal S tora ge
in
C oal D rier
B elt C onveyor
M ag ne tic P ullys
Fig:1.61 Coal Preparation Plant R eje ct C hu te
B ucket Eleva tor
Tho coal from coal mines can not be directly fed into
the furnace. Proper preparation on the coal should be done
before feeding the coal to the furnace. In the coal
preparation, the coal has to pass through the following
equipments. 1. Crushers 2. Sizers 3. Driers and
4. Magnetic separators.
The coal to be supplied to the combustion chamber
should be of proper size. So this crushers are necessary to
crush the raw coal to the required size. The crushers

capacity is 600 tons per hour in order to meet peak load
requirements. The crushed coal is passed through the sizer
where unsized coal is seperated and sent back to the
crushers. In the drier, the sized coal is dried to remove the
moisture in the coal. The hot flue gases are passed through
the coal storage in closed space for removing the moisture
from coal. The iron scrap and other particles are removed
with the help of magnetic separators because these iron
scrap may chock the burners and may increase the wearing
of the handling equipment. Usually, the separator consists
of magnetized pulley. When the coal is passed over the
pulley, the iron particles cling to the belt. The iron particles
drop off into a reject chute as they leaves the pulley.
(c) Coal storage:

The crushed coals are stored here, ready for transfer.
(d) Coal Transfer:

The coal transfer starts by carrying of coal from
unloading point to the storage site. The different types of
coal transforming equipments are given below.
1. Belt conveyors, 2. Screw conveyors, 3. Bucket

elevators 4. Grab bucket elevators,5. Skip hoists and 6.
Flight conveyors.
1. Belt conveyors:
Belt conveyors are suitable for transporting coal over
long distance with large quantity. The arrangement of belt
conveyor is shown in the Fig.1.62. An endless belt made
of rubber, canvass or balata is made to run over a pair of
end drums and pulleys and supported by series of roller at
regular intervals. The conveyors can have inclination of
. . .. . .C o al . . . .B e lt .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
. .
. . . .. . . . .... . . .. .. . . ... . .
. . .. . . . . . .
. .
R o lle rs
S u pp orts
B e lt
R eturn R oller
Fig:1.62 B elt Con veyo r
20 to the horizontal. The load carrying capacity is 50 to

100 tonnes per hour. The speed of the conveyor varies from
60m to 100m per hour.
Advantages
Most economical for medium and large plants.
By increasing the speed of belt, rate of transfer
can be increased
Minimum maintenance and repair cost.
Lesser power consumption compared to other
means.
Coal is protected from rain and wind just by
providing overhead covers.
Disadvantage
Not suitable for short distance.
Not suitable for greater heights, since the
inclination is limited to 20 to horizontal.
2. Screw conveyor:
The line diagram of screw conveyor is shown in
Fig.1.63. An endless helicoid screw is fitted to the shaft.
Coal Supply
Coal D ischarge Fig:1.63 Screw Conveyor
On one end of the shaft, the driving mechanism is fitted

and the other end of shaft is supported on a ball bearing.
While the screw is rotating, the coal is transferred from
one end to the other end. The speed varies from 70 to 120
rpm and diameter of screw varies from 15cm to 50cm. The
maximum capacity of this conveyor is 125 tonnes per hour.
Advantages:
Space requirement is less and initial cost is low.
It is simple and can be made dust tight.
It is more compact.
Disadvantages
Power consumption is more.
Wear and tear is high and hence life is less
compared to belt conveyor.
3. Bucket elevators:
The two types of bucket conveyors are shown in
Fig.1.64. These conveyors are used for vertical lifts. In this,
the buckets are fixed to a chain which moves over two wheels.
The coal is loaded at bottom and unloaded at the top. The
continuous type elevator carries more coal than the
centrifugal type. The maximum height and inclination to the
. .
.
. .. .. . .
.. .. .. .. . .. .. . . . .
. .. .. ..... . . .. . .... .
.. .. . .. .. .. . ..
.. . .
.. . .
.
.
.
.. .
.. .
.
.
.. ..
.. . .
C o al O ut
C o al O ut
.. . .
.. . .
.. .. .. . . . . . .. . . .. . .. . .
.. . .
.. . .
C o al
.. . .
in C o al in
.. . .. . .. . .. .
.. . .
.. . .. .
.. . .
.. . .
... . ..... . . . ..
.. . .... . . .
.. . . .
.. . . .
. ... . .
. . ..
. . ..
.. . .. .
(a) C entrifu gal (b) C on tinu ou s
Fig:1.64 B u cket C on ve yo rs
horizontal are 30.5 m and 60 respectively. The speed of

centrifugal and continuous bucket conveyors are 75m/min and
35m/min respectively for about 60 tonnes capacity per hour.
4. Grab Bucket Conveyor
C rane
G rab B ucket
F ig:1.65 G rab B ucket C o nveyors

Grab bucket conveyor does both lifting and

transferring of coal from one point to another. A bucket
operating over a distance of 60m transfers nearly 100
tonnes of coal per hour. Its initial cost is high but operating
cost is low.
5. Scraper (or) Flight conveyor:
This conveyor is used for transferring of coal and
filling number of storage bins situated under the conveyor.
It has one or two strands of chain, to which steel scrapers
are attached. The scraper scraps the coal through a trough
and then it is discharged in the bottom of the trough as
shown in Fig.1.66.
Scrap er
C hain R olle r
..
. . . .... . ...... ...... .....
..... .
...........
... .
o utlet F ig:1.66 Scraper or Flight C on veyo r
Advantages:
1. It requires less space.
2. In order to suit the requirements, the speed of the
conveyor can be controlled.
3. Coal handling as well as ash handling can be done
by using this flight conveyor.
Disadvantages:
1. The conveyor life is short because there is a
scrapping action resulting in excessive wear and
tear.
2. High maintenance cost.
3. High speed cannot be allowed in order to reduce the
abrasive action of the material handled.
4. Power consumption is more due to dragging action.
1.13.2 Ash handling and dust collecting system:
A general layout of ash handling and dust collecting
system is shown in Fig.1.67.
Ash handling system is classified into four groups.
1. Mechanical handling system.
2. Hydraulic system.
3. Pneumatic system.
4. Steam jet system.
Ash handling system is needed
(i) To remove the ashes from the furnace ash hopper.

(ii) To convey the ashes from furnace ash-hopper to a
storage.
(iii) To dispose the ashes from the storage.
1. Mechanical handling system:

This system is used for low capacity power plants.
The hot ash from the furnace falls on the belt conveyor
and it is continuously carried to the overhead bunker or
dumping site. With the help of trucks, the ash is carried
from ash bunker to dumping site. The control valve is used
Fly as h w ith E xh au s t G a se s
D u st C olle ctor
M olte n C h im ne y
S lag
-------- -----
-------- -----
I.D .Fa n B o iler F urna ce s
. .. . .
. .. .. .
.. . ...... ........
. .
.
.
D u st + S oo t
+ Fly- A sh Ash
W a ter Tro ug h
Ash
B e lt C on veyer B u nke r
H an ding
C o ntrol
system
valve
M ec hanical A sh Tru ck
Fina l as h disp os a l H andling Sy stem .
A s h co llection A s h D is cha rge

E q uipm e nts
F ig:1 .6 7 G eneral Layo ut of A s h H an dling and D u st C olle ction Sy stem
to load the trucks, manually. The maximum capacity of this

plant is 5 tons per hr. It has low power consumption.
2. Hydraulic ash handling system:

In this system, the ash is carried by the water with
high velocity through a channel and dumped fully to the
sump. This system is classified into two types: 1. Low
velocity system (low pressure), 2. High velocity (high
pressure) system.
(a) Low velocity system (Low pressure system):

The ash from the grate is made to fall into the system
of water at lower velocity and it is carried to the sump
with water.
The velocity of water in trough is between 3 to 5

m/sec. The ash and water are separated when it reaches
to the sump. The separated water is again used for the
Bo ilers
Water Ash
Su m p
Water- Tro ug hs Su m ps a re
U sed Alterna te ly
for S etting out
Water Ash
Su m p
Bo ilers
Bo ilers
O ne Stand by Trough to
Water
P erm it R epairs
Water Troughs Su m p
Water
Bo ilers F ig:1.68 Low - P ressu re A sh H an dling

H y draulic Sys tem
same and the ash collected in the sump is sent out through
carriages. The ash carrying capacity is 50 tons/hr and
distance covered is 500 mts.
(b) High velocity system (high pressure system):
In this, the water nozzles are fitted at the top and
on the sides of the hoppers below the boiler. The top nozzle
is used to quench the ash and the side nozzles are provided
to carry the ash through trough. The ash with high velocity
is sent to the sump by trough. Water is separated and
recirculated. The ash carrying capacity is 120 tonnes and
distance covered is 1000 mts. The troughs and sumps are
made of corrosion and wear resistant materials. This
system can also be used for pulverized fuel plants.
Furn ace
N ozzle
w ater je t
H ig h pressure A sh
. .. . .. . .. . .
w ater
stoker
H ig h pressure H ig h pressure
w ater w ater
N ozzle
cast iron w alls
N ozzle
Tro ugh ca ring
w ater & A sh
. .
. .. . . .
....... . . .
. .. .
.. .
. .
.
S ettled Ash
M ain su m p
Fig:1.69 High pressure Ash Handlin g Hydraulic System
Advantages:
1. Most suitable for higher capacity thermal power
plants since its ash carrying capacity is large.
2. It can be handled easily with steam of molten ash.
3. It can discharge the ash for long distance from
plant.
4. The whole system is clean, dustless and totally
enclosed.
5. Absence of working parts in contact with ash is the
most important feature of this system.
3. Pneumatic ash handling system

This has been designed in such a way that it can
handle abrasive ash and fine dust materials i.e., fly ash
and soot. The high velocity of air stream, created by an
B o ille rs
C ru sh e rs
Ash . ... Filte r

. ..
S e pa ra tors . . ..
. E x ha u ster
.
. .
A ir F rom A tm o sph ere . .
A s h H op pe r
E x ha u st to
A tm o s ph ere
Ash
Tru ck C a rrying
Tru ck
exchauster at the discharge end, carries the ash and dust

from discharge point. Ash from ash hopper is passed
through the ash crushers into air stream. The ash is
separated in two stages i.e. separated in the primary and
secondary cyclone separators and the ashes are collected in
the hopper. The separated clean air is exhausted to the
atmosphere through filters. The power requirement of an
exhauster is 5.H.P per ton (approx) of material.
Advantages:
1. Dustless operation is possible as the materials are
handled totally in an enclosed conduit.
2. There is no freezing or sticking in the storage bins
as the ash is conveyed in a dry state.
3. Cost of the ash removal system is less than that of
other system.
4. There is no rehandling and spillage.
5. The system has greater flexibility.
Disadvantages:
1. Pipe lines wear out quickly.
2. Maintenance cost is high.
3. It is noisy operation than other types.
4. Blockage of pipe line.
4. Steam jet system

In this, a steam jet is used to carry dry solid
materials of considerable size along with it. In this system,
the direction of steam and ash travel are same. The ash is
deposited in the ash hopper.
Advantages:
1. Ash removal is economical for a horizontal distance
of 200 meters and vertical distance of 30 metres.
2. Capital cost is less.
3. It can be positioned in backward position.
4. It requires less space.
Disadvantages:
1. Greater wear in pipe line by ash.
2. System operation is noisy.
3. Capacity of the system is limited to 15 tons per
hour.
5. Dust collector:
Mechanical Dust Collectors:
(a) Gravitational separators:

Three different types of dust separators are shown in
Fig. 1.71. (a), (b) and (c). The arrangement shown in Fig
1.71(a) has the increasing cross sectional area. When the
dust laden gases are passed at high velocity at the
increasing cross section, the velocity is reduced and the

dust particles falls down.
a b c
Fig:1.71 G ravitational S ep ara tor.
In the arrangement shown in Fig. 1.71 (b), the

direction of flow of the gas is suddenly changed. By this,
the heavier particles settle down quickly.
The arrangement shown in Fig. 1.71(c) has baffles.

When the gas passed over this, the dust particles are
knocked out and settles down.
(b) Bag house dust collector

When low sulphur content coal and higher efficiency
of the dust collection is required, fabric filters are used as
an alternative to electrostatic precipitator.
The flue gas is sent inside the bags, then through the
cloth into the house and then out. To avoid excess fabric
friction, reverse flow of air is periodically supplied to clean
the bag. Bag house dust collector has an efficiency of 99.9%
and the efficiency is independent of amount of dust in the
flue gas. It requires more maintenance. H 2SO 4is formed
when SO3 combines with water vapour. The flue gas
temperature should be maintained at a temperature above
dew point temperature of sulphuric acid in order to avoid
its attack on the system. Dew point temperature of acid
varies from 60C to 170C.
There are three types of bag house filters, as given

below.
(i) Open pressure type
Fig. 1.72(a) shows this arrangement, In this, the fan
is located on the dust loaded side and it can be operated
with open sides, with the protection provided from weather.
It is constructed with corrugated steel (or) asbestos cement
sheets. It can have open grating at the cell plate level and
no hopper insulation is required.
C le a ned Ga s C le a ned Ga s
O utle t O utle t
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
C orrugated . . . . .
H ousing . . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . . O pe n
. . . . . G ra ting
. . . . .
. . . . . . . .
Flue
G as . . . . . . .
from Fa n . . . . .
. . . .
. . . ..
. . .
. .
Fig:1.72 (a) Open Pressure Bag House Filter
(ii) Closed pressure types:

It is used for gases having high Dew point
temperature. The arrangement is shown in Fig. (b). It is
an air tight system and fan is located to inlet side of bag
C le a ne d G a s C le a ne d G a s
O utle t O utle t
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . . C o rrug ated
. . . . . H o usin g
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . . C lo sed
. . . . . . . .
Flue . . . . . . .
G as . . . . .
Fro m Fa n . . . .
. . . ..
. . .
. .
Fig:1.72 (b ) C losed Pressu re Bag H ou se F ilter
house similar to open system. The structure walls and

hopper are insulated and the floor of the unit is closed.
(iii) Closed suction type.
The arrangement is shown in Fig. (c). It is same as
that of closed pressure type but in this, the fan is located
at the outlet of bag house clean gas side. In this, the floor,
walls and hopper are insulated. It is suitable for gases
having dew point temperature ranging 75C to 85C .
C le a n G a s C le a n G a s
to Fa n to Fa n
C lo sed a ll
W elded
H ousing
. . ..
Flue G a s
. ..
from . . ..
. .
P rocess . ..
. .. .. . ...
. . ..
. .
Fig:1.72 (c) Closed Suction Bag House
Advantages of the baghouse filters:

1. Its efficiency remains constant irrespective of gas
resistivity because cleaning mechanism is not
electrostatic in nature as an electrostatic
precipitator.
2. It has high collection efficiency usually more than
99.9%.
3. Cheaper than the electrostatic precipitators.
6. Cyclone Separators (Cyclone dust collector):
The high velocity flue gas with dust particles enter
tangentially into a conical shell with high velocity. A
whirling motion is imparted to the gas within the shell. By
this, the heavier dust particles are thrown to the sides of
shell the dust particles fallen down and is collected in the
dust collector. The gas is then passed through the
C le a ned Ga s O ut
S eco nda ry C ha m be r
... . ... .
... ...
.. .. .
...... ...... . G as in
..... .. ....
.... ..
....
...
..
.. ... ..
... .. ....
.... ..
.. .. .
...
.....
....
........
.......
... .
... . .. C olle cted F ly - A sh
.... .
.... . . ............ . .. ... .
.. . . . .
Fig:1.73 Cyclon e Dust Collecto r
secondary chamber where dust particles, if any, are

separated. Now the clean gas comes out of the chamber.
This is most suitable for pulverised fuel firing units.
1.14 DRAUGHT
Draught is an essential part in thermal power plant.
The functions of the draught are:
1. To supply required quantity of air to the furnace

for combustion of fuel.
2. To draw the combustion products through the

system.
3. To remove burnt products from the system.
Draught is defined as the small pressure difference

required between the fuel bed (furnace) and out side air to
maintain constant flow of air and to discharge the gases
through chimney to the atmosphere. Draught can be
obtained by using chimney fan, steam (or) air jet (or)

combination of these.
1.14.1 Classification of Draught

1. Natural draught: In this, only chimney is used for
producing the draught.
2. Artificial draught: In this, the draught is produced

by steam jet or by fan.
(a) Steam jet draught: Steam jet is used for creating

draught in the system.
(b) Mechanical draught: Fan or blower is used for creating

draught in the system.
(i) Induced draught: The flue gas is sucked through the

system by a fan or steam jet.
(ii) Forced draught: The air is forced into the system by

a blower or steam jet.
1.14.1.1. Natural draught

In natural draught, a tall chimney is erected. The
chimney is a vertical tubular masonry structure or
Pa Pa
C h im ney
H H
Co mb ustion
C h am ber
G ra te Le ve l
Fig:1.74 Natural D raug ht

reinforced concrete. It is constructed for enclosing a column

of exhaust gases to produce draught. The flue gases are
discharged at enough height so that the air pollution is
prevented. The natural draught created by the tall chimney
is due to the temperature difference between hot gases in
the chimney and cold atmospheric air outside the chimney.
Let H height of the chimney above the grate level
in m
N
P a atm. pressure in
m2
w a and w g weight densities of atm air and hot gases
N
The pressure at grate from chimney side in
m3
P 1 P a w gH
The pressure at grate from atmospheric side.
P 2 P a w aH
Since, the density varies along the height of the

chimney, the average density is considered for calculation.
The net pressure acting on the grate is given by
P P 2 P 1 as w a w g
P a w aH P a w gH
N
H w a wg
m2
H a g m m of w ater head.
The pressure difference in chimney should be between

10 to 12 mm of water head.
Merits of natural draught:

1. No external power is required.
2. Since the gases are discharged at high level, air
pollution is less.
3. Maintenance cost is practically low.
4. It has longer life.
5. Capital cost is less than the artificial draught.
Demerits of natural draught:

1. Maximum pressure available for producing draught
is less.
2. Flue gases have to be discharged at high
temperature for better draught resulting in wasting
of heat.
3. Heat cannot be extracted for economizer,
superheater (or) air-pre heater since the effective
draught would be reduced.
4. Overall efficiency of the plant is reduced because the
gases are discharged at high temperature.
5. Poor combustion and increased specific fuel
consumption.
6. Not flexible under peak load.
1.14.1.2. Artificial draught:

In modern power plants, the draught should be
flexible to meet the fluctuating loads and it should be
independent of atmospheric conditions. Nowadays, the
modern power plants produce 20,000 tons of steam per
hour. To achieve this, the aid of draft fans become must
and by employing the draft fans, the height of the chimney

would be reduced. The artificial draught is more economical
when the required draught is above 40 mm of water. The
artificial draught is classified into forced draught, induced
draught and balanced draught.
1.14.2 Forced draught:
B o iler
To E xh a ust
B low e r
S tack or
A ir C h im ne y
P re he a ter
Fu rn ace
G ra te
F ig:1.75 Forced D raugh t E con o m ise r
In this system, the blower is located at the base of

the boiler near the grate. The blower is driven by steam
or electricity.
Air is forced to the furnace by forced fan and the flue

gases are forced to chimney through economiser and air
preheater. This system is known as positive draught system
since the pressure of air and hot gases in this system are
above atmospheric pressure. The chimney discharges the
hot gases at higher level to prevent air pollution.
Merits:
1. Since the fan handles cold air, the fan size and the
power required is less.
2. No need of water cooled bearings because the air
being handled is cold air.
3. Pressure throughout the system is above

atmospheric pressure so the air leakage into the
furnace is reduced.
Demerit:
The furnace cannot be opened for firing and inspection
because while opening, the high pressure air will try to
blow out suddenly and furnace may stop.
1.14.3 Induced draught:
In a induced draught, a blower is placed near (or) at
the base of the chimney. The fan is driven by steam or
electricity. The fan sucks the flue gas from the furnace
creating a partial vacuum inside the furnace. Thus
atmospheric air is induced to flow through the furnace to
aid the combustion of fuel. The flue gases drawn by the
fan passes through chimney to the atmosphere.
Fig. 1.76. In duced Draught
Merits:
1. The gases could be discharged at lower temperature
after recovering most of their heat in economizer
and air pre heater.
2. The chimney height can be reduced since it

discharges flue gases only.
Demerits:
1. The furnace can not be opened for firing and
inspection because while the furnace is opened the
cold air enters the furnace and dilute the
combustion and hence the heat may be lost.
2. Water cooled bearings are needed for the fan to with
stand high temperature of the flue gases.
3. Air leakage into the furnace is possible since the
pressure inside the furnace is below atmospheric
pressure.
1.14.4 Balanced draught:
To E xh a ust
B oiler
C him ne y
B low er E con om ise r
B low er
Furn ace
G ra te
A ir P re hea ter
Fig:1.77 Balanced Draugh t
In this induced draught system, when the furnace is

opened for firing, the cold air enters the furnace and dilute
the combustion. In the forced draught system, when the
furnace is opened for firing, the high pressure air will try
to blow out suddenly and furnace may stop. Hence the
furnace cannot be opened for firing or inspection in both
the systems, if they are used separately.
Balanced draught which is a combination of induced

and forced draught is used to overcome the above stated
difficulties.
In this, one blower is located at the base of the boiler
and other is placed at the base of the chimney. The
pressure distribution in the balanced draught is uniform.
The pressure of air below the grate is above atmospheric
pressure. This helps uniform combustion. The pressure of
air above the grate is below atmospheric. This helps in
removing hot flue gases quickly from the combustion zone.
The pressure inside the furnace is nearly atmospheric.
Hence, there is no blow out of flames or no entry of outside
air into the furnace if the doors are opened for firing and
inspection.
1.15 STOCKERS:
There are two common methods used for burning coal.
1. Stocker firing 2. Pulverised fuel firing.
C O 2+ O 2+N 2+H 2 O
Flam e
S e co n da ry
Air
G re en C o al
V M + C O +C O 2 +N 2 +H 2
. . .... . . . ..
. .. ... .. .. .
.. . . . .
.. .. . .
. . .. .
. .. . .. ..
. . .. .
. . .. .
. . .. .
In can de sce nt
. . .
.. . .
. . .
. . .
C o ke C O + C O 2 + N 2 +H 2
.
.
.
A sh
G ra te
P rim ary a ir
Fig:1.78 P rinciple o f O verfeed Sto ker
The stocker firing method is used for firing solid coal

where as pulverised firing method is used for firing
pulverised coal.
Stockers are generally used to fire solid fuels in the

furnace. Stockers carry the fuel into the furnace for
combustion. They discharge the combustion products to the
appropriate place. The different types of stokers are:
1. Over feed stokers
(a) Travelling grate stockers
(b) Spread stockers
2. Under feed stockers
(a) Single retort stoker,
(b) Multi retort stoker
1.15.1 Overfeed stokers:

Combustion mechanism:
In overfeed stockers, the coal is fed on the grate above
the entry point of the air. The primary air is forced through
bottom of the grate by the forced draught fan. The air gets
heated while it passes through grate openings and ash.
Then it passes through a layer of incandescent (glowing
with heat) cock, where the oxygen O 2 reacts with coke
(carbon) to form carbon-di-oxide CO 2. The water vapour in
the air reacts with incandescent coke and forms
carbon-di-oxide CO 2, carbon monoxide (CO) and free
hydrogen (H 2). The raw coal is continuously supplied over
the fuel bed, the volatile matters are removed by the heat
of the incandescent coke by distillation. The gases leaving
the surface of the fuel bed are CO 2, CO, N 2, H 2, H 2O and

combustible volatile matter. Secondary air is supplied over
the surface of the fuel bed for burning the combustible
gases. During incandescent, carbon in the fuel is lost by
oxidation and only ash remains. The ash settles down at
the bottom of the grate.
(a) Travelling grate stokers:
Travelling grate stoker is of two types 1. Travelling
chain grate stoker and 2. Travelling bar grate stoker.
1. Travelling chain grate stoker:
O ver Fire O r
S eco nda ry Air P orts
B oiler
H opp er
Furn ace
A dju stab le
Fuel G a te . ... . . . .. . ... . .. .. . ... . .. . . ... .
.. .
. ..
. .. .
. .. . ... ..
...
. .. .. ...
........ ... .... .
E ndless cha in P rim ary Air .
E xha ust
A sh
Fig:1.79 Traveling Chain Grate S toker
In this type, the grate surface is made up of a series

of cast iron links connected by pins to form an endless
chain. This chain forms the fuel bed support. The chain
travels over two sprocket wheels, one at the front of the
furnace and another at the back. The front wheel is driven
by a variable speed drive mechanism.
Working:
By gravity, the coal is fed to the travelling chain from
the hopper. The depth of the fuel bed is adjusted by
adjusting the fuel grate opening. According to the
combustion, the speed of the chain is controlled.
Through the air inlets, the primary air required for
combustion enters. The air duct under the grate is divided
into sections to enable air supply to different ports of the
stoker. The secondary air is supplied through the ports
provided in the furnace walls. Both primary and secondary
air supplied provides turbulance required for rapid
combustion. The ash falls down at the rear end of the
stoker and deposited in the ash pit.
Advantages:
1. Simple in construction.
2. Ash crusher is not required since no ash clinker is
formed.
3. Heat releasing rate can be controlled by adjusting
the speed of the chain.
4. Low initial cost and maintenance cost.
5. High heat release per unit volume of the furnace.
Disadvantages:
1. Since the amount of coal carried on the grate is less,
this cannot be used for high capacity boilers.
2. Some coal is lost in the form of fine particles with
ashes.
3. Pre heated air temperature is limited to 180C
2. Travelling bar grate stoker:

Chain grate stoker and bar grate stoker differ only
in construction. The grate surface of bar grate stoker is
made up of a series of cast iron grate bars. The bar grate
stoker is used to burn lignite and small size anthracite coal
etc.
(b) Spreader stoker
C oal
Fura nce
C oal
h op per
.. . ... ... . . .. .
. ..
.. . ... ... . . .. . .. .. . . . .
..
Feed er . .. .
.
. .. . . .. . . .. ... . . . . . . .. .. . ...... .. . . . .... . . .. .. . . .. .

. ..
. .. . .. .. . . . . . . .. .. .. .. . .. . . . .. . .. .. .. . .
S pread er . .... .. .. .. . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . ... . .... .... ..... .. . .
. . . .. .. .. . . .. .. . . .. .. .
. . . .. . Fuelbe d . . . ... . ... ... ..
..
A ir
Fig:1.80 Spreader stoker
Spreader stoker consists of a hopper, feeder, spreader

and openings for admitting air. In front of furnace wall,
the coal feeding and distributing mechanism is located. The
feeder is a rotating drum which consists of number of small
blades. Spreader consists of a fast rotating shaft carrying
twisted blades. Both travelling and stationary grates are
used with spreader stoker.
Working: By gravity, the coal is fed to the feeder from

hopper. According to the combustion requirement, the
feeder supplies the coal to the spreader.
The fast rotating blades of the spreader receives the
coal particles coming from the feeder and distributes the
coal uniformly over the grate. A part of coal is burnt in
suspension and the remaining is burnt in the grate. Forced
draught fan is used for supplying the required amount of
air through grate openings.
Advantages:
1. Wide variety of coal can be burnt easily.
2. The clinkering problem is reduced by the spreading
action.
3. Flexible to load changes since most of the heat is
released by burning coal in suspension.
4. Fuel burns rapidly.
Disadvantages:
1. An efficient dust collecting equipment is needed.
2. It does not work satisfactorily for varying size of
coal.
1.15.2 Under feed stokers:

In this type, both the fuel and air are fed from the
bottom to the top in the same direction. The primary air
passes through raw coal first. By the heat of incandescent
fuel bed, combustible volatile matter is formed from the
raw coal. The mixture of air and volatile matter passes
through the ignition zone and then enters the incandescent
coke. Hence the combustion process is highly efficient and
gives high rate of heat release. The reactions that take
place in incandescent coke is same as over feed stoker.

Secondary air is supplied to burn the volatile matters.
(a) Single retort stoker
B o iler
Flam e C O 2+ O 2+N 2+H 2 O
S e co n da ry air
V M +C O +C O 2 +N 2+ H 2
A sh
... ...
.... .......
.................
.... .............
... .........
... ...
. ...........
Tu ye re s
.........
....... ..
........
... .. .
.........
... ....
In ca n de sce nt
.
H o pp er
c oke stea m
G re en coa l cylin de r
Ram p ushe rs
R e tort
U nd er Feed Stoker
F ig:1.81 Sin gle retort sto ker
This consists of a hopper, a cylinder fitted with ram,

tuyeres for air and pushers.
The coal is fed into the cylinder by gravity. Then the
coal is forced into the bottom of the horizontal trough by
the reciprocating ram. The pushers push the coal into the
grate. The air is supplied through tuyeres provided along
the grate. The ash and clinkers are collected in the ash pit
for removal.
(b) Multi retort stoker:
Multi retort stoker consists of a series of alternate
retorts and tuyere box. Each retort is fitted with pusher
plate for uniform coal distribution. The coal is fed by
gravity. This coal is pushed forward by the stoker ram.
Then the pushers force the coal down to the entire stoker.
Through tuyeres, the primary air is supplied. The ashes
are collected at the lower end of the stoker.
In ca n de sc e nt Zo ne
Tu ye re s
S tok er
D istillation Z on e .. . Ram
. ................
G re en C o al . . . .. . .. . ..................
. . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . ......
. . . . .. . . ... .
.. .. . ... .. .
. . .
...............
...... .
...
..
.... ....
.
E x fe nsio n . .
.. .......
. .. . .
. . . . ..
.. .
. .. . . . . . . .
.. .
G rate
.. ......
.
. ...
. . . .
..
. ..
.
. .
.. ..
. . . ..
....
. . ..
.. .. .. .
.. ...
.
.. ..
. . .
... .
. .
...
... .
.
.. . .
..
P u sh e rs
..
.
W ind B ox
.
.
. ..
.. .
Damper
In le t
D ischa rge
Damper
Ash
Fig:1.82. U nde r F eed M ulti - R eto rt Stoker
1.15.3 Pulveriser:
To increase the surface exposure, the coal is
pulverised. This enables rapid combustion. The pulverised
coal is produced by grinding the raw coal in pulverizing
mills. There are different types of pulverising mills namely
1. ball mill, 2. hammer mill and 3. bull and race mill
A ball mill consists of steel balls partly filled in a
drum. The drum is rotated slowly. The raw coal is fed to
the feeding hoppers. The coal moves to the drum through
the classifiers and screw conveyors. As the drum rotates,
there is a continuous impact between coal and the steel
balls. Thus the coal is powdered. Hot air is passed through
the drum. This air picks up the powdered coal with it. The
coal air mixture enters the classifiers. In classifier oversized
coal is returned back to the drum. The powdered coal and
A ir o ut A ir o ut
E x ha u st H o pp er E x ha u st
M otor Fa n Fa n
M otor
M ixtu re
o f H o t A ir
& F ine C o al
G ea rs M otor
C la s sifie r C la s sifie r
B e aring
B e aring
R o tatin g
D ru m
S c re w C o nveyo r
fo r C o al
H o t A ir from A ir P reh ea te r
F ig:1 .8 3 D oub le C lassifier B a ll M ill.
air mixture is drawn by the exhaust fan and supplied to

the burners.
Pulverised fuel firing system:
There are two methods of pulverised fuel firing
system.
1. Unit or direct system,
2. Bin or central system.
R aw C o al
P rim ary C rusher
M ag ne tic S ep arator
C oal D rier
C oal B u nkers
Central system
C oal S cale
Feede r
Fig:1.84. Pulverized Coal

Handling Plant
1.15.3.1 Unit (or) direct system:

A line diagram of unit system is given in the
Fig.1.84(a) and 1.85.
The raw coal is supplied to the feeder from the coal

bunker. Hot air (or) flue gas is passed through the feeder
Bu rner
A ir + P ow d ered C oa l
R a w C o al Bunker
. . .. ... ........ . . Fu rnace
.. . . .. . . . ... .
. ......
. . .. .... . .
Se pa ra tor
Fe ed er
Pre hea ted
Pu lverisin g M ill I.D . F an Se co ndary A ir
Pre hea ted A ir or

Flue G a se s
in F or C oa l D rying Fig:1.85 Unit- System
to dry the coal. The dried coal is fed into the pulverising
mill and powdered. The induced draught fan brings primary
air to the pulverising mill. This air carries coal with it and
supplies to the burner through pipe. The secondary air is
added in the burner before the fuel enters the combustion
chamber.
Advantages:
1. The layout is simple and economical.
2. It gives direct control of combustion.
3. Coal transportation system is simple.
4. Maintenance cost is less.
Disadvantages:
1. Power consumption is more at part loads by the poor
performance of the pulverizing mill.
2. Plant capacity is higher than central system.
3. Fan blades are subjected to wear and tear

excessively as they handle mixture of air & coal
particles.
1.15.3.2 BIN (or) Central System
R aw C o al B u nker
I.D .Fan
C yclone
S epa rater S eco nda ry
A ir
M ill
.
. . .. ..
.
....
.....
...
.....
..
C old Air .. . .. . .. .. ..... ... ..
O ut Feed er
...............
..............
C onveyo r ....... ...
.
C entral
H ot A ir In P ulverised
Fuel Bu nke r
P ulverised Fu el F ee der
F.D .fan
Fig:1.86 Central Or Bin System
A line diagram of bin system is shown in Fig.1.84(b)

and 1.86. By gravity, the coal is supplied to the feeder or
drier from the raw coal bunker. The coal is dried by passing
hot gases, preheated air or bleeder steam. Then it is fed
to the pulverising mill where it is pulverised.
An induced draught fan draws coal powder and air
from the pulveriser and then it is passed through cyclone
separator where air is separated from coal. The separated
coal is transferred to the central fuel bunker (bin) by the
conveyor system. Then the powdered coal enters the feeder.
A forced draught fan supplies primary air into the feeder
and the mixture of air and powdered coal is supplied to

the burner.
Advantages:
1. More flexible system changes can be made according
to the demand.
2. Quantity of fuel & air can be controlled separately.
3. Break down in the coal supply will not affect the
functioning of the boiler for some time.
4. Less power consumption.
5. Less labour requirement.
6. Burner operation is independent of coal preparation.
7. Sometimes the pulveriser can be made idle, if there
is sufficient fuel in bunker.
Disadvantages:
1. Capital coal is high.
2. Space requirement is more.
3. Driers must be used.
4. There is possibility of fire hazard of stored pulveriser.
5. Coal transportation system is more complicated.
6. Operational and maintenance cost is high.
1.16 FEED WATER TREATMENT

Raw water coming from different sources contains
dissolved salts and un-dissolved or suspended impurities.
Therefore it is necessary to remove harmful salts dissolved
into the water before feeding it to the boiler.
1.16.1 Need for feed water treatment

1. Scaling on the inside wall of different
heat-exchangers due the deposition of dissolved salts
and suspended impurities will form and thus these

will create excessive pressure and thermal stress
inside the heat-exchangers, which may lead to the
explosion and serious hazards for boilers.
2. The dissolved salts may react with various parts of
boiler through which it flows, thereby corrode the
surfaces.
3. Corrosion damage may occur to turbine blades.
Hence, feed water treatment is very much required to
remove such dissolved and suspended impurities from water
before feeding it to boiler.
1.6.2 Arrangements for Feed Water Treatment

For continuous supply of feed water to boiler, after
removing impurities, there are two types of plant generally
incorporated. These are:
1. Chlorination
2. Demineralization plant (DM plant)
3. Reverse Osmosis plant (RO plant)
1. Chlorination
Chlorine (C12) has been used for many years to treat
municipal and industrial water and waste waters to control
microorganisms because of its capacity to inactivate most
pathogenic microorganisms quickly. The effectiveness of
chlorine is dependent on the chlorine concentration, time of
exposure, and the pH of the water. Chlorine is used for
treating potable water where a residual chlorine
concentration near 0.5 mg/L is commonly used. In a water
treatment scheme, fouling of water intake lines, heat
exchangers, sand filters, etc., may be prevented by
maintaining a free residual chlorine concentration of 0.5 -

1.0 mg/L or higher, dependent on the organic content of
the incoming water. Chlorination for RO treatment has
been applied usually where biological fouling prevention is
required (i.e., typically for surface waters). Chlorine is
added continuously at the intake, and a reaction time of
20-30 min should be allowed. A free residual chlorine
concentration of 0.5 - 1.0 mg/L is allowed. A free residual
chlorine concentration of 0.5 - 1.0 mg/L should be
maintained through the whole treatment line.
Dechlorination upstream of the membranes is required,
however, to protect the membranes from oxidation.
2. Demineralization Plant
The function of demineralization plant is to remove
dissolved salt by ion exchange method (chemical method)
and there by producing pure feed water for boiler
Wa ter P ath
D egasser
Source
R e servoir
S tain er
S and
W ater
R aw
R aw S and
Wa ter Filte r
Tan k
D /M P la nt
Fig:1.87 Dem ineralization Plant
The salts which make the water hard are

generally-chloride, carbonates, bi-carbonates, silicates &
phosphates of sodium, potassium, iron, calcium and

magnesium.
In DM plant, there are three types of resin used for
boiler feed water treatment process
1. Cation exchange resin
2. Anion exchange resin
3. Mixed Bed resin
Cation Exchange Resin

NaC l RSO 3H RSO 3 Na HCl
Thus H 2SO 4, H 2CO 3 are also produced.
We have removed Na but the water has become

acidic.
Anion Exchange Resin

HCl R 4NOH R 4NCl H 2O
This way we have eliminated Cl and thus acidity of

the water is avoided.
Similar reaction for H 2SO 4 also.

D e ga sse r
Tow e r
W a te r Pa th D e ga sse r
S and F ree S um p
W a te r
Strong B ase
W ea k B ase
M ixed Be d
W e ak A cid
S tro ng A cid
To D ea era to r
C a tio n
A n io n
A n io n
C a tion
R esin
D /M W ate r
S tora ge Tan k
Fig:1.88 D - M Plant
Mixed Bed Resins

These mixed bed resins are used in Demineralization
plant of feed water treatment, to remove the ions (especially
Na and SO 23 ) which may further present in the water
after forgoing process of purification.
Degasser
The function of degasser tower is to remove carbonate
ions by forming cabon-di-oxide. In degasser tower, stream
of water is poured from top & air is blown from bottom to
top. In the pressure of air, the carbonic acid H 2CO3
present in the water dissociates into H 2O and CO 2.
H 2CO 3 H 2O CO 2
This CO 2 is free to mix with air.
3. Reverse Osmosis Plant (RO Plant)

Like demineralization plant, there is another stage of
water treatment which is known as reverse osmosis
plant (RO plant). It uses the process known as reverse
osmosis to produce salt-free water. The theoretical aspect
is described below:-
P>
Se m i - Permeable
M em bran e
H2O
Fig:1.89 R everse O s m osis

Reverse Osmosis: On the higher density solution (lower

density solvent) if a pressure (P), greater than osmotic
pressure is applied, then the solvent molecules pass
through the semi-permeable membrane from higher density
solution to lower density solution. This phenomenon is
called reverse osmosis. This one is the important stage for
boiler feed water treatment process.
Reverse Osmosis Plant
In RO plant using reverse osmosis phenomenon
salt-free water is taken out from raw water after the sand
filtration. Purity of the salt-free water depends on
effectiveness of the permeable membrane.
The layout of a typical Reverse Osmosis Plant is
given below
So urce of Ba sket F ilter

Wa te r
R o Feed
P um p
NAOH
H rpo
HC L
M ulti G rade
Filter D e ga sser Tow er U FC
H P Pum p
Stag e R O
Stage R O
M B in
M CF
D e ga sser
2 nd
1 st
DM
Tank
Plant
S M BS
HCL
To R aw
AS
Wa te r
Tank
Fig:1.90 Reverse Osm osis Plant
Steam air pre-heater require some steam which will

reduce the efficiency of the power plant.
The procedure is described below:
1. Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is injected to raw

water to kill the algae or bacteria present in the
raw water. Otherwise they may cause harm to the
multi grade-filter (MGF).
2. The multi-grade filter is the primitive type of filter
where sand, stone-chips, stones are used in stacks
to remove the large size suspended particles from
the raw water.
3. The net filter again removes medium-size suspended
particles, where the raw water passes through the
net minute vents.
4. Then by ultra-filtration very small suspended
particles are removed. After long usage of
ultra-filtration unit, it requires back-wash, and then
it is back washed with water & three chemicals, viz.
HCL, NaOH and NaOCl (Sodium Hypochlorite). HCl
Removes iron by dissolving it. It also removes the
basic salts those are rejected on UFU.
NaOH It helps to remove acidic salt.
NaOCl To kill algae and bacteria inside the UFU.
5. After ultra-filtration the water is stored into RO

feed tank & then pumped with RO feed pump of
Reverse Osmosis Plant. In the channel the water is
mixed with HCL (for pH controlling, as the water
coming from RO plant or RO permeate water should
have pH around 6.0) and SMBS (sodium meta
bi-sulphate) [Na 2S 2O 5]. Due to the presence of
sodium hypochlorite, the water is chlorinated. To
remove excess chlorine SMBS is used. If excess
chlorine is not removed, then the semi-permeable

membrane may get damaged. It is also mixed with
anti-scaling reagent (AS), which reacts with those
chemicals which form scale inside the channel.
6. Then the water is passed through micro-cartridge
filter (MCF) which removes the other suspended
particles & the precipitate formed by the reaction of
anti-scaling reagent with the scaling chemicals.
7. In this stage of boiler feed water treatment, the
water is fed to RO unit by HP pump, where after
successive filtration by 1st & 2nd stage, RO it is fed
to degasser unit.
8. After degasification, the water is passed through DM
plant - MB (Mixed bed) resin & stored into DM
water storage tank.
1.17 BINARY VAPOUR CYCLE

The maximum efficiency is achieved in carnot cycle.
Tmax T min T 1 T2
The Carnot cycle efficiency
Tmax T1
To increase the efficiency of the actual engine, ie to

approach the carnot cycle efficiency, the total heat should
be supplied at constant temperature T 1 and rejected at
T2. This can be achieved only by using wet vapour and not
by using superheated vapour.
The thermal efficiency depends on only higher

temperature T 1 since lower temperature T2 is fixed by the
natural sink to which heat is rejected. So T 1 should be
maximum to the possible extent.
M ercury
Tu rbine M ercury Steam Steam
Electric Tu rbine Electric
a G ene rator G ene rator
a
1
M ercury
b Su pe r H e ater Su pe r
G ene rator
Steam H e ated 2
(M ercury
6 Steam
heater)
M ercury C on den se r o r
d Steam G enera tor
5 Steam
Wa te r 3
c 4 C o nd en ser
M ercury Econ omizer Wa te r

Fe ed P um p Fe ed P um p
Fig :1.91 Schem atic Diagram of Binary Vap our Cycle.
Mercury, Diphenyl ether

C 6 H 52 O , Aluminium
bromide and Ammonium chloride are the working fluids
having desirable thermodynamic properties like high critical
temperature and low critical pressure. Among the above
fluids, mercury is having desirable high critical temperature
588.4 C and low critical pressure (21 bar).
But we can not use mercury alone since its saturation

temperature at atmospheric pressure is high 357C. So
binary vapour cycle using two fluids - mercury and water
are used to increase the thermal efficiency.
The mercury vapour leaving the mercury turbine is
condensed and the heat released during this condensation
is utilized to heat and evaporate the feed water to become
steam and this steam is expanded in the steam turbine to
produce work. Mercury turbine also produces work.
Thus, two fluids, T

m kg a
mercury and water are used
in binary vapour cycle. Heat M ercu ry
C ycle
1
rejected by mercury is d
c b
utilized by water in this 5 1 kg 6
cycle.
Ste am
The schematic 4 C ycle
2
diagram of binary 3
S
vapour cycle is shown in Fig:1.92 M ercury - Steam
Bin ary Cycle
Fig.1.92. T.S. diagram is
also shown.
Refer the diagram. The binary vapour cycle consists
of mercury cycle and water (steam) cycle.
MERCURY CYCLE (TOPPING CYCLE)
The mercury cycle a b c d is a simple Rankine cycle.

In this cycle, mercury is expanded in the mercury turbine
(process a b ) and work is produced. The mercury leaving
the mercury turbine is condensed (process b c in the
mercury condenser (steam generator) where heat is released
to heat and evaporate the feed water into steam. The
condensed mercury is pumped (process c d to mercury
generator. Thus mercury cycle is completed.
STEAM CYCLE (BOTTOMING CYCLE)
As already stated, the heat rejected in the mercury

condenser heats and evaporates the (process 5 - 6) feed
water into steam. This steam is further heated by external
sources in the superheater (process 6 - 1) and become
superheated steam. This superheated steam is expanded in
the steam turbine (process 1-2) and is then condensed
(process 2 - 3). The condensate (feed water) is thus pumped

(process 3 -4), and is then preheated in the economizer
(process 4 - 5) and is then sent to mercury condenser (or)
steam generator and thus steam cycle is completed.
mass flow rate of mercury in mercury cycle
m
1 kg of steam in steam cycle
Heat supplied Q s m ha hd 1 h1 h6 h6 h4
Heat rejected Q r h2 h3
Turbine work W T m ha hb 1 h1 h2
Pump work W P m hd hc 1 h4 h3
Qs Qr W net WT WP
cycle
Qs Qs Qs
3600 kg
SSC. Specific Steam Consumption in
W net kWhr
Heat rejected by mercury = Heat absorbed by water

to become steam.
m hb hc h6 h5 h6 h3
. h6 h3
m
hb hc
BINARY VAPOUR CYCLE PROBLEMS

Problem 1.18: A binary vapour cycle operates on mercury and
steam. Saturated mercury vapour at 4.5 bar is supplied to the
mercury turbine, from which it exhausts at 0.04 bar. The
mercury condenser generates saturated steam at 15 bar which
is expanded in a steam turbine to 0.04 bar. (i) Calculate the
overall efficiency of the cycle.
The properties of standard saturated mercury are

given below.
vf m3/kg vg P bar tC hf kJ/kg hg kJ/kg sf kJ/kgK sg kJ/kgK
79.9 106 0.068 4.5 450 62.93 355.98 0.1352 0.5397
76.5 10 6 5.178 0.04 216.9 29.98 329.85 0.0808 0.6925
Solution
o m kg
4 50 c a
4 .5 ba r
Hg
d
o 0 .04
2 16 .9 c
c b ar b
o 1 kg
2 00 .4 c 1
1 5 bar
H 2o
3
0 .04 b ar 2
S
Fig. 1.93
The binary vapour cycle is shown in fig. 1.93

Mercury Cycle:
ha hg at 4.5 bar 355.98 kJ/kg; sa sb (isentropic

expansion)
sa sg at 4.5 bar 0.5357 sb
sb 0.5357 sf xb sfg at 0.04 bar
0.0808 xb 0.6925 0.0808
xb 0.744
hb hf xb hfg at 0.04 bar
29.98 0.744 329.85 29.98 253 kJ/kg
Mercury turbine work W Tm ha hb
355.98 253 103 kJ/kg
Mercury pump work W pm hd hc vf P a P b 100

0.04
. .
[ . To make P a and P b in kPa, multiply by 100]
76.5 10 6 4.5 0.04 100 3.41 10 2 kJ/kg
W net m W T W Pm 103 3.41 10 2 102.97 kJ/kg
Heat supplied in mercury generator Q sm ha hd
W p m 3.41 10 2 hd hc
hd 3.41 10 2 hc
hd 3.41 10 2 29.98 30 kJ/kg

. .
[ . hc hf at 0.04 bar 29.98 ]
Q sm ha hd 355.98 30 325.98 KJ/Kg
W net 102.97
mercury cycle 31.59 %
Qs 325.98
Steam Cycle:
For 15 bar and t 300C, from superheated steam

table, h1 3038.9 kJ/kg
h1 hg at 15 bar 2789.9 kJ/kg; s1 s 2 isentropic

expansion
s1 sg at 15 bar 6.441 kJ/kg K s2
s2 6.441 sf x2 sfg at 0.04 bar.
0.423 x2 8.053
6.441 0.423
x2 0.7473
8.053
h2 hf x2 hfg at 0.04 bar
121.4 0.7473 2433.1 1939.66 kJ/kg
Steam turbine work WTs h1 h2 2789.9 1939.66
850.24 kJ/kg
Water pump work Wps h4 h3 vf P 1 P 2 100
0.001 15 0.04 100
1.496 kJ/kg
h4 h3 1.496
h4 h3 1.496 121.4 1.496 122.9 kJ/kg
. .
[ . h3 hf at 0.04 bar 121.4 kJ/kg]
Q ss h1 h4 2789.9 122.9 2667 kJ/kg
W net s WTs W Ps
850.24 1.496 848.74 kJ/kg
W net 848.74
steam cycle 0.3182 31.82%
Qs 2667
Overall efficiency of Binary cycle overall

overall mercury steam mercury steam
0.3159 0.3182 0.3159 0.3182 0.534 53.4%
Aliter: To find overall in easy way. Write energy balance

equation.
Heat rejected by mercury = heat absorbed by (water)
m hb hc 1 h1 h4
where m amount of mercury circulating for 1 kg of steam.
h1 h4 2667
m 11.96 kg
hb hc 253 29.98
Q stotal m ha hd 11.96 325.98 3898.3 k J/Kg
. .
[ . ha hd 325.98 ]
. .
W T Total m ha hb 1 h1 h2 [ . Wp is
neglected]
11.96 103 1 850.24 2082.12 kJ/kg

. .
[ . ha hb 103 and h1 h2 850.24 ]
W net WT 2082.12
overall 0.5341 53.41%
Qs Qs 3898.3
1.18 WASTE HEAT RECOVERY/

COGENERATION SYSTEM
Waste heat is the heat which is not at all used and
exhausted out as a waste product. Waste heat is normally
available from the industry in the form of process steam
and water at high temperature. In every type of industry,
the waste heat is also discharged with the exhaust gases.
Heat from the waste hot streams is recovered either
in the form of sensible heat or latent heat. When the heat
is recovered in the form of sensible heat, the fluid used for
carrying heat is either air (or) water.
The latent heat recovery is the most common and
versatile method of waste heat recovery when used for
power generation.
In thermal and nuclear power plants, large quantity
of heat at around 70C is discharged into the atmosphere.
The following are the applications developed to use large
amounts of very low temperature waste heat.
1. Agriculture
2. Green houses
3. Animal shelters
4. Aquacultural uses
5. Waste heat utilization for waste water treatment.
The following are the applications developed to use
large amounts of very low temperature waste heat.
1. Agriculture
2. Green houses
3. Animal shelters
4. Aquacultural uses
5. Waste heat utilization for waste water treatment.
The following are the waste material which can be
used as fuel for power generation.
1. Municipal waste.
2. Industrial waste
3. Paper waste
4. Rubber waste.
These wastes create dumping problems and pollution
problems. With the increasing prices of conventional fuels,
the use of these wastes as fuel are considered as economic
proposal for power generation.
The energy content in the most of the waste material
is high and great amount of energy content can be
recovered if used as fuel.
Waste Heat Boilers

The waste heat boilers use the waste heat of gases
coming out of diesel engines and gas turbines at high
temperature (or) use the waste as a fuel in the incinerators.
Some boilers use the industrial dirty gases for power
generation.
Normally, fire tube boilers are used to recover the

waste heat from low pressure gases exhausted by diesel
engines (or) gas turbines.
Chapter 2
DIESEL, GAS TURBINE AND

COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS
Otto, Diesel, Dual and Brayton Cycle - Analysis and
Optimisation, Components of Diesel and Gas Turbine power
plants. Combined Cycle Power Plants. Integrated Gasifier based
Combined Cycle systems.
2.1 Otto Cycle

It is an idealized cycle for the spark ignition internal
combustion engines. It is the thermodynamic cycle most
commonly found in automobile engine. This cycle was
conceived by Nikolaws Otto. It is the standard of
comparison for internal combustion engine and a
description of what happens to a mass of gas when it is
subjected to changes like pressure, temperature, volume,
addition of heat, removal of heat.
P T
3 3
PV = C
C
V=
2 4 2
4
V=C
1 1
V S
V 2 =V 3 V 1=V 4 S 1 =S 2 S 3 =S 4
(b) T.S Diagram
C lea rance Volum e
Sw ept Vo lum e
Total Volu me
(a) P.V Diagram Fig 2.1 Otto Cycle

Fig. 2.1 shows the theoretical P-V diagram and T-s

diagrams of this cycle.
The otto cycle consist of four processes 1 - 2 - 3 - 4
Refer the P-V diagram and T-s diagram.
Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic compression of air:

In this process, the piston moves from BDC to TDC
position. Air undergoes reversible adiabatic compression.
Hence the volume of the air decreases from V1 to V2 and
the pressure increases from P1 to P 2. Temperature
increases from T 1 to T 2 as it is an isentropic process and
the entropy remains constant S 1 S 2.
Process 2-3: Heat addition at constant volume:

It is a isochoric (constant volume) heat addition
process. Here the piston remains at TDC for a moment.
Heat is added at constant volume V 2 V3 from an external
heat source. Temperature increases from T 2 to T 3, pressure
increases from P 2 to P 3 and entropy increases from S 2 to
S 3.
In this process
Heat supplied m Cv T3 T 2
...(1)
m mass
C v S pecific heat at constant volume

Diesel, Gas Turbine and Combined Cycle Power Plants 2.3
Process 3-4: Reversible adiabatic expansion of air:

In this process, air undergoes isentropic (reversible
adiabatic) expansion of air. The piston is pushed from TDC
to BDC position. The pressure decreases from P 3 to P 4,
volume rises from V 3 to V 4, temperature decreases from
T3 to T4 and the entropy remains constant S3 S4.
Process 4-1: Heat rejection at constant volume:

In this process, the piston remains at BDC for a
moment and heat is rejected at constant volume
V4 V1. The pressure falls from P 4 to P 1. The temperature
decreases from T 4 to T 1 and entropy falls from S 4 to S 1.
In this process
Heat rejected m C v T4 T 1
...(2)
But work done Heat supplied Heat rejected
m Cv T3 T 2 m Cv T4 T 1
Work done
Thermal Efficiency
Heat supplied
m C v T3 T 2 m C v T4 T 1
thermal
m C v T3 T 2
T 4 T1
thermal 1
T3 T2
...(3)
The compression ratio r in the ratio of total volume

to the clearance volume.
Total volum e
r
Clearance volume
V1 V3
r
V2 V4 (from the P-V diagram)
Expression for air-standard efficiency of otto cycle.
To derive otto, we must first derive T 2 and T 3 from
the process 1-2 and process 3-4 respectively.
Process 1-2
It is an isentropic process, therefore the relation
between T and V is as follows.
1
T2 V1

T1 V
2
T2
r 1
T1
T 2 T1 r 1 ...(4)
Process 3-4
It is also an isentropic process, therefore the relation
between T and V is similar to process 1-2.
1
V4
T3

T4 V
3
T3
r 1
T4
T3 T 4 r 1 ...(5)
Substituting the values of equation 4 and 5 in
equation 3.
T 4 T1
otto 1
T4 r 1 T1 r 1
T 4 T1
1
T 4 T1 r 1
1
otto 1
r1
r ...(6)
The above expression shows that efficiency increases
with the increase of compression ratio.
Problem 2.1: The efficiency of an otto cycle is 50% and

1.5. What is the compression ratio?
Solution:
Efficiency of otto cycle 50%
Ratio of specific heat 1.5
Compression ratio r ?
1
otto 1
1
r
1
0.5 1
1.5 1
r
1
0.5
r0.5
r0.5 2
r4
Hence compression ratio = 4

Problem 2.2 In a constant volume otto cycle, the pressure at

the end of compression is 10 times that at the start, the
temperature of air at the beginning of compression is 40C and
maximum temperature attained in the cycle is 1850C.
Determine
(i) Compression ratio
(ii) Thermal efficiency
(iii) Work done per kg of air Take 1.4
Solution:
P (ba r) T (k)
3 3
2123
4 2
2 4
1 313
1
(a) P -V D iagram V (m 3 ) (b) T-S D iagram S (kJ/kgK )

Fig :2.2
Initial temperature T1 40 C 40 273 313 K
Maximum temperature T 3 1850 C 1850 273 2123 K
(i) Compression ratio r
For isentropic process 1-2
P 1 V 1 P 2 V2

V1 P2
V P
2 1
Given
P2
But 10
P1

V1
10
V
2
V1
r (compression ratio)
V2
r1.4 10
r 5.17
Henc e c o mpressio n ratio = 5.17
(ii) Thermal
effic ienc y
1
thermal 1
1
r
1
1
5.17 1.4 1
1
1
5.17 0.4
1 0.5183
0.4816
48.16 %
(iii) Work done = heat supplied - heat rejected
From process 1-2

heat supplied m C v T3 T2
For isentropic process

1
T2 V1

T1 V
2
T2
r1.4 1
T1
T2
5.170.4
T1
T 2 5.170.4 T1
1.929 313 K
T 2 603.7 K
Fo risentro pic (adiabatic expressio n)pro c ess3-4

1
T3 V4

T4 V 3
T3
r1.4 1
T4
T 3 5.170.4 T4
T 3 1.929 T4
T3 2123 K
T4
1.929 1.929
T 4 1100.5 K
R
Cv
1
0.287
Cv
1.4 1
C v 0.717 kJ/kg K
and m 1 kg a ssume
Heat supplied m C v T3 T2
1 0.717 2123 603.7
1089.3 kJ/Kg
Heat rejected m C v T4 T1
1 0.717 1100.5 K 313 K
564.63 kJ/kg
Work done Heat supplied Heat reje cted
1089.3 564.63 kJ/kg
524.67 kJ/kg
2.2 DIESEL CYCLE
This cycle was introduced by Rudolph Diesel in 1897.

It is the cycle used in the Diesel (compression-ignition)
engine. The heat is transferred to the working fluid at
constant pressure. The Fig. 2.3 below shows the PV and
T-s diagram of a Diesel cycle.
P T
2 PV = C
P 2= P 3 3 3
nt
n s ta
Co
P= 4
4 2 nt
n s ta
Co
V=
1 1
V S
(a ) P -V D ia gram V 1= V 2 S 1= S 2 S 3= S 4
(b ) T-S D iag ram
Fig:2.3 D iesel C ycle
The Diesel cycle comprises of the following operations

Process 1-2: Adiabatic compression:
In this process, the piston moves from BDC to TDC
position. The air is compressed adiabatically with a
compression ratio typically between 15 and 20. The
compression rises the temperature of the air and leads to
ignition temperature of the fuel mixture formed by injecting
fuel. The pressure rises from P 1 to P 2, the volume decreases
from V1 to V2, the temperature increases from T1 to T2
and the entropy remains constant (S 1 S 2).
Process 2-3: Addition of heat at constant pressure:

In this process, the piston remains at TDC position
for a moment. Heat is added at constant pressure
P 2 P 3 by injection of fuel and combustion. The volume
of the mixture increases from V2 to V3, the temperature
increases from T 2 to T 3 and entropy increases from S 2 to
S 3.
Process 3-4: Adiabatic expansion:

In this process, the piston moves from TDC to BDC
position. It is the power stroke of the cycle. The air expands
adiabatically thus the volume increases from V 3 to V 4, the
temperature decreases from T3 to T4, pressure decreases
from P 3 to P 4 and the entropy remains constant S 3 S 4.
Process 4-1: Heat rejection at constant volume:

In this process, the piston remains at the BDC
position for a moment. Heat is rejected at constant volume
V 1 V 4. The pressure decreases from P 4 to P 1, the
temperature decreases from T 4 to T 1 and the entropy
decreases from S 4 to S 1.
In the cycle consider for unit mass.
Heat supplied at constant pressure C p T3 T 2...(1)

Heat rejected at constant volume C v T4 T 1...(2)

Work done Heat supplied Heat rejected
C p T3 T 2 C v T 4 T1 ...(3)
Work done
Air stand efficiency
Heat supplied
C p T3 T2 C v T4 T1

Cp T3 T2
C v T4 T 1
1
C p T3 T2
Cp
Note
Cv
1 T4 T1
1
T 3 T2 ...(4)
V1
Let compression ration r
V2
V3 volume at cut off

and cut off ratio (i.e.)
V2 clearance volume
To derive , we must derive T 2, T3 and T4 from the

process 1 - 2, process 2 - 3 and process 3 - 4 respectively.
During adiabatic compression 1 - 2

1
T2 V1

T1 V
2
T2
r 1
T1
T2 T 1 r 1 ...(5)
During constant pressure 2 - 3
T3 V3

T2 V2
T3 T 2
Substituting the value of T2 from equation (5)
T3 T 1 r 1 ...(6)
During adiabatic expansion 3 - 4
. . V 4 V1 V 1 V 2 r
1
T3 V4 .
V 3 V3 V 2 V 3

T4 V
3
1
T3 r

T4

T3
T4 1
r

T1 r 1
T4 T1
1
r

T4 T 1
...(7)
Inserting equation (5), (6) and (7) in equation (4), we
get
T1 T1
1
T 1 r 1 T1 r 1
1
1
r 1 1
1
Diesel 1
r 1
r 1
1 ...(8)
Problem 2.3: A diesel engine has a compression ratio of 20

and heat addition at constant pressure takes place at 8% of
stroke. Find the air standard efficiency of the engine. Take
for air as 1.4.
Solution:
Given
V1
Compression ratio r 20
V
2
1.4
Air standard efficiency for Diesel cycle,
V3
2 3
1
V2 VS
V1 = V4
Fig:2.4
1 1
Diesel 1
r 1 1
V3
Where cut off ratio
V2
But V 3 V2 8% of Vs Given
8
V3 V 2 Vs
100 (V s stroke volume)
V 3 V 2 0.08 V 1 V 2 (from the diagram)
V 3 V 2 0.08 20V 2 V 2
V 3 V 2 0.08 19V 2
V 3 V 2 1.52 V 2
V 3 1.52 V 2
V 3 2.52 V 2
V3 2.52V 2

V2 V2
2.52
Substituting 2.5 2 in the equation, we get
1 2.52 1.4 1
diesel 1
1.4 201.4 1 2.52 1
1 0.2155 1.741
0.624 or 62.4%
Problem 2.4: The stroke and cylinder diameter of a diesel

engine are 275 mm and 155 mm respectively. If the clearance
volume is 0.0004 m3 and full injection takes place at constant
pressure for 6 percent of the stroke, determine the efficiency of

the engine. Assume the engine working on diesel cycle.
Solution:
Refer Fig. 2.3
Given data:
Length of stroke L 275 mm 0.275 m
Diameter of cylinder D 155 mm 0.155 m
Clearance volume V 2 0.0004 m 3

Swept volume V s D 2 L
4

0.155 2 0.255
4
0.004811 m3
Total cylinde r volume swept vo lume clearance volum e
0.004811 0.0004 m 3
0.005211 m 3
Volume at point of cut off
6
V 3 V2 V
100 s
V 3 0.0004 0.06 0.004811 m 3
V 3 0.000688 m 3
V3
cut off ratio
V2
0.000688 m 3

0.0004 m3
1.72
V1
Compression ratio r
V2
Vs V 2
r
V2
0.004811 0.0004

0.0004
r 13.02
1 1.4 1
Hence diesel 1
r 1 1
1 1.721.4 1
1
1.4 13.02 1.4 1 1.72 1
1 0.2558 1.578
1 0.4036
0.5963 or 59.63%
2.3 MIXED/DUAL CYCLE

Mixed/Dual cycle is a combination of Otto cycle and
Diesel cycle, where heat addition takes place partly at
constant volume and partly at constant pressure. In fact
Otto cycle and Diesel cycle are special cases of Dual cycle.
Both Otto cycle (constant volume heat addition) and Diesel
T
P
P 3 =P 4 3 4 4
3
2 2
5 5
1 1
S
V 2 =V 3 V 1 =V 5 V T 1=T 2 T 4 =T 5
P -V D ia gram T-s D iag ra m
Fig;2.5 D ual Cycle
cycle (constant pressure heat addition) are over simplistic

and unrealistic. In actual case, combustion takes place
neither at constant volume (time required for chemical
reaction), nor at constant pressure (rapid uncontrolled
combustion). Dual cycle is used to model the combustion
process and consists of the following operation.
Process 1 - 2 - Adiabatic compression
In this process, the piston moves from BDC to TDC,
the air or air-fuel mixture undergoes adiabatic compression.
The volume decreases from V1 to V2, pressure rises from
P 1 to P 2, temperature rises from T1 to T2 and the entropy
remains constant (isentropic process) S 1 S 2.
Process 2 - 3 - Addition of heat at constant volume

The piston remains at the TDC for a moment, it is
the time required for chemical reaction. Heat is added at
constant volume V 2 V3. Pressure increases from P 2 to
P 3. Temperature increases from T2 to T3, entropy increases
from S 2 to S 3.
Process 3 - 4 - Addition of heat at constant pressure

The piston remains at the TDC position, heat is added
at constant pressure P 3 P 4, the volume increases from
V 3 to V 4. The temperature increases from T 3 to T 4 and the
entropy also increases from S 3 to S 4.
Process 4 - 5 - Adiabatic expansion

The piston moves from TDC to BDC position. Due to
the combustion the mixture undergoes adiabatic expansion,
the volume increases from V 4 to V 5, pressure decreases
from P 4 to P 5, temperature decreases from T 4 to T5 and
the entropy remains same (isentropic process) S 4 S 5.
Process 5 - 1 - Heat rejection at constant volume

The piston remains at the BDC position for a moment.
Heat is rejected at constant volume. V 5 V1. The pressure
decreases from P 5 to P 1 and temperature decreases from
T5 to T1. Entropy also decreases from S 5 to S 1.
Air standard efficiency:

Total heat supplied Heat supplied during process 2 3
Heat supplied during process 3 - 4
m C v T3 T2 m C p T 4 T3
Heat rejected Heat rejected during process 5 1
m Cv T5 T1
Net work done = Total heat supplied Heat rejected

Work done
m Cv T3 T 2 m C p T4 T 3 m Cv T5 T 1
Work done

Heat supplied
m C v T3 T 2 m Cp T4 T 3 mC v T5 T 1

m C v T3 T 2 m Cp T4 T 3
Cp
C v T5 T 1
1 Cv
C v T3 T 2 C p T 4 T3
T 5 T1 ...(1)
1
T 3 T2 T4 T 3
V1
Compression ratio r
V2
In process 1 - 2, adiabatic compression,

1
T2 V1

T1 V
2
T2
r 1
T1
T2 T 1 r 1 ...(2)
In process 2 - 3 constant volume heating
P3 P2

T3 T2
P3
rp
T3 P3 P2
rp r explosion ratio
T2 P2
p
T3 T 2 rp
Substituting T2 from equation (2)
T3 T 1 r 1 rp ...(3)
In the process 4 - 5 - adiabatic expansion
1
T4 V5

T5 V
4
V 5 V1 V 1 V2 V 1 V3 r
r
1 V
4 V5 V 2 V4 V 2 V4

cut off ratio
1
T4 r

T5
...(4)
In constant pressure heating process
V3 V4

T3 T4
V4
T 4 T3
V3
T3
T4 T 1 r 1 rp ...(5)
Substituting the value of T4 from equation (5) to
equation (4) we get
1

T 5 T1 r 1 rp
r
T 5 T1 rp ...(6)
Substituting the value of T2, T 3, T4 and T5 in

equation (1) we get

T 1 rp T 1

1
1 1 1 1
T 1 r rp T1 r T 1 r rp T1 r rp

rp 1
1
[rp r 1 r 1 rp r 1 rp r 1]

1 rp 1
1
r 1 rp 1 rp 1
Mean effective pressure (mep):

Work done
mep
Displacement volume
m C v T3 T 2 m C p T4 T 3 m C v T5 T 1
mep
V 1 V2
m C v 1 T1 r 1
V 1 V2
P1 r
P1 r T 3 T 2 T 4 T 3 T 5 T 1
mep
r 1 1 T1 T1 T1
P1 r
mep r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1
r 1 1 p p p
P1 r
mep r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1
r 1 1
p p
p
Problem 2.5: The swept volume of a diesel engine working

on dual cycle is 0.0055 m3 and clearance volume is
0.0004 m3. The maximum pressure is 60 bar. Fuel injection
ends at 6 percent of the stroke. The temperature and pressure
at the start of the compression are 90C and 1 bar. Determine

the air standard efficiency of the cycle. Take for air = 1.4.
Solution:
Given data:
Swept volume V s 0.0055 m 3
Clearance volume V c 0.0004 m 3
Max pressure P 3 P 4 70 bar
Initial temperature T 1 90 C 90 273 363 K
Initial pressure P 1 1 bar
P (b ar)
P 3=P 4=7 0 3 4
2
5
P 1 =1 1
3
V (m )
2
VC V S = 0.00 55 m
2
V C = V 3= V 2= 0.00 04 m
Fig:2.6 P-V Diagram
1.4
dual ?
rp 1
1
dual 1
r 1 rp 1 rp 1
V1 Vs V c 0.0055 0.0004
Compression ratio r
V2 V2 0.0004
r 14.75
V4 6% of V S V 3
cut-off ratio
V5 V3
0.06 V S V3

V3
0.06 0.0055 0.0004

0.0004
1.825
P3
Explosion ratio rp
P2
during the compression stroke

P2 V1

P1 V2
P2
r
P1
P2
14.75 1.4
P1
P2
43.28
P1
P 2 P 1 43.28
P 2 1 bar 43.28
P 2 43.28 bar
70 bar
rp
43.28 bar
rp 1.617
Substituting the values of r, and rp in equation (1)

we get
1 1.617 1.825 1.4 1

dual 1
14.75 1.4 1 1.617 1 1.4 1.617 1.825 1
1 0.34 1.108
1 0.376
0.623 or 62.3%
d ual 62.3%
Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual Combustion

Cycles
Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles can be compared on the
basis of the following important variables (i) Compression
ratio (ii) Maximum Pressure (iii) Heat supplied and Heat
rejected (iv) Net work output.
(i) Efficiency Versus Compression Ratio

The following graph
80
Fig 2.7(a) shows the
Efficien cy (% )
variation of air standard 70
on
u sti
to mb
efficiency of the Otto, Diesel 60 Ot c o y l
c e
a l s el c
and Dual cycles at various e
Du
50 Di
compression ratios with a 40
given cut off for dual and
30
diesel cycle. The air 0 4 8 12 16 20
standard efficiency is clearly S.I. En gine C .I. En gine
increases with the increase Fig. 2.7(a) C o mp ressio n ratio(r)
in compression ratio. The

P
order of efficiencies of the O tt
o
3 al
three cycles are Du
el
otto Dual Diesel es
3 Di
2
(ii) Comparison of Otto, 3

Dual and Diesel cycle on 2
4
P V and T S diagram 4
For constant compression 4
ratio and heat supplied. 1
O Fig. 2.7 (b) V
The P V and T S
diagram of the three cycles T 3 O t t o
are shown in the Fig. 2.7 (b) 3
al
Du
and (c) for same compression 2 3
se l
ratio r and heat supplied D ie
Q s 2 4
Otto cycle 4
1 2 3 4 1 1
4
S
O
Dual cycle Fig. 2.7 (c)
1 2 2 3 4 1
Diesel cycle 1 2 3 4 1
We know that the efficiency of cycle is given as
Heat rejected
1
Heat supplied
The heat rejected by cycle is represented by the area

under the line 4 to 1 on T S diagram. The heat is rejected
at same specific volume process 4 to 1. The least heat
rejected will have maximum efficiency. Thus Otto cycle has
greater efficiency and Diesel cycle has least efficiency. The
Efficiencies of the three cycles are otto dual diesel for
constant compression ratio and heat supplied.
(iii) Comparison of Otto and Diesel cycle for
Maximum pressure and Heat supplied
The P V and T S diagram
for otto and diesel cycles for constant
P D iesel
maximum pressure and heat 2 3 3
supplied are shown in the Fig. 2.7 O tto
(d) and (e).

4
Since same constant maximum 4
pressure the point 3, 3 lie on a
2
constant pressure line.
Fig. 2.27 (d) V
Otto cycle 1 2 3 4 1 T 3
3
2
4
On T S diagram the area 2
4
under the line 4 1 is less for Diesel
cycle than Otto cycle and hence 1 S
O Fig. 2.27 (e)
diesel cycle is more efficient than
otto cycle for the condition of maximum pressure and heat

supplied.
Diesel Otto (For maximum pressure and heat
supplied)
(iv) Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual cycle for
Maximum pressure and Maximum temperatures
The P V and TS
P
diagram are shown in Fig. 2.7 2 3 3
(f) and (g) for constant
maximum pressure and
maximum temperature. 2
4
Otto cycle 1 2 3 4 1 2
Dual cycle 1
Fig 2.7 (f) V
1 2 3 3 4 1
We know that Air Standard Efficiency
Heat rejected
1 3
Heat supplied T
3
con stant
1
Qs 2
2 4
Q s (diesel) Area under 2 3 2
Q s (dual) Area 2 3 3 1 V
Fig. 2.7 (g )
Q s (otto) Area 2 3
Qs (otto) < Qs (dual) < Qs (diesel) so we have

diesel dual otto
(for constant max pressure and max temperature)
2.4 BRAYTON CYCLE

The Brayton cycle represents the operation of a gas
turbine engine. The cycle consists of four processes. This
cycle was invented by an American Engineer George Baily
Brayton. Brayton cycle describes the working of a constant
pressure heat engine. Gas turbine and air breathing jet
engine use the Brayton cycle. Although the Brayton cycle
is usually run as a open cycle system, it is conventual
assumed for the purpose of thermodynamic analysis that
the exhaust gases are reused in the intake, therefore
enabling analysis as a closed system.
The main components of a gas turbine are:
1. Compressor
2. Combustion chamber
3. Turbine
4. Condenser
Process 1 - 2 Isentropic compression

The ambient air is drawn to the compressor and is
pressurised or compressed from pressure P 1 to P 2. The
temperature increases from T 1 to T 2, volume reduces from
V 1 to V 2 with the entropy being constant.
Process 2 - 3 Heat addition at constant pressure

The compressed air then runs through a combustion
chamber, where fuel is burned, heat is added at constant
pressure P 2 P 3. Temperature rises from T 2 to T 3 Due to
the combustion, volume increases from V 2 to V 3 and the
entropy also increases from S 2 to S 3.
Process 3 - 4 Isentropic expansion

The heated, pressurised air then gives up its energy
by expanding through a turbine. The work extracted by the
turbine is used to drive the compressor which is coupled to
it. The pressure decreases from P 3 to P 4. Temperature
decreases from T 3 to T 4. Volume slightly increases from
V 3 to V 4, and the entropy remains constant S 3 S 4.
Fu el Co mbu stion
C h am b er
2 3
W ork O ut
Co mpre ssor Tu rbine
1 4
Exha ust A ir
Fre sh A ir
C o nd en ser
Fig:2.8 Brayton Cycle
Process 4 - 1 Heat rejection at constant pressure

In an open Brayton cycle the exhaust air is released
to the atmosphere and fresh air is drawn by the compressor
for the next cycle, where as in closed Brayton cycle, the
exhaust air is condensed in a condenser and then redrawn
by the compressor. Heat is rejected at constant pressure
P 4 P 1 in both the cases. The temperature decreases from
P T
q in 3
t
3
an
P 2=P 3
st
4
on
q in
C
S=
P=
Co 4
nt
S =C
ns
a
2 st
ta n
n
ons
2 Co
t
P=
ta n
q out
t
P 1=P 4 4
1 q out 1
V S
S 1 =S 2 (b ) T-S D iag ram S 2 =S 4
(a ) P -V D ia gram
Fig:2.8 B rayton C ycle
T4 to T1, volume decreases from V 4 to V 1 and the entropy

decreases from S 4 to S 1.
Thermal efficiency of the cycle
Heat supplied at constant pressure m C p T3 T 2
Heat rejected at constant pressure m C p T4 T 1
Work done Heat supplied Heat rejected
m C p T3 T 2 m Cp T4 T1
Work done

Heat supplied
m Cp T3 T 2 mC p T4 T 1
thermal
mC p T3 T 2
T4 T 1
thermal 1
T3 T 2
P2 P3
rp pressure ratio during compression
P1 P4
Process (1) - (2) isentropic (3) - (4) isentropic process

proces
1 1
T2 P2 T3 P3

T1 P
1
T4 P
4
1 1
T2 T3

r p r p
T1 T4
1 1

T 2 T1 rp T 3 T4 rp
Substitute T 2 and T 3 in eqn (1), we get
Air standard or thermal T 3

S=C
T 4 T1 Tu rbine
1 w o rk
1 1
C
T4 rp T1 rp
P=

2 4
T 4 T1
1 C o m p re ss or
1
C
P=
rp [T4 T 1]
w o rk
S=C
1 1
stand ard or thermal 1 s
1 Fig 2.8(c)
rp
2.5 DIESEL ENGINE POWER PLANT

2.5.1 Introduction
Diesel engine power plants (prime mover is a diesel
engine) are installed where supply of coal and water is not
available in sufficient quantity. These plants produce power
in the range of 2 to 50 MW. The diesel power plants are
more efficient then any other heat engines of comparable
size. It is cheap in cost. It can be started quickly and
brought into the service. The diesel engine will provide the
most economic means of generating electricity on small
scale particularly where there is no convenient site for
micro hydro power plants, cheap fuels are not available and
load factors are considerably large.
2.5.2 Application
Suitable for small or medium capacity range of 2
to 50 MW.
Used in industries where power equipments is up
to 500 kW.
Used as standby plants to hydro and steam power
plant.
Used as mobile power generation system such as
automobile, ship, aeroplane, railways and road
transport.
Used as peak load plants in combination with
thermal or hydro-plants to meet the power
demands during peak hours.
2.5.3 Site selection
Site selection for the diesel power plant should be
nearer to the load centre; this is to reduce the
cost of transmission of power and also reduce the
power loss.
The site for the diesel power plant should be

nearer to the source of fuel supply, to
decrease the transportation charges.
The site for the diesel power plant should be far
away from the town, thus smoke and flue gases
released from the plant will not affect human life.
Sufficient quantity of water should be available at
the site selected.
The selection of the site for the plant should be
in such a way that, it has road and rail
transportation facilities.
2.5.4 Advantages
Diesel power plant can be located at any place.
The quantity of the water required for these
plants for cooling is less.
Power plant is simple in design and diesel fuel is
easy to handle.
Less fuel storage space.
It can be started quickly.
Longer life than steam power plant.
High thermal efficiency than steam power plant.
Requires no operating staff.
2.5.5 Disadvantages
Diesel fuel is costly.
Cost of lubrication is very high.
Maintenance charges are generally high.
Limited capacity about 50 MW of power.
Not suitable for overload condition.
In a diesel power plant noise is a serious problem.
2.6 TYPES OF DIESEL POWER PLANTS

Diesel power plants are mainly classified as
stationary diesel power plants and mobile diesel
power plants.
Stationary units use two-stroke (or) four-stroke diesel
engines coupled with synchronous generators. These units
are considered average in their power rating if the rating
does not exceed 750 kW. Large diesel plants have power
ratings of 2,200 kW or more. These plants are mainly used
in areas remote from transmission lines and where the
construction of steam (or) hydro-electric power plant is not
feasible.
Mobile diesel power plants can be used as main
auxiliary or stand by power source. They are widely used
in agriculture, transportation, forestry and by expeditions
involving geological exploration.
The diesel electric power-plants are classified based
on their applications as follows:
1. Peak load plant
When there is high demand for electricity diesel
power plants are used in combination with thermal or
hydro-plants as peak load plants. Peak loads can occur in
the evening after work hours when household appliances
are heavily used or during summer months when the
airconditioning load is high. Diesel power plant is
particularly preferable as peak load plant as it can be
started quickly and it has no standby losses as in the case
of thermal plants where boilers always must be kept hot.
2. Mobile plants
Mobile diesel plants can be used for temporary or
emergency purposes such as for supplying power to large
civil engineering works for supplementing electricity supply
systems that are temporarily short of power. They are
mounted on skids or trailers and transported to the
required site.
3. Stand-by Units
Diesel plants can be used as standby units to supply
part load when required. For example, a diesel plant can
be used with a hydro-plant as a stand-by unit, if the water
available is not sufficient due to reduced rainfall. Here the
diesel unit supplies power in parallel with the hydro-power
plant. The diesel unit is used temporarily till sufficient
water is available to take the full load.
4. Emergency plant
The plants are normally idle but are used for
emergency purposes where power interruption would mean
financial loss or danger such as in key industrial processes,
tunnel lighting and operating rooms of hospitals. Under
emergency conditions, these plants are also used for
telecommunication and water supply.
5. Nursery station
When a temporary power plant is required to supply
the power to a small town until the main grid is available,
it is known as Nursery Station. A Nursery station can be
moved to another area which needs power on a small scale.
A diesel power plant is suitable for this purpose.
6. Starting stations
Small diesel units can be used for starting purposes
of large steam plants. These units run the auxiliaries
initially for starting, after which they are disconnected.
7. Central stations
In places where the capacity required is small (5 to
10 MW), Diesel units can be used as central stations, such
as for commercial purposes and public utilities e.g., cinema
hall, hospital and municipalities. The capacity limits of the
plant generally decided by the cost of the plant and local
conditions regarding the availability of fuel and water,
space requirements and non-availability of the grid.
2.7 LAYOUT OF DIESEL POWER PLANT

The essential components of a Diesel power plant are:
D ay Ta nk A ir filte r S ile ncer Jacket w ater

D ie sel E ngine p um p
Fuel In jection
G en erator
Filte r P um p
S tarting
A ir tank
C o olin g
A ir com pressor O il coo ler

torner
P um p L ub ricatin g O il p um p
o il tank
C oo la nt
Filte r
H eat excha ng er
Fuel sto rag e tank

R aw w a ter
Fig:2.9 Layo ut of Diesel Eng ine Power Plant p um p
(i) Diesel engine

It is a compression ignition engine. They are generally
two stroke or four stroke cycle engines. Air is admitted into
the cylinder of the engine and is compressed. At the end
of compression stroke, fuel (Diesel) is injected. The burnt
gases, expand and do work on piston. The engine is directly
coupled to the generator. These gases from the cylinder are
then exhausted to the atmosphere.
(ii) Engine starting system

This system contains an air compressor and a starting
air tank. This system starts the Diesel engine of a Diesel
power plant under cold condition.
(iii) Fuel system

The fuel is delivered to the plant gate by trucks, rail
barge (or) and by tankers and stored in the fuel storage
tank. The piping equipment with the necessary heaters, by
passes, drain lines, relief valves, strainers and filters,
flowmeter and temperature indicator are arranged in a
proper manner to make the main flow workable and
practical. The tank should contain a manhole for internal
access like repair, cleaning, etc. After purification, the fuel
is supplied to the system (Engine). A day tank (fuel from
the storage tank is pumped to the day tank) provides fuel
to the engine for daily usage. The day tank is placed high
so that fuel flows to the engine naturally due to gravity.
(iv) Air intake system

Air intake system supplies air into the combustion
chamber of the diesel engine for burning fuel. Air filter is
used to remove dust from the incoming air. Air filters may
be dry type, which are made of wool or cloth. In wet filter,
an oil bath is used to remove the dust particles. Here air

is swept over or through the oil bath so that the dust
particles get coated with oil. Following care should be taken
while constructing suitable air intake system.
Air intake should not be located inside the engine
room.
Air intake filters should not be located in an in
accessible location.
The purpose of an air intake system is to clean
and silence the incoming air and supply it for
super charging.
(v) Exhaust system
The exhaust system is used to discharge the engine
exhaust to the atmosphere. The exhaust pipe should be
short in length with minimum number of bends. It should
be capable to bear the engine vibration. To reduce high
level velocity noises, silencers must be installed. If required,
provision has to be made to extract heat from the exhaust
for fuel heating or process heating.
(vi) Engine cooling system
The temperature of the fuel burning in the engine is
in the range of 1500 C to 2000 C. If the engine is run
without proper cooling, chances of distortion of engine parts
and burning of lubricating oil may occur due to over
heating. On the other hand, if the temperature is too low,
the lubricating oil will not spread properly which causes
wearing of engine parts like piston and cylinder. So, apart
from absorbing and dissipating heat from the engine, the
cooling system should also maintain sufficient operating
temperature for the smooth and efficient operation of the

engine.
To reduce the temperature, water is circulated
through water jackets positioned around the combustion
chamber.
The hot water leaving the jacket is passed through
the heat exchanger. In the heat exchanger, the raw water
drains the heat from jacket water and is cooled in the
cooling tower.
Engine cooling systems are classified into three types.
1. Air cooling system
2. Water cooling system
3. Oil cooling system
(a) Air cooling system
It is generally used in
small engines. In this
system, fins or extended
surfaces are provided on the
cylindrical walls and Fin
cylindrical head. Heat

generated due to combustion
in the engine cylinder will C ylind er
be conducted to the fins and

when the air flows over the
fins, heat will be dissipated
to air. Fig:2 .10 C ylin der w ith Fin s
(b) Water cooling system

In this, cooling is provided around the cylinder walls
and head. They are two types of water cooling system.
1. Thermo Siphon system
2. Pump circulation system
1. Thermo Siphon system
In this system, the circulation of water is due to
difference in temperature of water. So in this system pump
is not required.
E n gine
R a diato r E n gine
Pum p
Fig:2 .11 T he rm o S ip ho n Fig:2 .12 Pum p C ircu lation
System of co olin g System
2. Pump circulation system

In this system, the circulation of water is by means
of pump.
(vii) Lubrication system
Lubrication is necessary to prevent the wear and tear
of engine parts caused by frictional forces due to rubbing
of part surfaces while engine running. The effectiveness of
the lubricating system determines the life of the engine and
the overall efficiency of the plant. Lubricants of liquid, solid
and semi-solid types are available of which liquid oil
lubricants are most commonly used. All moving parts of the
system are lubricated with the piston and cylinder
requiring special lubricant as they operate under condition

of high pressure and temperature.
Generally forced feed lubrication system is used which
consists of pump, oil cleaners, oil coolers, storage, sump
tanks and safety devices. Lubricating oil should be purified
before circulating into the system which can be done by
various methods like settling, centrifuging, filtering and
chemical reclaiming. In these methods centrifuging gives
excellent purification and hence it is widely used. The
Fig.2.13 shows a schematic of the lubricating system used
in diesel power plants.
S tea m or not
E ngine O il w ater heater
coo ler C entrifu ga l
cleaner
P um ps
L ub ricatin g
o il sum p
Fig:2.13 L ubrication system
(viii) Starting system

Diesel engines are generally started by some
mechanical system as they are difficult to be started by
hand cranking due to the high compression required. So,
various methods using compressed air, electric motors and
auxiliary gasoline engines are employed for the starting of
a diesel engine, of these methods, the compressed air
system is commonly used.
1. Compressed air system

In an multi-cylinder engine, compressed air at a
pressure of about 20 bar admitted to a few cylinders which
causes the engine crank shaft assembly to rotate. Gradually
the engine gains momentum and the engine is started by
supplying the fuel. This system is used in big diesel power
plants.
2. Electric starting
In this system, an electric motor is used to rotate the
engine shaft by a gear arrangement. Supplying fuel to the
engine will start and the electric motor disengages
automatically. Electric starting system is simple and
effective. For small diesel engines, a storage battery is used
to supply power to the electric motor.
3. Starting by an Auxiliary Engine
In this system, a petrol engine is first started by hand
cranking. This engine is connected to the diesel engine by
clutch and gear arrangements and so, by gradually
engaging the clutch, the diesel engine is started. After
starting, the clutch is automatically disengaged.
(ix) Governing system
Different loads are experienced by the power plant
over different time periods. The function of the governing
system is to maintain constant speed of the diesel engine
irrespective of the load on the plant. This is done by
varying the quantity of fuel supplied to the engine
according to the load. Centrifugal type governor is generally
used for this purpose.
2.8 DIESEL ENGINE USED FOR DIESEL POWER PLANTS

Diesel engines are of two types-according to the
number of strokes per cycle of operation. They are
Two stroke cycle engines and

Four stroke cycle engines
For diesel power plants, two stroke engines are
preferred than four stroke engines of the same size and
speed due to the following advantages.
At the same speed, two stroke engines develop

twice the power of four stroke engines.
For the same power developed, two stroke engines
occupy less floor space.
Installation cost is less.
Higher mechanical efficiency is obtained.
Starting of two stroke engines is easier than four
stroke engines.
Nowadays, efforts are being made to use dual fuel
engine in diesel power plants.
This engines result in better economy and also put to

proper use of the gaseous fuels available in our country. In
these engines, both oil and gas are used while gas is used
as the main fuel and oil is used as an aid for ignition. The
working of dual fuel engine is as follows.
During suction stroke, air and gas are taken into

the cylinder.
During compression stroke, the pressure of the
mixture drawn is increased. At the end of the
compression stroke, pilot oil is injected into the
cylinder which gets ignited and there by igniting

the gas mixture.
During the power stroke, the gases expand and
power is available at the shaft.
During the exhaust stroke, gases are released into
the atmosphere.
Dual fuel engines may become an attractive means of
generating electricity at off-peak tariffs, with the wider
availability of natural gas.
2.8.1 Selection of Engine Type
A Diesel engine is the prime mover of a diesel power
plant, so its efficiency determines the efficiency of the power
plant. For the selection of a diesel engine, the various
factors considered are as follows.
(i) Type of engine
Diesel engines operate on either two stroke cycle or
four stroke cycle. Two stroke engines are generally
preferred in diesel power plants for factors discussed
earlier.
(ii) Fuel injection system
For proper combustion, an efficient fuel injection
system should be used. The quantity of fuel required should
be properly measured, injected, atomised and mixed with
compressed air. In Diesel engines, the two types of fuel
injection systems commonly used are air injection and
solid injection.
(iii) Cooling method
Diesel engines are cooled by either air or water. The
cooling method suitable for a particular power plant is
considered while selecting an engine.
(iv) Engine performance parameters

The various performance parameters indicate the
degree of success with which the diesel engine does its
assigned job.
The basic performance parameters to be considered
are:
(a) Power and Mechanical Efficiency
Power is referred to as the rate at which work is
done. The power developed by an engine and measured at
the output shaft is called the brake power (BP). Indicated
Power (IP) is defined as the power developed by combustion
of fuel in the combustion chamber (IP). It is always more
than brake power.
The difference between IP and BP indicates the power
loss in the mechanical components of engine (due to
friction). So the mechanical efficiency is defined as ratio of
brake power to the indicated power.
Friction power is the difference between indicated
power and brake power.
(b) Brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc)
It is defined as that amount of fuel consumed for each
unit of brake power per hour. It indicates the efficiency
with which the engine develops the power from fuel.
(c) Thermal efficiency
It is the ratio of output to that of energy input in the
form of fuel. It gives the efficiency with which the chemical
energy of fuel is converted into mechanical work.
(v) Fuel-air ratio

It is the ratio of mass of fuel to mass of air in
mixture. It effects the phenomenon of combustion and used
for determining flame propagation velocity, the heat
released in combustion chamber. For this relative fuel air
ratio is used which is defined as the ratio of actual fuel-air
ratio to that of the stoichiometric fuel air ratio required for
burning of fuel.
(vi) Mean effective pressure (MEP)

It is defined as the average pressure acting over
piston throughout a power stroke. It is given by the
following relation.
Net Work
MEP P m
S we pt Volume
(vii) Specific weight

Specific weight is an indication of the engine bulk. It
is defined as the weight of the engine in kilograms for each
bhp developed.
(viii) Volumetric efficiency

Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual volume
of the charge drawn in during the suction stroke to the
swept volume of the piston. The amount of air taken inside
the cylinder depends on the volumetric efficiency of an
engine and hence puts a limit on the amount of fuel which
can be efficiently burned and the power output.
2.8.2 Super charging

In compression ignition engines, more amount of air
in the cylinder at the start of the compression stroke,
allows more quantity of fuel to be burnt, thereby increasing
the power output of the engine. Hence, it is desirable that
the engine should take in the greatest possible mass of air.

The process of increasing the suction pressure of the engine
above the atmospheric pressure is called supercharging
and the device used for this purpose is called as
supercharger.
Supercharger is nothing but a compressor which
provides a denser charge to the engine so that greater mass
of charge is consumed with the same total piston
displacement. Supercharger is installed between the engine
intake and the air inlet through a air filter.
Super chargers are of the following types.
(a) Positive displacement type
(i) Rotary types
(ii) Screw type
(iii) Piston and cylinder type
(b) Centrifugal type
Supercharging an engine has various advantages
which are as follows.
The output of the engine is increased by about
30% to 50% for the same engine speed.
Higher mechanical efficiency is obtained.
In two stroke supercharged engines, the
scavenging action is better than the naturally
aspirated engine for the same speed.
Knocking in diesel engines is reduced by
supercharging.
Specific fuel consumption is less in supercharged
engines.
Supercharging enables the reduction in engine size
for a given power output.
2.9 GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT
2.9.1 Gas turbine

It is an external combustion engine where high energy
is released from the fuel in a constant pressure cycle. It
has a turbine rotated by expanding hot gases. It is also
known as combustion turbine. It operates on the principle
of the Brayton cycle. The thermal efficiency of the gas
turbine is in the range of 20 - 30%.
2.9.2 Site selection of gas turbine power plant
(i) Availability of fuel

The fuel should be easily available and at reasonable
cost.
(ii) Availability of transportation facilities

The transportation facilities should be available.
(iii) Distance from the load centre

The site for the gas turbine power plant should be
near to the source of fuel supply, to decrease the
transportation cost.
(iv) Distance from the populated area

It should be far away from the town, thus smoke and
flue gases exhausted from the plant will not affect human
beings.
2.9.3 Applications
Gas turbine power plants are used in jet aircrafts,
trains, ships and electrical generators.
These plants can be used as peak load plants and
as a standby plant for hydro-electric power plants.
2.9.4 Advantages
They can be coupled with steam power plants for
cogeneration.
It has no standby losses.
The capital cost and operating cost of gas turbine
plants is lower than steam plant.
Maintenance cost is less.
Heavy foundation and building are simple and
cheap.
Wide variety of fuels can be used.
Highly reliable.
Quick inspection is possible.
Less space is required.
2.9.5 Disadvantages
Cost of diesel and lubricating oil is high.
Limited capacity about 50 MW of power.
Does not work good for overload condition.
Overall efficiency is low.
Its operation is noisy.
2.10 CLASSIFICATION OF GAS TURBINE POWER PLANTS

(a) According to the type of load
(i) Peak load plants
(ii) Base load plants
(iii) Standby plants
(b) According to the cycle of operation
(i) Open cycle plants
(ii) Closed cycle plants
(iii) Semi-closed cycle plants
(c) According to fuel

(a) Liquid fuel
(b) Solid fuel

(c) Gaseous fuel
(d) According to number of shafts

(a) Single shafts
(b) Multi shaft
2.10.1 Principle of operation of a Gas turbine power

plant
Air passes through a centrifugal or axial
compressor.
Then these gases are slowed using a diffuser and
compressor. This process increases the pressure
and temperature of the flow. The air then passes
from the compressor to a combustion chamber,
where fuel is injected and ignited and the air is
converted into a super heated gas.
As there is no change in pressure the specific

volume of the gas increases.
Ig nitio n
Fu el
A ir
R otatin g
C om p re sso r Tu rbine sha ft
C om b u ste r
H ot E xh au st
G ase s
Fig: 2.14 Princip le of G as Turbine O peration

Finally, this larger volume of gas is expanded and

accelerated by nozzle guide and energy is
extracted by the turbine.
2.11 LAYOUT OF OPEN CYCLE GAS TURBINE

POWER PLANT
(i) Low Pressure Compressor (LPC)

The purpose of LPC is to draw the air from
atmosphere and to compress it. Initially the low pressure
compressor is started with the help of starting motor.
(ii) Intercooler
LPC discharges hot air which is cooled by the
intercooler. Cooling water is circulated in the intercooler.
(iii) High Pressure Compressor (HPC)

HPC further compresses the air from the intercooler
to a high pressure. The pressurized air is sent to the
combustion chamber through regenerator.
Starting
M otor C o up ling G ene rator
L PC HPC HPT L PT
Fuel Fuel
Inje ctor G as Inje ctor
Air From Inte r CC

Atm osph ere C o oler Air
CC
C o olin g
W ate r
C h im ney Exhau st
H e at Exchang er G as
(R e ge ne rator)
Fig:2.15 Open Cycle Gas Turbin e Power Plant
(iv) Heat exchanger (or) Regenerator

The compressed air from the HPC is sent to the
combustion chamber through the heat exchanger. The air
entering the combustion chamber should be hot. So the hot
exhaust gas from the turbine heats up the compressed air
from HPC at heat exchanger.
(v) Combustion Chamber (CC)

Fuel is ignited in the combustion chamber along with
the compressed air. The fuel may be natural gas, kerosene,
pulverised coal etc., which is injected into the combustion
chamber.
(vi) High Pressure Turbine (HPT)

The burnt gases from combustion chamber expands
through the high pressure turbine (HPT). Here the turbine
is driven by the burnt gas from CC.
(vii) Low Pressure Turbine (LPT)

The shaft of LPT is coupled with the generator and
so electric power is produced. The burnt gas from the HPT
is burnt further in another combustion chamber. Now the
burnt gases from CC is allowed to run low pressure turbine.
2.12 WORKING OF GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT

The gas turbine power plant is initially started by the
starting motor, then air from the atmosphere is drawn by
the low pressure compressor (LPC). LPC compresses the air
and it is sent to high pressure compressor through
intercooler. The compressed air coming out from the LPC
will be hot. So it is cooled in the intercooler by the supply
of cooling water. Air from the intercooler is further
compressed to a high pressure by high pressure compressor
(HPC). Compressed air from HPC is allowed to enter into

the heat exchanger where it picks the heat from the
exhaust gases leaving the turbine.
The hot air from regenerator enters the combustion
chamber (CC). The mixture of hot air and fuel such as
powdered coal, kerosene are burnt in the combustion
chamber. Now the burnt gases from CC is allowed to run
the high pressure turbine. When the high pressure turbine
started rotating, the starting motor is stopped and the
compressors are now driven by the rotation of HPT.
After rotating HPT, the burnt gases are allowed to

flow through another combustion chamber, where the
unburnt fuel are fully burnt. Atlast, the burnt gases from
combustion chamber rotates the low pressure turbine,
which is coupled to the generator for producing electricity.
The exhaust hot gases leaving out from LPT is passed
through the regenerator before being exhausted through the
chimney into the atmosphere.
2.13 FUELS FOR GAS TURBINES

One of the most critical factors governing the
reliability and operation of Gas turbines is Fuel supply.
The improper supply for fuel can result in serious
maintenance and operation problems, in extreme cases,
rapid load shedding or trip of a Gas turbine. Combustion
occurs continuously in gas turbines, as opposed to
reciprocating IC engines, where combustion occurs
intermitlent. Hence the choice of correct fuel for the gas
turbine is of utmost importance.
Fuel flexibility is an advantage of gas turbines as they

can be adapted to use almost any flammable gas or light
petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel and kerosene.

However Natural gas is the most commonly used fuel. Also
crude and other heavy oils can be used after reducing their
viscosity by heating to a level suitable for burning in the
combustion chambers of gas turbines.
Commonly used gas turbine fuels include:
(a) Gaseous fuels

Natural gas
LPG
Refinery gas
Coke oven gas
Coal gas
Hydrogen
(b) Liquid fuels
Diesel
Kerosene
Naphtha
Ethanol and methanol
Condensates
Heavy residual grade oils and crude oils
2.13.1 Fuel qualities
While selecting a fuel for gas turbines, some
important properties are to be considered.
Volatility
This is one of the most important characteristic of
turbine fuel. A highly volatile fuels is desirable to aid in
starting in cold weather and to make restarts easier and
surer. Where as low volatile fuel is desirable to reduce the
possibility of vapour lock and to reduce fuel losses by

evaporation.
Combustion products
If the combustion products of the fuel are in the form
of solids, they tend to deposit on the turbine blades, vanes
and combustion chambers. This causes a drop in efficiency
of the turbine.
Energy contents
Fuels should have higher heating value, which is
measured on the basis of the chemical energy of the fuel
and accounts for the total heat released. Fuels with high
heating value reduce fuel consumption.
Lubricating properties
Due to the higher operating temperatures of powerful
gas turbine engines, the fuel should also provide some
lubrication on friction surfaces.
Availability
The fuel chosen should be easily available in large
quantities for reducing the running cost of the gas turbine
power plant.
2.14 GAS TURBINE MATERIALS

The improvements in the gas turbine engines to
achieve higher power ratings and efficiency levels is mainly
due to the development of materials with enhanced
performance levels. Higher the capability of a material to
withstand high temperatures, more the engine efficiency.
Also materials with high temperature strength to weight
ratio help in weight reduction.
Various high performance materials used in the

construction of gas turbines are
Special steels
Titanium alloys (Ti - 6 Al - 4V, Alloy 685, Alloy
829)
Super alloys (A 286, IN - 100, Rene 95, Superalloy
718)
Ti - 6 Al - 4 V is used for making static and rotating
components in gas turbines. Alloy 685 and 829 are used
in many aircraft engines. Super alloys are mainly used for
the manufacture of discs in aircraft engines.
Other materials like ceramics, composites and
intermetallics are being researched and developed with the
aim to exploit the superior features of the materials for
improving the performance of gas turbine engines.
By coating the materials used for the manufacture of
gas turbine engine components, enhanced mechanical
properties and excellent resistance to oxidation could be
achieved.
Powder metallurgy, Aluminium slurry coatings for
compressor blades are used to prevent corrosion and to
impart improved erosion resistance to the blades.
Processing is widely used in the production of Nickel -
based super alloy components.
These advanced gas turbine materials have high
temperature tensile strength, high strength to weight ratio,
improved creep rupture strength and low-cycle fatigue life.
2.15 OPEN AND CLOSED CYCLES

Gas turbine power plants operate mainly based on
two cycles open cycle and closed cycle.
In an open cycle gas turbine, the gases that are

produced by combustion go directly into the atmosphere,
though the heat produced can be retained.
In a closed cycle gas turbine, the hot gases produced

are cooled and reused and are not emitted into the
atmosphere.
2.15.1 Open cycle gas turbine

An open cycle gas turbine power plant is shown in
Fig.2.16.
The compressor sucks in atmospheric air and raises

its pressure. Heat is added to the air by the combustion of
fuel in the combustion chamber. Then the hot gases exiting
the combustion chamber are passed to the turbine where
they expand doing mechanical work and exhausted into the
atmosphere. A part of the power produced is used to run
the compressor and other accessories.
C o m b u stion cha m be r
C o m pre sso r
Tu rbine
G en e rator
A ir fro m E xha u st to
a tm osph ere a tm osph ere
Fig:2.16 O pen cycle gas turbine

Since the gases are exhausted into the atmosphere,

the working medium has to be continuously replaced. For
a given flow of working fluid (air), there is a limit to the
amount of fuel which can be burnt in the combustion
chamber. The maximum amount of fuel that can be burnt
and hence the working temperature is limited by the creep
strength of the material used in the turbine blades
construction and the working life of the system.
Advantages
No warm up time.
Low weight and size.
Flexibility of fuels. Any hydrocarbon fuel from
high octane gasoline to heavy diesel oils can be
used.
Occupy comparatively less space.
Simple open cycle plants are independent of
cooling medium and hence are self contained.
Disadvantages
As considerable amount of power developed is
utilised to drive the compressor, the part load
efficiency is less.
Sensitive to changes in air temperature, pressure
and humidity.
Increased loss of heat occurs due to high rate of
flow of air. Also large diameter duct work is
necessary.
Air filters and fuel treatment is necessary to
prevent dust from entering into the system and to
reduce the deposition of carbon and ash in the

turbine blades.
2.15.2 Closed cycle gas turbine
A schematic of a simple closed cycle gas turbine plant
is shown in Fig.2.17.
C o m b u stion C h am b er & H e at E xch a ng er

C om p ressor
G en e rator
P re -C o oler
W a te r in W a te r O ut (H e at R ejecte d)
Fig:2.17 C losed C ycle G as Turb ine P lant
In this type of gas turbine, the same air or any other

suitable fluid is constantly circulated. The air coming out
from the compressor is heated in a heat exchanger at
constant pressure by the fuel burnt in the combustion
chamber. So the air does not mix with the combustion
products. Then the air with high temperature and high
pressure is passed to the turbine. The air after exiting the
turbine is cooled to its original temperature before passing
to the compression, there by minimising compressor work.
Thus, the working fluid is continuously used in the system
without its change of phase.
Advantages
Higher density and higher specific heat gases can
be used, as the working fluid does not mix with
combustion products.
No accumulation of carbon deposits on turbine
blades and nozzles.
Part load efficiency can be improved by
withdrawing or admitting more working fluid.
Inexpensive solid fuels could be used for external
heating.
The working fluid can be cleaned free of dust, so
abrasion of the interiors of the compression
chamber and erosion of turbine blades can be
avoided.
No need of filtration of incoming air.
Gas Turbine power plants in India
1. Auraiya Gas plant in U.P - 650 MW capacity
2. Namrup in Assam - 70 MW
3. Uran in Maharashtra - 4 units each of 60 MW
2.16 REHEATING, REGENERATION AND

INTERCOOLING
Brayton cycle is the air standard cycle for gas turbine
power plants. Here, air is compressed isentropically and
heat is added at constant pressure. Then air expands in
the turbine isentropically and then heat is rejected at
constant pressure and the cycle repeats.
So, the efficiency of a simple gas turbine plant can
be increased by
Decreasing compressor work by intermediate
cooling.
Reducing the heat supplied i.e. the fuel
consumption by regeneration.
Increasing turbine output by reheating.
E xha ust to
a tm osph ere
R ege ne rator
Fuel
sup ply
In te r coo ler Fuel sup ply
C om b ustion R ehe ater

cha m be r
C1 C2 T1 T2
A ir fro m a tm osph ere
Fig:2.18 Gas turbine plant w ith inter cooler

regenerato r an d re heater in the plant
2.16.1 Intercooling
Considerable amount of power developed by the
turbine is used to run the compressor. So the efficiency of
the gas turbine power plant can be increased by staged
compression with intercooling. Compression can be done in
two stages (low pressure compressor and high pressure
compressor) with an intercooler incorporated between the
two. Cooling decreases the volume of air to be handled and
reduces the compressor work. Intercooling approaches
Isothermal process to reduce the compressor work.
C .C
3
2 4 5
L .P H .P
C C T
W ork
1 6
A ir in 5
T E xha u st
4 lin g
c oo
er
H P (C ) In t 2
L P (C ) 6
T 1= T 3 3 1
(P e rfect
in tercoo lin g) S
Fig:2.19 Intercooling
2.16.2 Reheating
This involves the expansion of gases in two turbines.
The efficiency of a gas turbine power plant can be increased
by reheating the air after partial expansion through a high
pressure turbine in a second set of combustion chambers
before feeding it into a lower pressure turbine for final
expansion. The power from the high pressure turbine will
be utilised to run the compressor and the power from low
pressure turbine will give the useful power output.
c.c 1 c.c 2
2 3 4 R e he ater 5
H .P L.P
c
T T
W ork
6 Exha ust
1
T
3
4 ng
e a ti
R eh
1 S
Fig:2.20 Reheating
2.16.3 Regeneration
The exhaust gases leaving the turbine posses a large
quantity of heat energy. These hot exhaust gases are passed
through a heat exchanger called the regenerator, to
increase the temperature of the air leaving the compressor
prior to combustion. This reduces the amount of fuel needed
to reach the desired turbine - inlet temperature. This
increases the efficiency of the turbine plant. However, the
increase on efficiency is tied to a large increase in initial
cost and will be economical only for units that are run
almost continuously.
6 E xha u st H e at
E xc ha ng er
5
3 5
2
C .C
C T W ork
G as turbine w ith regenerator.
1 4
A ir in
c WT
p=
T
Q1
5
3 6
2
p =c
WC
QX
1 QX Q2
S
Fig:2.21 E ffect of regeneration on B rayton cycle
2.17 COMBINED POWER CYCLES
Combined cycle gas power plants

The process for converting the energy in a fuel into
electric power involves the creation of mechanical work,
which is then transformed into electric power by a
generator. Depending on the fuel type and thermodynamic
process, the overall efficiency of this conversion can be as
low as 30 percent. This means that two-thirds of the latent
energy of the fuel ends up wasted. For example, steam
electric power plants which utilize boilers to combust a
fossil fuel have about 33 percent efficiency. Simple cycle
gas turbine plants have just under 30 percent efficiency on
natural gas and around 25 percent on fuel oil. Much of this
wasted energy ends up as thermal energy in the hot
exhaust gases from the combustion process.
To increase the overall efficiency of electric power

plants, multiple processes can be combined to recover and
utilize the residual heat energy in hot exhaust gases. In
combined cycle mode, power plants can achieve electrical
efficiencies up to 60 percent. The term combined cycle
refers to the combining of multiple thermodynamic cycles
to generate power. Combined cycle operation employs a
heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) that captures
heat from high temperature exhaust gases to produce
steam, which is then supplied to a steam turbine to
generate additional electric power. The process for creating
steam to produce work using a steam turbine is based on
the Rankine cycle.
Combined Cycle System which is designed for

maximum efficiency in which the hot exhaust gases from
S ynchronous
Ge nerato r
G as
Fuel Turbine
AC
P ow er
E xhau st S ynchronous
G a ses Ge nerato r
S tea m
H eat S tea m
E xchanger Turbine AC
P ow er
Fig:2.22 E lectricity Co-gen eratio n P lan t
the gas turbine are used to raise steam to power a steam

turbine with both turbines being connected to electricity
generators is shown in Fig.2.22.
The widely used combinations are as follows.
1. Combined cycle of gas turbine and steam

power plant.
2. Combined cycle of gas turbine and diesel
power plant.
1. Combined gas turbine and steam cycle:

The aim of combining the gas turbine and steam cycle
is to utilize the heat of exhaust gas from gas turbine in
steam power plants. By this, the overall efficiency of the
plant is increased.
Three kinds of combined cycles are:

1. Heating feed water with exhaust gases.
2. Employing the gases from a supercharged
boiler to expand in the gas turbine.
3. Employing the gases as combustion air in the
steam boiler.
1. Heating feed water with exhaust gases:

The feed water which is to be sent to steam power
plant is heated by the exhaust gases from the gas turbines.
The steam generated is expanded in various ranges of
steam turbines, this increases the output of the work. This
To s ta ck
Fe ed w a te r To b o ile r
C o m b u stion
cha m be r Hot
E x ha u st ga ses
G en e rator
C o m p re sso r Tu rbine
A ir
F ig:2 .2 3 H eating fe ed w ater w ith e xh au st ga s
2. Employing the gases from a super charged boiler

to expand in the gas turbine:
This arrangement is shown in Fig.2.24 In this
combined cycle, the boiler furnace works at high pressure
and the exhaust gases expanded in the gas turbine is used
to heat the feed water before it is discharged through stack.
The heat transfer rate is high as compared to
conventional boiler because of high pressure of gases. And
there is no need of forced or induced draught fan.
To stack
Econ omiser
Fe ed w ater
Su pe r Flue gas
charged Exha ust gas
boiler
G ene rator
Co mpressor Tu rbine
Fig:2.24 Arrangem ent o f supercharg ed boiler
Air
3. Employing the gases as combustion air in the

steam boiler:
In this, the exhaust gases from the turbine is used
as preheated air for combustion in the boiler.
The boiler is fed with additional fuel and air. The
system is called waste heat boiler if only the turbine
exhaust gases are used in the furnace without additional
fuel firing. This combined cycles have 5% increase in overall
efficiency. This arrangement is shown in Fig.2.25.
To ch im ney
S tea m turbine
L oa d
B oiler&
sup er
E con om iser h ea ter C ond en ser
P um p
P um p
Feed w a ter h ea te rs
E xha ust gas
L oa d C om p re sso r
G as turb ine
C om b ustor
Fig:2.25 Emp loying the gas as com bu stion air in the steam boiler
2.18 COMBINED GAS TURBINE AND DIESEL CYCLES

To improve the performance of diesel engine, it is
combined with exhaust driven turbine.
The combination can be in three ways.
1. Turbo charging/super charging
2. Gas generator
3. Compound engine
1. Turbo charging
In this combined cycle, the exhaust gas from the
diesel engine is expanded in the turbine which is coupled
with compressor which supplies pressurised air to the diesel
engine. This increases diesel engine output. The work
produced in turbine is sufficient to run the compressor. The
load is coupled to diesel engine shaft. This arrangement is
shown in Fig.2.26.
Po w er
D iesel engine out put
After
coole r
C om presso r
Tu rbine
Exha ust
Air Fig:2.26 Tu rbo Charaging
2. Gas generator
In this system, the compressor is driven by the diesel
engine through gear drive but not by the gas from the gas
turbine. The output of the diesel engine is used to drive
A ir
C om p re sso r
L oa d Turbine
E xha ust gas A fter co oler
D ie sel en gin e
Fig:2.27 Gas generato r

the compressor as well as the gas turbine. This

3. Compound engine
Exhau st gas
Air
Tu rbine
C om presso r
After
cooler
Po w er
outp ut D iesel E ngine
F ig:2.28 Com pou nd Engine
In this system, power output is taken from diesel

engine. The compressor is driven by both the gas turbine
as well as the diesel engine through some gear
arrangement. This arrangement is shown in Fig.2.38.
2.19 INTEGRATED GASIFIER BASED COMBINED

CYCLE (IGCC) SYSTEM
To meet the growing world demand for energy, which
will be driven increasingly by the developing countries,
recourse to fossil fuels will remain dominant at least for
the first half of the 21st century. The tendency for CO 2
emissions to increase will therefore the considerable, though

the objective should be to stabilize the concentration of
CO 2 in the atmosphere to an acceptable level. For example:
550 ppm in 2100. This objective cannot be achieved by
simply stabilizing the quantities of CO 2 discharged into the
atmosphere, but by reducing them by at least a factor of
2 or 3 as a world average.
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle IGCC is a
combination of two leading technologies. The first
technology is called coal gasification, which uses coal to
create a clean-burning gas (syngas). The second technology
is called combined-cycle, which is the most efficient method
of producing electricity commercially available today.
Coal Gasification: The gasification portion of the
IGCC plant produces a clean coal gas (syngas) which fuels
the combustion turbine. Coal is combined with oxygen in
the gasifier to produce the gaseous fuel, mainly hydrogen
and carbon monoxide. The gas is then cleaned by a gas
cleanup process. After cleaning, the coal gas is used in the
combustion turbine to produce electricity.
Combined-cycle: This design consists of a
combustion turbine/generator, a heat recovery steam
generator and a steam turbine/generator. The exhaust heat
from the combustion turbine is recovered in the heat
recovery steam generator to produce steam. This steam
then passes through a steam turbine to power another
generator, which produces more electricity. Combined cycle
is more efficient than conventional power generating
systems because it re-uses waste heat to produce more
electricity. The integration of these technologies provides
Pa rticulate Ste am
Re moval Tu rbine
G as
O xidant D e su lfu rization Tu rb ine
Slurry Pro duct G as
Ba nker
C o al
G e ne rator Transformer
W et C o o ling
Filter W a ter
M ill D e sulfuriz er C on den ser
S lu rry Bo iler W ater

Tank
H ig h P re ss ure S te am
Air
Slag
H .R .S.G Sta ck
N itrogen
G asificatio n C o m bin e C ycle P ow e r
Air G ene ration
R e ctificato r
Integrated H igh P ressure
Air Separation
Fig:2.29 Integ rated Gasification Com bined Cycle (IGCC ) System
the high efficiency of the combined-cycle design with the

low cost of coal for fuel.
Advantages of IGCC
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle IGCC is an
advanced technology that represents the cleanest of
currently available coal technologies. Advantages of IGCC
over current conventional coal-based power generation
systems include: Higher efficiencies and lower emissions:
Improvements in efficiency dramatically reduce
emissions from coal combustion. Increasing efficiency from
35 to 40%, for example, reduces carbon dioxide emissions
by over 10%.
With efficiencies currently approaching 50%, IGCC
power plants use less coal and produce much lower
emissions of carbon dioxide than conventional power plants.
With development of new gas turbine concepts and

increased process temperatures, efficiencies of more than
60% are being targeted.
Higher output: Using syngas in a gas turbine
increases its output, especially when nitrogen from an
oxygen blow unit is fed to the turbine. Thus a turbine rated
at 170 MW when fired on natural gas can yield 190 MW
or more on syngas. Furthermore, output is less dependent
on ambient temperature than is the case with natural gas.
Product flexibility including carbon capture and
hydrogen production. The gasification process in IGCC
enables the production of not only electricity, but a range
of chemicals, by-products for industrial use, and transport
fuels.
Carbon dioxide can be captured from the coal syngas
(carbon monoxide and hydrogen) through a water/gas shift
process. The CO 2 can be captured in a concentrated stream,
making it easier to convert into other products, or to
sequester (for example, store underground)
An added advantage in this process is that there are
low additional costs for carbon capture, particularly if the
plant is oxygen driven.
In addition to electricity generation, hydrogen
produced from the process can potentially be used as a
transport fuel, in fuel cells.
Chapter 3
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
Basics of Nuclear Engineering, Layout and subsystems of Nuclear

Power Plants, Working of Nuclear Reactors : Boiling Water Reactor
(BWR), Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), CANada Deuterium-
Uranium reactor (CANDU), Breeder, Gas Cooled and Liquid Metal
Cooled Reactors. Safety measures for Nuclear Power plants.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The fast depletion of coal and petroleum leads to seek
alternative sources of energy. Abundant power can be
generated with cheap cost by breaking the atoms. The atom
is considered as limitless source of power and hence the
nuclear power is the large amount of energy which can be
released from a small mass of active material.
3.2 BASICS OF NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

A matter is composed of atoms. An atom consists of
a positive charged nucleus surrounded by a number of
negatively charged electrons. The atomic structures of
hydrogen, Helium and oxygen are shown in Fig. 3.1.
e
e e e e
P N
e
P N P N P N
P N P N P
P N P N P N
H ydro g en P N
Z= 1,A =1 e
e e e
H e liu m
Z= 2,A =4 N u cleu s e
O xyg en
Z= 8,A =1 6
Fig:3.1 A tom ic Stru ctu re of S om e E lem e nts
The nucleus contains protons and neutrons. The

number of protons in a given atom is an atomic number
Z. So the atomic number for h is 1 and He is 2.
Some elements have the same number of protons in

the nucleus but different number of neutrons. As a result,
these elements have the same atomic number but
different mass number. Such type of elements which have
the same atomic number - the same number of protons -
the same chemical properties but different mass numbers
due to different number of neutrons, are known as the
isotopes of an element.
The Uranium element has the same atomic number

(92) but it has different isotopes with different mass
number i.e. U 233 , U 234 ,U 235 , U 236 and U 238 .
The isotopes having more than 80 are unstable. The

nuclei of these isotopes are unstable and radio active and
they decay by emitting electromagnetic radiations in the
form of particles, particles and particles.
3.3 RADIOACTIVITY
The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of powerful
radiation exhibited by heavy elements is called
radioactivity. It is an irreversible self-disintegrating activity
as the elements breaks itself up (fission reaction). The
elements that exhibit this activity are called radioactive
elements. Example of radioactive elements are uranium,
radium, thorium, pulutonium, radon, ionium, actinium and
mesothorium.
The radioactivity may be natural or artificial. Natural

radioactivity is exhibited by elements as found in nature
Nuclear Power Plants 3.3
and occurs generally in heavier elements of the periodic

table, whereas artificial radioactivity is a modern technique
of transmutation of elements that are lighter than those
elements that exhibits radioactivity naturally.
The radioactive radiation emitted by the radioactive
elements consists of
1. (Alpha) particle
2. (Beta) particle
3. (Gamma) rays (or) photons
particles
These are helium nuclei consisting of two protons and
two neutrons emitted from both natural and artificial
radioactivity. They are highly ionised but cannot penetrate
the skin, so are dangerous only if emitted inside the body.
- particles
These are fast moving electron emitted by radioactive
elements. They are more penetrating than - particles, but
can be easily shielded by a few millimeter of wood or
aluminium. They can penetrate a little way into human
flesh but are generally less dangerous to people than -
rays. Its exposure results in effects like sunburn, but it is
slower to heal.
ray
These are high-energy beam much the same as
X-rays. They are excited in many radioactive decay and
may be very penetrating, therefore requires much
substantial shielding. - rays are the main hazard to people
dealing with sealed radioactive materials used.
3.3.1 Effects of nuclear radiation on matter

When nuclear radiation interacts with any materials,
deposits energy in the materials and have various effects.
The chemical properties get altered, the crystalline
structure may be altered.
3.3.2 Radioactive decay

The emission of the particles in the form of alpha,
beta and gamma radiation is not an instantaneous process.
For different element the decay time is different, which
follows a certain law. The process is independent of the
physical and chemical properties of the given isotope at a
particular temperature and pressure.
The law states that small amount of disintegration

of the isotope in a small period is directly proportional to
the total number or radioactive nuclei and proportionality
constant.
The above law can be stated in form of equation as
dN
N
dt
dN
N
dt ...(1)
where
N Total number of nuclei present
dN Number of nuclei present at time dt
dt Small time interval
Proportionality constant
Note: ve sign indicates that N decreases as time increases

Integrating equation (1) with limits, we get

N t
dN
N
dt
N0 0
log e N log e N 0 t
N
e t
N0
N N0 e t ...(2)
dN
N
dt ...(3)
dN
N 0 e t
dt ...(4)
3.3.3 Activity
The intensity of emitted radiation is termed activity.
This is directly proportional to the rate of disintegration of
the element.
Let A activity of time t
dN
A
dt
dN
AK
dt
From equation (3) and (4)
AKN
A K N 0 e t
A A1 e t ...(5)
A1 K N 0
when
A 1 initial activity
K detection coefficient
3.3.4 Half life

Half-life is the time required for half of the parent
nuclei to decay.
N0
Putting N and t t1/2 in equation (2), we get
2
N0
N 0 e t1/2
2
e t1/2 1/2
t1/2 log e 2 0.693
0.693
t1/2
...(6)
3.3.5 Average life

Average life denotes the average of total time for
which the radioactive nuclei has disintegrated for several
half life. It is greater then the half life.
Let T Average life, then

t dN N0 t e t dt
0 0
T
N0 N0
...(7)
3.4 NUCLEAR REACTIONS

The equations of nuclear reaction are connected with
the resettlement of protons and neutrons within the atom.
The equations are similar to chemical reactions. The change
in the mass of the particle represents the release of
energy, that is if the total mass of the particle after the
reaction is reduced, it has liberated energy, consequently,
the increase in the mass of the particle will cause
absorption of energy. In simple word, the equation shows
the balance of neutron and proton. The variation of energy
is in the order of MeV.
3.4.1 Steps to write a nuclear reaction

Step 1 - The bombardment nuclei is written first on the
left hand side
Step 2 - In the middle within a bracket, first the incident

particle and second the ejected particle
Step 3 - The resultant nucleus is written on the Right

hand side
For example
(i) Na 23 p, n Mg 23
23
It is a nuclear reaction in which a 11 Na is
bombarded with protons possessing high energy, it is
23
converted to 12 Mg
23
11 Na 1H 1 12 Mg 23 0n1 q
where 0n1 is neutron and q is heat released

27
(ii) 13 Al p, n si 27
27
It is a nuclear reaction in which 13 Al is bombarded
with proton possessing high energy it is converted to
27
14 Si
27
13 Al 1H 1 14 Si 27 0n1 q
3.5 NUCLEAR FISSION AND CHAIN REACTION

Uranium exists in different isotopes of
238 234 235 235
U ,U , and U
. Out o f these, U is the most
unstable. When unstable heavy nucleus is bombarded with
high energy neutrons, it splits up roughly into two equal
fragments and about 2.5 neutrons are released and a large
amount of energy is produced (nearly 200 million electron
volts).
This process is called Nuclear fission.
A tom o f S tron tium

Fission
P ro du cts
A tom o f X e n on
A tom o f
235
U
N e utron s
N e utron s
(o n the A ve ra ge o f
2 .5 P er F iss io n)
Fig:3.2 N uc lear F issio n H e at
Also, the nuclear fission is followed by the emission

of several high energy neutrons per neutron bombarded.
This is the essential condition for self-sustaining the chain
reaction. Thus the neutrons produced by nuclear fission are
very fast moving neutrons and can be made to bombard
other nuclei of U 235 to enable a chain reaction. When a

large number of fission occurs, enormous amount of heat is
produced. The chain reaction is shown in Fig. 3.3.
Fission
Fra g m e nt
E scap e
235 Fa st S low 235

U U Fa st
N eutron s N eutron s N eutron
238
U 235
PU
M od erator
Fig:3.3 Chain Reaction
Out of 2.5 neutrons released is fission of each nuclei

235
of U , one neutron is used to sustain the chain reaction,
about 0.9 neutron is captured by U 238 which gets converted
into fissionable material, Pu 239 . And about 0.6 neutron is
partly absorbed by control rod material, coolant moderator,
and partly escape from the reactor.
If U 235 (or) U 238 is used in the reactor core, it

produces fissionable material Pu 239
i.e. U 235 U 238 neutron Pu 239 .

Similarly, if thorium is used in the reactor core, it
produces fissionable material U 233 .
i.e. Th 232 neutron U 233
Thus, Pu 239 and U 233 are fissionable materials and

they can be used as nuclear fuel and are known as
secondary fuel, and U 235 and Th 232 are known as primary

fuels.
The chain reaction produces constant rate of heat
energy and it may continue only if the neutron liberated
by fission, balance the disposal of neutron by different ways
as given below.
1. Escape of neutrons from the fissionable material.

2. Fission captured by U 235 , U 238 and Pu 239 and U 233 .
3. Non-fission captured by moderator, control rods
fission fragments and by impurities.
When the neutrons produced in the chain reaction are
less than the neutron disposed off in different ways, then
the chain reaction will stop.
3.6 LAYOUT OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT.

The layout of nuclear power plant is shown in Fig.3.4.
The main components of nuclear power plant are

1. Nuclear reactor, 2. Steam generator, 3. Turbine,
4. Coolant pump & feed pump, and 5. Generator.
1. Nuclear reactor:
It consists of the following components.
(a) Core: This contains the nuclear fuel and space for
coolant. The fuels used are U 233 , U 235, Pu 239
To have uniform release of heat, the fuel is shaped

and located in the core.
(b) Moderator: The moderator is used to reduce the

speed of the fast moving neutrons. For natural uranium,
the following are used as moderators-graphite, heavy water
C o ncre te S hie l d
.. . .. . .. . .. ... . .. . .. . .. .
.. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .
. Tu rbine
.... . .. . .. . .. .
S tea m
... ..
H o t W ater
.. . .. . ... . .. .
.. .
S te am
...
.. . .. . .. . .. . Fu el &
. .
.. . . .. .
. .... . .. . M od erato r G en e rator
.. . .. .
.
.. . . . .. . . ..
.. . .. . H e at
.. . .. . .. . .. . Th erm a l E xc ha ng er
. .
.... . .. . .... . .. . S h ie ld o r B o iler
.. . .. .
.. . .. . .. . .. .
.. . . . . R e acto r
.. . .. . .. . .. . C o re C o ld W a te r
. ..
.... . .. . .. .. .. .
W a ter
.. . . . . . . . .. . .
.. . . .. .. . . . .. . . ... . . ... . .. C o nd en s er
.. . .. . .. . .. .
P re ssu re
Ve s se l C ircu la tin g P u m p Fe ed P um p
Fig:3.4 Layo ut o f N u clear Pow er Plan t
or beryllium. For enriched uranium, the ordinary water is

used as moderator.
(c) Control rods: The control rods are used to start the
chain reaction, maintain the chain reaction at required level
and to shut down during emergency. The control rods are
made of cadmium, boron and hafnium.
(d) Coolant: Coolant is used to transfer the heat which

is produced in the reactor to steam generator for rising the
steam. The generally used coolants are ordinary & heavy
water, air, carbon dioxide, helium and hydrogen and liquid
metals like sodium and potassium.
(e) Reflector: Reflector is used to reflect the escaping

neutrons back into the core. This improves the neutron
economy of the reactor. The generally used reflectors are
heavy water, graphite and beryllium.
(f) Radiation shield: Radiation shield is a concrete

shield to absorb dangerous radiations like alpha, beta,
gamma rays tend to escape to the atmosphere.
(g) Reactor vessel: This is a housing for all the
equipments and it is designed in such a way that it can
withstand high pressures safely. The reactor is positioned
at the bottom of the vessel.
2. Steam generator: In this, the steam is generated from

the feed water by absorbing heat from the hot coolant from
the reactor.
3. Turbine:
The generated steam is made to expand in the turbine
to produce work. This work is converted into electricity by
generator which is coupled with turbines.
4. Coolant pump & Feed pump:

The coolant pump is used to maintain the flow of
coolant and the feed pump is to pump the feed water to
the steam generator.
5. Generator:
The generator is used to convert the mechanical
energy into electrical energy. The generator is directly
coupled to the turbine.
3.7 SITE SELECTION FOR A NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

Assessment of public safety results in greater concern
for site selection for a Nuclear power plant. All the natural
factors are taken into account like transport of radioactive
material to the public during normal operating condition as
well as highly unlikely event of an accident that would
result in release of radioactive material to the environment.
The various factors that are taken into account while

selecting the site for a nuclear power plant are:
1. Water availability
The site must be equiped with ample quantity of
water as the plants require substantially greater quantity
of cooling water, because of its higher turbine heat rate
and feed water required for steam generation. Therefore,
the site must be nearer to a river, reservoir, sea or ocean.
2. Distance from load centre

The power plant should be located near the load
centre as this will reduce the cost of transmission line and
also reduces transmission loss.
Note: The power plant is located near the load centre

while meeting other requirements like reasonable land cost,
adequate cooling water, away from population distribution,
local zone restriction, accessibility for fuel shipment, etc.
3. Distance from populated area

The plant should be away from the population in
order to avoid the radioactive hazard.
4. Transportation facilities
The site should be accessible by rail and road as
heavy machinery are to be brought to the site during the
installation and fuel during its operation.
5. Waste disposal
The waste of a nuclear power plant are very
radioactive therefore sufficient space must be there to
dispose the radioactive waste.
6. Cost of the land

Large area is required to built a nuclear power plant,
therefore the land price should be reasonable.
7. Nature of land
The land should have good bearing capacity of about
1 MN/m 2 and must not come under earthquake prone zone.
The land is studied for its past history of tremors and
earthquake in order to design the plant that can withstand
the severest earthquake.
8. Future extension
A choice for future extension of the plant should be
made in order to meet the energy demand in future.
9. Availability of workforce
During construction of the plant enough labour is
required. The labour should be available at the proposed
site at cheap rate.
10. Size of the plant

The capacity of the plant decides the size of the plant,
large plants require large area. Therefore the capacity of
the plant also plays a vital role in the selection of site.
3.8 NUCLEAR REACTOR

Nuclear reactor is an apparatus which is used to
extract the heat produced by the nuclear fission chain
reaction. In other words, a nuclear reactor is a controlled
chain-reacting system supplying nuclear energy.
Mechanism of heat production

The fission fragment after bombardment with the
nucleus move at high speed. However, they slow down
because of dense mass of metal, they are rapidly slowed

down and brought to rest by colliding with another atom,
thus the energy is converted into heat.
The components of nuclear reactor are shown in Fig. 3.5.
1. Nuclear fuel 2. Moderator
3. Control rods 4. Reflectors
5. Reactor vessel 6. Biological shielding
7. Coolant.
C o ntrol R od
. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . ... . .
.. . .. . .. . ................ . .... .. ..... .. ... ...... ........ ... ... ... . ....... . ... . .. .. . . . . . . .. .
. . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . . . .. .....
.. . . .
. . . .. .. . . . .. . .
. .. . .
.. . .. .
.. . .. . .. . .. .
. ... ... .. ... .
Fu el R o ds .. . . . .. . C o olan t o ut
.... . .. .. .. . .. .
.... . .. .. .. .
.. . .. .
. . . .
.. . . . .... . .. ..
R e fle c tor .... . .. .. .... . ....
.... . .. .. . .
.. .. .. .
M od erato r .. . . . ..
.
.. . . . ..
. . ..... . ... ...
.... .. . .... . ....
.. .
P re s su re .. . .. . .... . .. ..
. . . .
Ve sse l .... .. . .... .. .
. . . . . . . . ...
C o ncre te .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .
. . ... . . . .. . .. ... . .. . .. . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. . . .
S h ie ld in g .. . .. . . ... .. .. ... .. .. .. . .. . ... .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . . . .. . C o olan t in
. . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .
F ig:3 .5 N uclear R ea cto r
Nuclear fuel: Nuclear fuel should be fissionable material.

While the nuclei of the fuel is caused to undergo nuclear
fission by nuclear bombardment, it should produce fission
chain reaction. The nuclear fuels generally used in reactors
are U 235 , Pu239 and U 233 .
Moderator: Moderator is used to slow down the velocity
of neutron. It reduces the kinetic energy of fast neutron to
slow neutron. The chain reaction can be maintained by the

slow neutrons when the ordinary uranium is used as fuel.
The graphite, heavy water (or) beryllium are used as
moderator with natural uranium. The ordinary water is
used as moderator only when the enriched uranium is used.
But enriched uranium is costly due to various processing
needs.
Control rods
Since the amount of energy (heat) released is
enormous, a high control is necessary to prevent the
melting of fuel rods, disintegration of coolant and
destruction of reactor. The controller rods are in the
cylindrical (or) sheet form and is made up of cadmium,
boron (or) hafnium. These control rods are moved in and
out of the holds in the reactor core assembly. If the controls
rods are moved in, then they absorb more neutrons and
damp down the reaction and their with drawal absorb less
neutrons. Thus power of reaction is controlled by moving
the control rods in and out.
Reflectors
The reflector is made up of graphite and beryllium.
The reflector is used to send back the neutrons into the
core resulting in minimization of neutron losses. The
neutrons released during the fission process will be partly
absorbed by the fuel rods, moderator, coolant (or) structural
material. Some neutrons which are unabsorbed will try to
escape from the reactor core and they will be lost for ever.
In order to reduce these losses, the reactor inner surface
is coated with reflector which reflects the escaping neutrons
backs to the core. Thus the reflector is used to conserve
the neutrons as much as possible in order to reduce the
consumption of fissionable material and to keep the size of

the reactor small.
Reactor vessel
The reactor vessel is used to enclose the reactor core,
reflector and shield. The coolant is passed through the
passages provided in the reactor vessel. The maximum
pressure in the reactor vessel can go upto 200 bar. The
control rods are inserted in the holes provided in the
reactor vessel. The fuel and moderator assembly i.e. the
reactor core is normally located at the bottom of the reactor
vessel.
Biological shielding
The radiations like rays, rays and rays from
the reactor are very harmful to human life. It is very much
important to absorb these radiations to prevent the danger
resulting from these. The radiations are absorbed by the
lining of steel plate and gets heated. Thick layers of lead
(or) concrete are provided all round the reactor for stopping
the gamma rays. Thick layers of metals (or) plastics are
sufficient to stop the alpha and beta particles.
Coolant:
Coolant flows through the reactor core. The large
amount of heat produced in the reactor due to fission of
the nuclear fuel are transferred by the coolant.
The coolant transfers heat taken from the reactor to

another medium (or) some time water will be acting as
coolant. In this case, water gets heated up and converted
into steam and the steam is sent to the turbine to produce
power.
3.9 BOILING WATER REACTOR (BWR)

In this Boiling Water reactor, enriched Uranium is
used as fuel. Enriched uranium contains more fissionable
isotope U 235 . Water is used as coolant, moderator and
reflector like in PWR except the steam is generated in the
reactor itself instead of separate steam boiler.
Water enters the reactor at the bottom. It takes up

the heat generated due to fission of fuel and gets converted
into steam. Steam leaves the reactor at the top and flows
into the turbine.
3.9.1 Advantages
1. The pressure inside the reactor vessel is much lower
than PWR as water is allowed to boil inside the
reactor. Hence, the reactor vessel is much lighter
Tu rbine
C o ntrol R od s
G en e rator
Fu el & M o d era to r
C o nd en s er
R e acto r C o re
S h ie ld
Fe ed P um p
Fig:3.6 B oiling Water R ea ctor
than PWR and reduces the cost of pressure vessel

considerably.
2. Since the reactor does not require steam generator,
pressurizer, circulating pump and pipings, the cost
is further reduced.
3. Boiling water reactor is more stable than PWR.
4. Thermal efficiency of BWR plant is more than PWR
plant.
3.9.2 Disadvantages
1. The BWR has negative power demand coefficient.
i.e., when more power is demanded from the reactor,
it may produce less.
2. The steam leaving the reactor is slightly radioactive
and hence the turbine and the pipings should be
properly shielded.
3. Since the boiling of water on the surface of the fuel
is allowed, the burn out of fuel is more.
3.10 PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR (PWR)

Pressurized Water Reactor uses enriched U as fuel.
In this reactor, water is used as coolant and moderator.
The water passes through the reactor core and becomes hot
water. The hot water flows to a heat exchanger (steam
generator) where its heat is transferred to the feed water
to generate steam.
In order that water may not boil and remain in liquid

state, it is kept under a light pressure of about 150 atm.
The primary circuit contains pressurizer. Pressurizer is
a simple pressure vessel with a heater at the bottom and
a water spray at the top. The top of the pressurizer is filled
C o ld Water Sp ray
Pre ssurizer
C o ncre te Shie l d H e ater

.. . .. . .. . .. ... . .. . .. . .. .
.. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . Tu rbine
. Steam
.... . .. . .. . .. .
.. . ..
.. . .. . ... . .. .
W ater
.. . .. .
.. . .. . .. . .. . Fu el &
. . G ene rator
.. . . .. .
. .... . .. . M oderato r H e at
.. . .. .
.. . .. . .. . .. . Exchanger
.. . .. . O r B oiler
.. . .. . .. . .. . Th erma l
. .
.... . .. . .... . .. . Sh ield
.. . .. .
.. . .. . .. . .. .
.. . . . . R e actor
.. . .. . .. . .. . C o re C o nd en ser
. .
.... . .. . .. . . ... .
Wa te r
Wa te r
.. . . . . . . ... . .
.. . . .. .. . . . .. . . ... . . ... . . .
.. . .. . .. . .. .
Fe ed P um p
C ircu lating Pu m p
Prim ary C ircuit Se co ndary C ircu it
Fig:3.7 Pressurized Water Reactor Nuclear Power Plant
with steam at primary circuit pressure. If the primary

circuit pressure drops, the heater is operated which
generates steam and increases the steam content in the
vessel. This results in the increase of pressure in the
primary circuit.
And if the primary circuit pressure becomes too high,
the cold water is sprayed in the pressurizer. This condenses
the steam and reduces the primary circuit pressure.
3.10.1 Advantages of Pressurised Water Reactor
1. In this type, water is used as coolant, moderator
and reflector [Water is cheap and available in
plenty].
2. The Pressurised water reactor is compact.
3. It requires less number of control rods.

4. The separation of secondary circuit from primary
provides the safety and prevents the radiation.
5. In this type, the turbine, feed heaters and condenser
can be inspected freely.
6. It reduces the fuel cost.
3.10.2 Disadvantage
1. The cost of pressuriser is more
2. Thermodynamic efficiency of this reactor is low.
3. The corrosion is accelerated in the presence of high
pressure, high temperature water.
4. For fuel changing, it requires a lot of time.
5. Due to the reactions, uneven heating is caused
and this results in thermal stresses and pressure
stresses and makes design difficult.
3.11 CANada Deuterium Uranium (CANDU) reactor

It is a Canadian invented pressurised heavy water
reactor which uses 99.8 percent of Deuterium oxide D 2O
(Heavy water) as moderator and coolant. The reactor uses
0.7% U 235 (natural uranium) as its fuel. The reactor
consists of a steel cylinder with a horizontal axis containing
number of pressure tube (channel) which are subjected to
high internal pressure. The channels contains fuel elements
and the pressurised coolant flows along the channels and
fuel elements to remove the heat generated during the
fission. The coolant flows in the opposite direction of its
adjacent channel.
The fuel used in a CANDU reactor is normal uranium

oxide pellet (the uranium is unenriched or unbreeded). The
S tea m G en era to r
H eavy Wa ter P re ssu re S tea m G oing to
R e servoir S tea m Turb in e
A dju ster R ods C old W ater

R eturning
R eacto r
Form Tu rbine
C ore
Fuel Bu nd le L ig ht W ater P um p
C ontain m ent
P re ssu re B uilding M ade
Tube o f R ein forced
C oncre te
H eavy Wa ter
M od erator
Fueling
M achin es H eavy Wa ter
P um p
Fig:3.8 Candu Reactor
pellets are packed in a corrosion resistance zirconium alloy

tube, which is 0.5 cm long and its diameter is 1.3 cm called
fuel rod. The short fuel rods are combined in bundles of 37
rods, there are 12 bundles placed end to end in each
pressure tube. The reactor refuelling i.e. removal of spent
fuel and replacement by fresh fuel is carried out while the
reactor is operating.
A number of strong neutron absorber rods of cadmium
are provided for control and protection of reactor, rods of
cadmium are mainly used for reactor shut down and start
up. In addition to this, there are other less strongly,
absorber rod to control power variation during the operation
and to produce uniform heat distribution though out the
core. The high temperature coolant leaving the reactor
passes out through the outlet header to a steam generator
where steam is generated at a temperature of about
Fuel
C h an nel
Fuel B undle
Pre ssure
Tube R e actor Ve sse l
Fuel P ellet Fig:3.9 Fu el Bundle An d F uel Chann el
265C, the heated steam run the steam turbine, after work
is done, the cold water from the turbine is pumped back
into the reactor by the way of inlet header. There are two
coolant outlets and two inlet headers - one at each end of
the reactor vessel corresponding to the opposite direction of
coolant flow through the core. Each inlet and outlet header
is connected to a separate steam generator and pump loop.
The reactor vessel and steam generator system are enclosed
by containment building made up of reinforced concrete.
3.11.1 Advantages of CANDU reactor
1. Heavy water is used as moderator, which results in
low fuel consumption.
2. Enriched fuel is not required.
3. The cost of vessel is less as it need not withstand
a high pressure.
4. Time needed to construct the reactor is less.
5. Slowing the neutrons is easy as the moderator can
be kept at low temperature.
3.11.2 Disadvantages
1. High standard of design, manufacture and
maintenance is required.
2. The cost of heavy water is high.
3. Frequent leakage problems.
4. Size of the reactor is extremely large.
3.12 GAS COOLED REACTOR

This type of reactor is cooled by the gas. The heat
carried by the gas from the reactor is either used for
generating steam in the secondary circuit like PWR (or) it
can be directly used as the working fluid in the gas power
plant. The indirect circuit type gas cooled reactor is shown
in Fig. 3.10.
In this type, the carbon dioxide gas is used as primary
coolant which in turn generates steam in the secondary
circuit. Carbon dioxide gas is used to carry away the heat
produced in the reactor. The gas is circulated at a pressure
of about 7 bar. The gas flowing up through each of the
channels round the elements leaves the reactor at the top.
This gas flows to heat exchanger and transfers its heat to
water so that it gets converted into steam. The gas is
recirculated with the help of gas blowers. The steam drives
the turbines which in turn drives alternator to generate
electricity.
CO2 Gas
R e acto r S uper H e ater B oiler Turbine

D ru m
G en eration
E vapo rato r P um p
E cono mizer
C o ndenser
Feed P um p Feed P um p
B low e r or G a s C ircular Feed H eater

Single Pressure S team Cycle.
Fig:3.10 G as Cooled Reactor
3.12.1 Advantages
1. Fuel processing is simple.
2. The use of CO 2 as coolant completely eliminates the
possibility of explosion in reactor.
3. No corrosion problem.
1. The loading of fuel is costly.
2. Large vessel is required since power density is very
low.
3. The leakage of gas is a serious problem, in case
helium is used instead of CO 2.
3.13 FAST BREEDER REACTOR:

Breeding
The process of producing fissionable material from a
fertile material such as Uranium 238 U 238 and thorium
232 Th 232 by neutron absorption is known as breeding.
U 238 neutron Pu 239
Th 232 neutron U 233
Pu 239 and U 233 are fissionable materials and can be

used in chain reaction.
The fast breeder reactor system is shown in Fig. 3.11.
C o ntrol
R o ds
Na NaK Tu rbine
S tea m
G en e rator
R e acto r I.H .X S tea m
C o re G en e rator
C o nd en ser
C o olan t C o olan t Fe ed
Pum p Pum p Pum p
Fig:3.11 F ast B reed er R eacto r
In this reactor system, the core containing U 235 is

surrounded by a blanket of ferrite material U 238 . In this
reactor, no moderator is used. The fast moving neutrons
liberated due to fission of U 235 are absorbed by U 238 which
gets converted fissionable material Pu 239 which is capable
of sustaining chain reaction. Thus, the reactor is very
important because it breeds fissionable materials from

fertile material U 238 available in large quantities.
This reactor system uses two liquid metal coolant
circuits. Liquid sodium is used as primary coolant when
circulated through the tubes of Intermediate Heat
Exchanger (IHX) and transfers its heat to secondary coolant
sodium potassium alloy. The secondary coolant transfers its
heat to feed water while flowing through the tubes of steam
generator.
Considering safety and thermal efficiency, fast breeder

reactors are better than conventional reactors.
The following coolants are commonly used for fast

breeder reactors.
(i) Liquid metal (Na (or) NaK)

(ii) Helium (He)
(iii) Carbon dioxide.
Sodium has the following advantages.
1. Sodium has very low absorption cross-sectional area.

2. Sodium possesses good heat transfer properties at
high temperature and low pressure.
3. Sodium does not react any of the structural
materials used in primary circuits.
3.14 LIQUID METAL COOLED REACTOR

A liquid metal cooled reactor (LMCR) is an advanced
type of nuclear reactor that uses a liquid metal as the
primary coolant. The use of liquid metal has many
advantages because the reactor need not to be kept under
pressure and they allow high power density than the
conventional coolant. The high temperature of the liquid

metal is used to produce vapour at higher temperature
leading to higher plant efficiency.
Sodium-Graphite Reactor (SGR) is a typical liquid
metal cooled reactor that uses sodium as coolant and
graphite as moderator.
Under atmospheric condition, sodium boils at 880C
and freezes at 95C, therefore sodium is first melted by
electric heating system and then pressurised to about 7 bar,
thus the sodium turns into liquid phase. The liquid sodium
is then circulated by the circulation pump.
The arrangement of a sodium graphite reactor (SGR)
is shown in Fig. 3.12.
The reactor has two coolant loop. The primary loop
contains liquid sodium which is circulated through the fuel
core and it absorbs the heat liberated by the fission of fuel.
The liquid sodium gets cooled in the heat exchanger and
goes back to the reactor vessel. The secondary loop contains
an alloy of sodium and potassium in liquid form. This liquid
C o ntrol H e at
R o ds Exchanger
Na Nak Steam
Tu rbine G ene rator
Steam
G ene rator C o nd en ser
R e actor
C o re C o olant C o olant Fe ed
Pu m p Pu m p Pu m p
Fig:3.12 L iquid Metal Cooled Reactor
takes heat from the heat exchanger and then passes

through a boiler.
Feed water from the condenser enters the boiler, the
heated sodium potassium liquid passing through the tube
gives heat to the water thus converting it into steam
(superheated). Graphite is used as the moderator in
this reactor.
3.14.1 Advantages of sodium graphite reactor:

1. Thermal efficiency is high.
2. Coolant need not be pressurised.
3. Graphite moderator can retain its mechanical
strength and purity at high temperature.
4. Production of superheated steam and excellent heat
removal.
3.14.2 Disadvantage of sodium graphite reactor:
1. Sodium reacts violently with water and air.
2. Leakage of sodium is dangerous.
3. Leak proof heat exchanger must be used, which
increases extra cost.
4. Difficulties in inspection and repair.
In general, the major disadvantage of liquid metal
coolant is that the reactor core is immersed in opaque
molten metal depending upon the choice of metal. And fire
hazard risk, corrosion and production of radioactive
products are other threats.
3.15 SAFETY MEASURES FOR NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

Safety is taken very seriously by those working in
nuclear power plants. The main safety concern is the
emission of uncontrolled radiation into the environment
which could cause harm to humans both at the reactor site

and off-site. For this, the nuclear power plant should be
located far away from the human populated area. The
reactor produces radiation which are radioactive. These
radiation contaminates the ambient air and cause sever
health hazards. The three main sources of radioactive
contamination of the air are:
(i) Fission of nuclei of nuclear fuels.
(ii) Neutron fluxes carried by heat to the primary
cooling system and on the ambient air.
(iii) Damage of shells of fuel elements.
To prevent this radioactive contamination of the air,
various safety measures are practiced, some of the
measures are listed below:
1. Nuclear power plant should be constructed far away

from the human populated areas.
2. Quality materials should be used for construction in
order to meet the required standards.
3. Waste water from the nuclear power plant should
be treated.
4. Periodic checks to ensure that radioactivity in the
environment does not exceed the permissible value.
5. The nuclear power plant must be provided with such
a safety which could safely shut down the plant
during emergency.
6. It should be ensured that the water bodies are not
been polluted while disposing off the wastes from
the nuclear power plant.
7. Maintenance of barrier that prevents the release of
radiation.
8. Maintenance of reactor core cooling.

In any reactor, some sort of cooling is necessary.
Generally nuclear reactors use water as coolant, however
some reactors which cannot use water, use sodium or
sodium salts.
9. Safety for the workers of nuclear power plants.

The workers practice the following methods to
prevent/control the effects of radiation.
(i) Handling of equipment via remote control in

the reactor core.
(ii) Physical shielding.
(iii) Limit on the time a worker spends in areas
with significant radiation levels.
(iv) Monitoring of individual doses and of the
work environment.
10. Proper disaster management plan.
3.15.1 Safety in Nuclear power plant in India

Safety in Nuclear power plant in India is a very
important topic. Safety is paramount priority in all the
activities. Nuclear power plants in India are not only safe
but are also well regulated, have proper radiological
protection of workers and the public, surveillance,
dosimetry, approved standard operating and maintenance
procedure, well defined waste management technology,
proper documented and periodically rehearsed emergency
preparedness and disaster management plan.
Problem 3.1 A city requires 2000 MWh of electric energy per

day. It is to be supplied by a reactor which converts nuclear
energy into electric energy with an efficiency of 25 percent. If
the reactor used U235 as nuclear fuel, calculate the mass of
U235 required for one days operation.
Solution
Given Data
Electric energy required per day = 2000 MWh
Efficiency of nuclear plant 25%
Nuclear fuel used U 235
To find
Mass of U 235 needed for one days operation
Electric output
Nuclear energy input
Efficiency
2000

0.25
8000 MWh
w.k.t
1 kWh 1 1000 3600 J 36 10 5 J Joules
and 1 MWh 36 10 8 J Joules
Nuclear energy input per day
8000 36 10 8 J
2.88 10 13 J
We also know that energy released per fission of

235
U nuclide
202 MeV
202 1.6 10 13 J 3.23 10 11 J
Number of U 235 nuclides required per day
2.88 10 13 J

3.23 10 11 J
0.891 10 24
Since 235 kg of U 235 contains 6.02 10 26 atoms, the

mass of U 235 required for 0.891 10 24 atom is
235 0.891 10 24

6.02 10 26
0.347 kg
347 grams
Hence mass of U 235 required for one days operation

is 347 grams.
Problem 3.2: A U235 nucleus is bombarded by a neutron,

resulting in its fission into Barium 137 and Krypton 97 nuclei.
Write the nuclear reaction and find the amount of energy
liberated in the reaction.
Solution
Then equation for the given reaction is
92U
235
0n1 56 Ba 137 36Kr97 x
The atomic number and mass number in a nuclear

reaction must be equal on both sides. Atomic number Z
is equal in both sides, but the mass number A is not
equal. So addition of particle having Z 0 and A Z to the
products
x 20n 1
The complete nuclear reaction become
92 U
235
10 56 Ba 137 36Kr 97 2 10
Energy liberated in the reaction
E mass defect = mass before reaction mass after

reaction
Mass before reaction (m) mass of 92 U 235 mass of 0n1
235.116 1.00898 a.m.u
236.125 a.m.u
Mass after reaction
mass of Ba 137 mass of Kr 97 mass of 20n1
136.9514 96.9520 2 1.00898
235.9214 a.m.u
m 236.125 235.9214
m 0.2036 a.m.u 1 a.m.u 931 Mev
E 0.2036 931 MeV
E 189.5 MeV
Problem 3.3: Calculate the fission rate of U235 for producing

power 100 watts if 200 MeV of energy is released for fission
of U235.
Solution
P - Power = 100 watts
E Energy released per fission of U 235 nuclei
200 MeV
200 1.6 10 13 J
3.2 10 11 J
Fission rate for producing 100 watts of power
Power

Energy released
100

3.2 10 11
3.12 10 12 fission/sec
Chapter 4
POWER FROM RENEWABLE ENERGY
Hydro Electric Power Plants - Classification, Typical Layout

and associated component including Turbines. Principle,
Construction and working of Wind, Tidal, Solar Photo Voltaic
(SPV), Solar Thermal, geo Thermal, Biogas and Fuel Cell power
systems.
4.1 HYDEL POWER PLANTS

4.1.1 Power of water
Hydro power is a clean and cheap source of energy.
The basic principle of hydropower is that when water is
piped from a higher level to a lower level, the resulting
water pressure is used to do work. If the water pressure
is allowed to move a mechanical component, then that
movement involves the conversion of potential energy of
water into mechanical energy. Hydro turbines converts
water power into mechanical shaft power, which can be
used to drive an electric generator.
Water power is important next to thermal power.
Nearly 30% of total power of the world is produced by water
power and the use of water as a source of energy is known
for a long time. (i.e) In ancient times, water wheels were
used at the beginning of the nineteenth century. With the
invention of the hydro turbine, the use of hydro power got
a new impulse.
4.1.2 Advantages of Hydro power
No fuel and limited maintenance are required, so
running costs are low i.e when compared with
diesel power.
The use of hydro can make a contribution to

savings on exhaustible energy source for example
each 600 kWh of electrical energy generated with
a hydro plant is equivalent to 1 barrel of oil.
It is a long lasting technology, hydro systems can
last for 50 years (or) more without any major
investments.
The hydraulic turbines can be put on and off at
any moment, where as the nuclear power plant
and steam power plant lack this facility.
Power is continuously available on demand and
the energy available is predictable.
4.1.3 Working principle
In a hydro electric power plant, water is stored in the
dam reservoir which has potential energy. This potential
energy is converted into kinetic energy when water from
the dam is allowed to flow through the pipes. This kinetic
energy is converted into mechanical energy allowing the
water flowing in pipe to drive the turbine. At last, the
mechanical energy by rotating the turbine is converted to
electrical energy in the generator which is coupled to the
turbine.
The layout of hydro power plant is shown in Fig. 4.1.
4.2 ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF HYDEL POWER PLANT

Hydro electric power plant (or) Hydel power plant
consists of following essential elements
(i) Reservoir
(ii) Dam
(iii) Trash rack
(iv) Surge tank
Electric
Ca ble
Tran sm ission
H e ad o f W ate r Towe r
L evel
C ontro l
Re servo ir R oom
Tran sform er
Da m
Su rg e
S luice Tan ks
G ate S up po rting
B lock P ow e r
H ou se
P en S tock Tu rbine
Fo reb ay G e nerator
Tra sh Inlet
Ta il W a ter L evel Ra ck Va lve D ra ft Tube
Power from Renewable Energy
Fig:4.1 Layout of Hydro Power Plant

4.3
(v) Fore bay
(vi) Pen stock
(vii) Spill way
(viii) Power house
(ix) Draft tube
4.2.1 Reservoir
The main purpose of a reservoir is to store the water
during rainy season and to supply the same during dry
season. Reservoir is the basic requirement of Hydel power
plant. Reservoir may be artificial reservoir (or) natural such
as lake. Artificial reservoir are built by constructing a dam
across the river. Reservoir stores water, which will be used
to run the turbine to produce electricity. Water surface in
the storage reservoir is known as head race.
4.2.2 Dam
A dam is a structure built at a suitable location across
the river. The main purpose of the dam is to collect water,
store and to increase the height of the water level which
ultimately increases the reservoir capacity. The dam also
increases the working head of power plant. The basic
requirement of dam is economy, safety, should be capable
of resisting pressure of water and should be stable on all
conditions.
A dam is a solid barrier, generally impervious in

nature, constructed across a river or a stream. It holds up
the flow of water to form a reservoir on the upstream side.
Depending upon the quantity of water to be stored, the
design of the dam is carried out and the water level is
Power from Renewable Energy 4.5
fixed. Provision is made for regulating the flow and also

for allowing the excess water to discharge into the river.
4.2.2.1 Purpose of dams

Dams are constructed for any one or more of the
following purposes:
(a) Irrigation.
(b) Generation of hydro-electric power.
(c) Flood control.
(d) Navigation.
(e) Domestic and Municipal purposes.
(f) Industrial use.
(g) Recreation.
(h) Wild life conservation.
(i) Reclamation of low lying lands, etc.
4.2.2.2 General terminology

1. Ayacut: This is the area to be irrigated by a dam. The
ayacut for dam is usually expressed in hectares.
2. Catchment Area: It is a rainfall area which always

feeds to a reservoir or lake. It is also known as watershed.
The catchment area is expressed in square kilometers.
3.Freeboard: The difference in level between the top of

the dam (crest) and the maximum waterlevel is called
Freeboard.
4. Full Reservoir Level (F.R.L.): This is the water level

in the reservoir during normal supply in the river.
5. Maximum Water Level (M.W.L.): This is the level of

water in the reservoir during excess supply in the river
(i.e.,) during rainy seasons. This is also termed as Highest
Flood Level (H.F.L.), since the supply level is maximum
during floods.
6. Spillway: It is the overflow portion of a dam, over
which surplus discharge flows from the upstream to the
downstream.
7. Upstream and Downstream: In dams, the side on
which water gets collected is the upstream and the other
side is the downstream side.
4.2.2.3 Selection of dam site
Following are the factors considered while selecting a
site for a dam:
(i) The river valley at the dam site should be as narrow
as possible and should open out upstream to provide
a reservoir.
(ii) The site should preferably have good soil for
foundation.
(iii) The sediment load in the stream should be as little
as possible.
(iv) Suitable location for spillway should be available.
(v) It is necessary for economic feasibility that the bulk
of the materials required for the dam be available
in close vicinity of the site.
(vi) The value of the property and land submerged by
the proposed dam should be low, in comparison to
the benefits expected from the dam.
(vii) It is economical if the site has, in the near vicinity,

an access road, electric line, water supply, etc.
4.2.2.4 Types of dams
Dams may be classified into a number of different
categories, depending upon the purpose of the classification.
However, it is convenient to consider three broad
classifications; according to use, hydraulic design and
materials comprising the structure.
(i) Classification according to use
Dams may be classified according to the functions,

which they are to serve, such as storage, diversion or
detention.
Storage dams: These dams are constructed to impound

water in periods of surplus supply (i.e. during rainy season)
for use in periods of deficient supply.
Diversion dams: Diversion dams are constructed to

provide head for carrying water into ditches, canals or other
conveyance systems to the place of use.
Detention dams: Detention dams are constructed to

retard flood runoff and minimize the effect of sudden floods.
The water is temporarily stored and released gradually at
a safer rate.
(ii) Classification according to hydraulic design
According to this classification, dams may be

classified as over flow or non-overflow dams.
Overflow dams: Overflow dams are designed to carry

discharge over their crests. They must be made of
materials, which will not be eroded by such discharges.
Non-overflow dams: In non-overflow dams, the crest of

the dam is kept sufficiently above the H.F.L. in such a way
that they are not overtopped.
Fre e B o ard
H FL C re st
FR L
FR L
Fig:4.2 O ver Flow D am Fig:4.3 N on - O ver F lo w D am
(iii) Classification according to materials used

Based on materials used for construction, dams may
be classified into
1. Rigid dams
2. Non-rigid dams.
D AM S
R igid D a m s N o n-R igid D am s
(a ) Tim ber D ams ( a ) E arth D a m s

(b ) S tee l D am s ( b ) R o ck-F ill D am s
(c ) M a son ry or C oncre te Arch D a ms
(d) C o ncre te or M ason ry G ra vity D am s
1. Rigid Dams
(a) Timber dams are generally constructed for temporary

requirements. The height of the dam may be upto 10 m.
The maintenance charges are high in comparison with other
types. They are suitable for places where timber is available
in plenty.
(b) Steel dams are constructed upto a height of 20 m. The

face that holds water is made of steel plates and buttresses
support them.
(c) Arch dams may be constructed of masonry or concrete

and are curved in plan. The convex face of the arch is on
U p stream S id e
A
A
D o w n Stream S ide
D /S U /S
Fig: 4.4 Arch Dam

Se ction on A - A
the upstream side. This arrangement helps to transmit the

major part of the forces acting on it, by arch action, to the
abutments in the rock forming walls of the gorge. Arch
dams are suitable for narrow gorge with sound rock.
(d) A Buttress dam is that dam in which stability of dam
against external forces is obtained by transferring the water
pressure to the supporting buttresses.
MWL
Face o r D e ck Sla b B utt r ess
L ate ra l
B ra ces
C ut - off
B ase o r F ound atio n S la b
Fig: 4.5 R.C.C. Buttress Dam
The buttresses are thin walls of triangular profile

with a sloping upstream face and usually are spaced at
equal intervals along the length of the dam. The upstream
face which contributes the water tightness may be in the
form of a simple thin slab (Deck slab type buttress dams),
thickened buttress heads, plates or arches, vaults of
reinforced concrete. A system of cross bracing between
buttresses of reinforced concrete beams provides lateral

stiffness.
(e) A Gravity dam is a dam proportioned such that, its
own weight provides the major resistance to the forces
exerted upon it. This type of dam is the most permanent
one and it is very commonly used. Gravity dams are
constructed with concrete or masonry.
The various forces acting on the gravity dams are;
(i) Water pressure The water collected on the

upstream side of the dam exerts
pressure on the dam. This is the
major external force acting on
the dam.
(ii) Self-weight of dam This is the major resisting force
of the dam.
(iii) Uplift pressure The water that seeps through
the foundation and body of dam
exerts an upward pressure on
the dam. This is called as uplift
pressure.
(iv) Silt pressure The silt deposited on the
upstream side of the dam exerts
pressure on the dam. This is
known as silt pressure.
(v) Wind pressure This is the minor external force
acting on a dam.
C re st
H FL / M W L
D ra inag e S ha ft
U /S D /S
S olid M aso nry

o r C oncrete
D ra inag e
G allery
S luice
H eel
Toe
C ut-off
Wa ll
E nd Sill w ith B affles

Fig:4.6 Cross Sectio n Details of Gravity Dam
Cross sectional details of a gravity dam

The various components of gravity dam are listed
below:
Crest This is the top surface of the dam on

which the roadway is constructed.
Spillway This is an overflow portion of the dam
which discharges excess water (floods)
that cannot be stored safely in the dam.
A spillway must have the capacity to
discharge major floods without damage to
dam.
Supply Sluices These are the openings provided in the
dam through which water flows from
upstream side to downstream side. A
sluice gate is used to open or close the
openings which is operated either
manually or by hydraulic pressure.
Drainage It is an opening provided in the dam for
Gallery the purpose of draining the water that
seeps through the body of the dam.
Cut-off wall Cut-off wall is a wall constructed below
the base of the dam to cut off seepage
water. It is also known as core wall.
Energy These are the structures provided at the
Dissipators toe of the dam to dissipate the energy of
flood water. They may be in the form of
curved buckets, baffle blocks etc.
2. Non-rigid dams
(a) Earth dams
Earth dams are constructed with the naturally
available soils and gravels. These dams are constructed
upto moderate heights. They may be either homogeneous
type or zoned embankment type.
(i) Homogeneous Type: A purely homogenous type of
dam is composed of a single kind of material. The material
comprising the dam must be sufficiently impervious to
provide an adequate water barrier and the slopes must be
relatively flat for stability.
U p pe r L im it
o f S e ep a ge
Fig:4.7 C om pletely Hom og en ous D am
The modified homogenous sections are designed with

either rock-toe or filter drains for drainage.
R o ck
Toe
Fig: 4.8 M od ified Ho mo geno us D am

(ii) Zoned Embankment Type: The most common type

of a rolled earthfill dam section is that in which a central
impervious core is flanked by zones of materials
considerably more pervious. The pervious zones enclose,
support and protect the impervious core: the upstream
pervious zone affords stability against rapid draw down and
the downstream pervious zone acts as a drain to control
the line of seepage. The pervious zones may consist of sand,
gravel, cobbles or mixture of these materials.
P e rv io us
O uter Zo ne
n Filte r
c tio
o te
Pr
o pe
Sl Im pe rvio us C o re
Fig:4.9 Zon ed Em bankm ent Typ e
The upstream slope of earth dams must be protected

against destructive wave action. Usual types of surface
protection for upstream slope are rock riprap, either
dry-dumped or hand-placed, and concrete pavement.
(b) Rock fill Dams
In rockfill dams, the principal structural material is

rock either dumped or compacted in layers, with sealing
provided by an impervious membrane.
The impervious membrane is provided on the

upstream side for water tightness. The different materials
used for impervious membrane are: earth, concrete, steel
and asphalt. A cut off wall is provided to prevent seepage
under the dam. These dams are suitable for moderate

heights.
4.2.3 Trash rack

The main purpose of trash rack is to prevent the
entry of debris which might damage the turbine runners
or choke-up nozzle of impulse turbine. If the winter season
is severely cold, then the trash rack is heated electrically
to prevent ice from clinging to it or manual is used for
removing debris from trash rack.
Trash rack is made of steel bars which is placed at

the inlet to avoid debris from going into the intake. The
spacing of trash plays a vital role in trash rack.
The spacing of trash depends upon the following

factor.
(i) Type of turbine
(ii) Size of floating material
The height of the trash rack will be changed

depending upon the size of the floating material.
(iii) Velocity of flow through trash rack
Velocity greater than 90 m/sec may cause trash rack

system to vibrate. So it is necessary to maintain the bars
to be rigidly sniffed and supported and also the velocity of
flow v through trash rack should be kept within the limits
so that it does not cause any great loss in head. It can be
calculated by formula
v 0.12

2gh
where
h difference in head
g gravity
4.2.4 Surge tank

When the gates admitting water to the turbines are
suddenly closed due to the action of governor, there is a
sudden increase of pressure in the penstock due to the
sudden decrease of flow of water in turbine. This sudden
rise of pressure in the penstock is known as water
hammer.
When the turbine gates are opened suddenly, to

increase the load demands the turbine needs lots of water,
hence the water rush through penstock and there is a
tendency to cause vacuum in the system. So the penstock
must withstand the positive hammer (or) pressure due to
the closing of turbine gates and no vacuum should be
produced in the system when the gates are closed due to
increase in load condition.
So a surge tank is introduced between sluice gate and

the fore bay nearest to the power house and the surge tank
should be placed on a high ground to reduce the height of

the tower, so that we can provide better regulation of water
pressure in the system.
When the turbine gates are partially closed, the flow
of water in turbine is reduced suddenly due the this water
level starts rises in the surge tank. This produces a head
of water in the surge tank and reduces the velocity of water
in penstock. Due to the reduction in velocity of water in
penstock to meet the demand of the turbine, the level of
water in surge tank starts falling and fluctuate up and
down till the friction is damped out.
When there is a sudden rise in load on the turbine,
additional water is supplied from surge tank, which lowers
the level of water in the surge tank and produces a
accelerating head. This head increases flow of water in
penstock. Due to this load demand is achieved, the water
surface in the tank ceases to fall. Hence surge tank helps
to maintain velocity and pressure in penstock and reduces
the water hammer effect.
4.2.5 Fore bay
The fore bay serves as a regulating reservoir by
temporarily storing water when the load demand on the
plant is reduced and also provides load increment by initial
increment of water, while water in the canal is being
accelerated. In many plants, the canal may be large enough
to absorb flow vibrations. In some cases, the canal is long
and its ends are enlarged to provide necessary temporary
storage. If short forebay is provided as natural provided
surge tank which absorbs flow vibrations as it does the
work of surge tank. Some type of outlet structure is always
provided in fore bay to direct water to the penstock

depending upon local conditions.
4.2.6 Penstock
The pipe between sluice gate and prime mover
(Turbine - which converts the kinetic energy of water in to
mechanical energy to produce electric current) is called
penstock.
The structural design of the penstock is same as for

any another type of pipe but pipes used for penstock have
to withstand very high pressure on inside surface during
decrease in load conditions and also to withstand onside
pressure during increased load conditions.
The pipes used for penstock are most commonly made

of steel through reinforced concrete. If the distance between
forebay and power house is short, then separate penstocks
are equipped for each turbine. Penstocks are provided with
head gates at inlet for repair and servicing of penstock and
also an air inlet valve stem is provided at the inlet to
prevent collapse of head gate during immediate closure of
valve. A sufficient depth must be provided above penstock
entrance in the surge tank to avoid formation of vortices
(A whirlwind (or) whirlpool). This vortices carries air into
penstock which leads lower turbine efficiency.
In cold weather conditions, it is advised to bury the

penstock to avoid formation of ice and also to reduce the
number of expansion joints.
4.2.7 Spillway
Spillway is like a safety valve of the dam. It
discharges major flood without damaging the dam. At the
same time, it keeps the reservoir level below the maximum

level allowed.
4.2.8 Power house

A power house is divided into two sections.
(i) Substructure to support hydraulic and electrical

equipment.
(ii) Superstructure to house and protect the

equipment.
It is necessary to determine the elevation of turbine

with respect to tail water level to avoid cavitation.
In most of the power houses, all the operating

equipment of the super structure are housed inside a
building. Mostly the generator and exciters [The electronic
oscillator that generates the carrier signal for a
transmitter]. The turbines rotating on a horizontal axis are
placed on the ground floor along the side of generator. The
turbines rotating on vertical axis are just placed below the
floor level.
If there is no convenient site for conventional type

power house, it is always advantageous to locate power
house under ground, under certain graphical conditions [a
detailed graphic representation of the surface features of a
place]. For example. Koyna power house in India which is
a under-ground power house.
4.2.9 Draft tube

In reaction turbine installing, draft tube is the
essential part which supplements the action of runner and
utilises the remaining kinetic energy of water leaving
turbine.
The draft tube is a divergent outlet passage connected

to the tail race from the runner. The remaining kinetic
energy of water coming out of runner is efficiently regained
by decelerating the flow with a minimum loss in the draft
tube by converting the flow into suction head. Thus the
kinetic energy of water coming out from reaction turbine is
regained which is the primary purpose of draft tube.
The secondary purpose of a draft tube is to place

turbine located above tail race level. So the vertical distance
of turbine runner above the water level in the tail race is
well within an atmospheric head and outlet of draft tube.
Draft tube should be sufficiently submerged in water with
assured water seal makes the negative static draft head on
the runner and also the positive head from the head water
level is added to make up a total static head on turbine.
4.3 SITE SELECTION FOR HYDEL POWER PLANT

The site selection for hydel power plant includes
several structures like dam, conduits intakes, surge tank,
power house and many others. It requires several
investigation and study to determine the most economical
solution.
The following factors must be considered while

selecting the site for a hydel power plant.
(i) Water availability
(ii) Water storage
(iii) Water head
(iv) Accessibility of the site
(v) Distance from load centre
(vi) Environment Aspects
(i) Water Availability

The most important aspect for a hydel power plant is
the water availability at the site because all designs are
based on it. Therefore the run-off data for the proposed site
should be available. It may not be possible to have run-off
data but data as rainfall over the catchment area is always
available.
From the data available, estimate should be made

about, average quantity of water available, minimum and
maximum quantity of water available throughout the year
can be determined. The details of availability of water is
necessary:
(i) To setup peak load plants such as steam, diesel and

gas turbine plant.
(ii) To decide the capacity of hydel electric plant.
(iii) To provide spillways (or) gate relief during flood
period.
(ii) Water storage

There is a wide variation in rainfall over the year, so
it is required to store water for continuous generation of
power. By using mass curve, the storage capacity can be
calculated. The expenditure on the project depends upon
maximum storage.
There are two types of storages.
(i) The storage is constructed to provide water for one

year. In this case storage is full at the begin of the
year and becomes empty by the end of year. So there
is no shortage of water through out the year.
(ii) The storage is constructed to provide water in

sufficient quantity even during the worst dry
periods.
(iii) Water head

The available water head depends upon the
topological conditions. To generate required quantity of
power, it is necessary to provide large quantity of water at
a sufficient head. An increase in head, for a given output
reduces the quantity of water to be supplied to the turbines.
Hence water is supplied to the turbine at high potential.
(iv) Accessibility of the site

The site to be selected for hydel power plant should
be easily accessible in order to use the electrical power
generated. Because once the electricity is produced it must
be delivered where it is needed (homes, schools, office) etc.,
and power must be transmitted over some distance to its
users near the plant site. The site should have
transportation facilities of rail and road.
(v) Distance from load centre

It is a supreme importance that the power plant must
be setup near the load centre. If distance between the load
centre is less from power plant, then cost of erection is
reduced and maintenance of transmission line will be
easier.
(vi) Environment Aspects

The land selected should be efficient and economical
for the purpose of selection. The projects should be designed
on the basic of best available information to enhance the
local environment, and be in the best public interest.
The site selection should fulfill the following

requirements.
(i) To assure safe, productive, healthy and culturally

pleasing environment.
(ii) To preserve important cultural, historic and natural
aspects of site.
(iii) To avoid health hazards and unintended
consequences.
(iv) The land selected for the site should be cheap and
rocky.
4.4 WORKING OF HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

Water stored in a reservoir behind the dam is
released to the penstock tunnel through gate opening.
Water flows into the Trash Rack, through fore bay canal.
In Trash Rack, there will be a number of steel bars placed
across to stop the debris entering into the turbine. Water
sliding down in the penstock tunnel having a pressure is
allowed to flow through the turbine. The turbine blades gets
rotated due to the flow of water and so power is generated
in the electric generator, which is coupled with the turbine.
After completing the work in the turbine, water enters the
tail race water level through the draft tube.
4.4.1 Major Hydroelectric Power Plants in INDIA

1. Mettur Hydro-electric project, Mettur, Tamil Nadu
360 MW capacity.
2. Kundah Basin Development project, kundah Basin,
Tamil Nadu 130 MW.
3. Periyar Hydro-electric project, Periyar, Tamil Nadu
145 MW.
4. Koyna Hydro-electric project, Koyna, Maharashtra

960 MW.
5. Bhakra and Nangal Dam, Sutlej, Punjab 1150
MW.
6. Yamuna Hydro-electric project, Yamuna, U.P 860
MW.
7. Srisailam Hydel project, Godavari, A.P 710 MW.
8. Iddiki Hydel project, Iddiki, Kerala 800 MW.
9. Sharasvathi Hydro-electric project, Sharasvathi,
Karnataka 890 MW.
10. Chamba valley project, chambal river, M.P 375
MW.
4.4.2 Advantages
1. Water is renewable source and available in plenty.
2. Highly reliable and low maintenance cost.
3. Efficiency of plant does not change with age.
4. No ash disposal problem.
5. Free from pollution.
6. In addition to power generation, it also helps in
flood control, irrigation, fishery and recreation.
4.4.3 Disadvantages
1. High initial cost.
2. Very long time for construction of Dam.
3. High transmission losses and Transmission cost
because such plants are located away from load
centre.
4. Power generation depends on rainfall.
5. Loss of land suitable for agriculture.
4.5 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC TURBINES

The important classification of hydraulic turbines are:
1. According to the type of energy
(a) Impulse turbine, and (b) Reaction turbine

If the energy available at the inlet of the turbine is
only kinetic energy, the turbine is known as impulse
turbine eg. Pelton wheel. An impulse turbine operates
under atmospheric pressure throughout its passage. If
water possess both kinetic energy and pressure energy at
the inlet of the turbine, then it is known as reaction
turbine. eg. Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine. As the
water flows through the runner, the pressure energy goes
on changing into kinetic energy.
2. According to the direction of flow of water in the
runner
(a) Tangential Water strikes the runner tangentially

flow turbine - to its path of rotation (eg. Pelton
wheel)
(b) Radial Water flows in radial direction of the
flow turbine - runner. The flow may be inward
radial (Thomson turbine) or outward
radial flow (Fourneyron turbine)
(c) Axial Water flows over the vanes in a
flow turbine - direction parallel to the axis of
rotation of the runner (e.g. Kaplan
turbine)
(d) Mixed Water enters radially but leaves in
flow turbine - the direction parallel to the axis of
rotation of the runner (Modern
Francis turbine)
3. According to the head and quantity of water

available
(a) High head turbine - Works under high head

(above 250 m) and requires
small quantity of flow
(Pelton wheel)
(b) Medium head turbine- Requires medium head (60
to 250 m) and requires
relatively large quantity of
water (Francis)
(c) Low head turbine - Requires low head (less than
60) and requires very large
quantity of water (Kaplan)
4. According to the position of shaft

(a) Horizontal turbines - have horizontal shaft (Pelton
wheel)
(B) Vertical turbines - have vertical shafts (Kaplan)
5. According to the specific speed of the turbine

(a) Low specific speed turbines [ 5 Ns 60 Pelton ]
(b) Medium specific speed turbines
[ 60 N s 300 Francis ]
(c) High specific speed turbines [ N s 300 Kaplan ]
4.5.1 Impulse turbine

Impulse Turbines are those turbines in which the
pressure at the exit of nozzles is atmospheric and except
for losses, the pressure does not vary along the moving
vanes. The thrust experienced by a moving vane of an
impulse turbine is solely due to the change in direction of
momentum. Pelton wheel is most common hydraulic

impulse turbine which works at heads of 150 - 1500
meters.
H ydra ulic
Bra ke
Van es (o r)
Bu cke ts
This is
C o nnecte d C a sing
R u nner
to the
R u nner Wa ter in
z z
Sp ear
Sp litte r
N o zzle Tail R a ce
Fig: 4.11 Pelto n Turbine.
Pelton wheel (or) pelton turbine is otherwise known

as impulse turbine. The essential parts of Impulse turbine
and working of impulse turbine is discussed below.
This is a commonly used tangential flow impulse type

of turbine. It is suitable for very high heads and requires
lesser quantity of water. A Pelton Wheel shown in Fig.
4.11 consists of runner, buckets, nozzle, guide mechanism,
hydraulic brake and casing.
(i) Runner and Buckets

The runner is a circular disc which consists of a
number of semi-ellipsoidal buckets evenly spaced around its
periphery. The buckets are divided into two hemi-spherical
cups by a sharp edged ridge known as splitter as shown

in Fig 4.11. This arrangement avoids the axial thrust and
end thrust on bearings (axial thrusts being equal and
opposite). Generally, buckets are bolted to the periphery of
the runner. In some cases, the buckets and the wheel are
cast integral as one piece. In the case of bolted type, broken
or damaged buckets can be replaced economically.
(ii) Nozzle and Guide Mechanism

A nozzle is fitted to the end of the penstock near the
turbine. The nozzle is provided with a conical needle or
spear to regulate the quantity of water coming out of
nozzle, thereby control the speed of the runner. The spear
may be operated manually by a hand wheel (for small
units) or automatically by a governing mechanism (for
larger units).
(iii) Hydraulic Brake

When the turbine has to be brought to rest by closing
the inlet valve of the turbine, the runner generally takes a
very long time to come to rest due to its inertia. To bring it
to rest quickly, a small brake nozzle is provided. This nozzle
is opened and it directs a jet of water at the back of the
buckets. This acts as a brake to bring the revolving runner
quickly to rest.
(iv) Casing
The casing is made of cast iron or fabricated steel
plates. It is provided for the following purposes.
1. To prevent splashing of water,
2. To lead the water to the tail race, and
3. To act as a safe guard (cover) against any
accidents.
4.5.1.1 Working of a Pelton Wheel

The water is conveyed to the power house from the
head race through penstocks. The nozzle fitted to the end
of the penstock (power house end) delivers a high velocity
water jet into the buckets. One or more jets of water are
arranged to impinge on the buckets tangentially. The
impact of water jet on the bucket causes the wheel to
rotate, thus producing mechanical work. An electric
generator coupled to the runner shaft and mechanical
energy is converted into electric power.
After leaving the turbine wheel, water falls into the
tail race. The Pelton wheel is located above the tail race
so that, the buckets do not splash the tail race water.
4.5.2 Reaction turbine
Reaction Turbines are impulse - reaction prime movers.
A stator of guide vanes is used to surround the rotor of
moving vanes. The guide vanes act as nozzles, allowing only
partial expansion of pressure to kinetic energy. Further
expansion of pressure head takes place during the motion
of fluid over the moving vanes. Hence, the thrust exerted
on the blade is partially due to momentum change
(impulse) and partly due to pressure action (reaction). As
water is admitted all over the wheel periphery through the
stator vanes and since the pressure varies across the
moving vanes, a reaction turbine is operated completely
sealed from atmosphere. A commonly used reaction turbine
for medium head (20-200 m) is Francis Turbine, the
low head (2-3 m) is Kaplan Turbine.
4.5.2.1 Francis Turbine

The inward flow reaction turbine having radial
discharge at outlet is known as Francis Turbine. In
modern Francis turbine, water under pressure enters the
runner towards the centre in radial direction and leaves
the runner axially. Thus the modern Francis turbine is a
mixed flow type turbine.
Working of a Francis Turbine

The water from the reservoir is carried to the turbine
through penstocks and enters the scroll casing. The casing
distributes water evenly around the circumference of the
turbine runner. From the scroll casing, water passes
through the stay ring. This ring directs water to the guide
vanes. These guide vanes regulate the quantity of water
supplied to the runner. The airofoil shape of the guide
vanes allow the water to flow smoothly without shock. The
water enters the runner with a low velocity and
considerable pressure. As the water flows through the
runner, the direction of flow of water is changed from axial
to radial. The pressure energy is gradually converted into
R o tatio n
R u nn er
G uide vane s
........... .......... ............... ...........

.. ... ......... .....
... .....
D raft
Tu be
Scro ll
C a sing Tail
R a ce
Fig:4.13 Sectional Views of
a Francis Turbine To Ta il R ace
kinetic energy and the runner is rotated at high speed. This

torque is transmitted to the generator which is coupled to
the runner shaft. After passing through the runner, water
enters the tail race through a draft tube.
4.5.2.2 Axial Flow Reaction Turbines
If water flows parallel to the axis of the rotation of
the shaft and the shaft of the turbine is vertical, the
turbine is known as axial flow turbine. The lower end of
the shaft is known as hub or boss. The blades are fixed
on the hub and hence hub acts as a runner for axial flow
turbines. The types of axial flow reaction turbines are
1. Propeller Turbine and
2. Kaplan Turbine
When the blades are fixed on the hub and are not
adjustable i.e., the blades are composite with the boss, the
turbine is known as propeller turbine. But, if the blades
on the boss are adjustable, the turbine is known as Kaplan
turbine.
It is suitable for relatively low heads. Hence, it
requires a large quantity of water to develop the power.
S haft
S haft
R u nner
B lad es
(Fixed )
B oss
R u nner B lades
(Ad justab le)
(a) Pro peller Turbine Fig.4.14 (b) Kaplan Turb ine
The main components of a Kaplan turbine are
1. Scroll casing
2. Guide vanes mechanism
3. Hub with blades and
4. Draft tube
4.6. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A KAPLAN TURBINE

The water from the scroll casing flows over the guide
vanes. It is deflected through an angle of 90 in between
guide vanes and runner. Then it flows axially into the
runner. The blades are shaped such that water flows axially
in the runner. It can be adjusted to any desired angle so
that the area of flow passage can also be varied. This
adjustment can be carried out automatically by a
servomotor governor mechanism. The force exerted by the
fluid on the blades causes the runner shaft to rotate. This
Fig.4.15. Kaplan Turbin e

rotation is transmitted to the generator which is coupled

to the runner shaft. After passing through the runner, the
water enters the tail race through a draft tube.
Table: Comparision of Impulse and Reaction Turbine
Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
1. The total available energy Only a part of the

of the water is converted available energy is
into kinetic energy before converted into kinetic
it strikes the runner. energy.
2. The water flows through The water is guided by

the nozzle and strikes the the guide blades and flow
runner buckets. over the moving blades.
3. The water strikes the The water glides over the

runner buckets with runner blades with
kinetic energy. pressure energy.
4. The pressure of the The pressure of water

flowing water after reduces gradually when it
striking the buckets flows through the runner.
remains constant.
5. It is not necessary that It is essential that the

the wheel should run full. wheel should always run
There should be free full i.e., it is kept full of
access of air between the water.
blades and wheel.
6. Water is admitted over a Water is admitted over

part of the circumference the entire circumference
of the wheel. of the runner wheel.
Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
7. Flow can be regulated Flow cannot be regulated

without loss. without loss.
8. Draft tube is not required. Draft tube is required.
4.7 TURBINE GOVERNING

The primary purpose of a governor for a hydro electric
unit is to control the speed and loading of the unit. It is
accomplished by controlling the flow of water through
turbine. In Normal conditions the turbine should run at
constant speed irrespective to changes in load. This is
achieved by means of a governor called oil pressure
governor.
The oil pressure governor consisting of following parts

namely
(i) Servomotor (or) Relay cylinder
(ii) Pendulum (or) Actuator
(iii) Distributing valve (or) Control valve
(iv) Oil pump
(v) Pipes connecting oil pump

Servomotor consists of a piston which moves due to
oil pressure and the movement of piston is controlled by
control valve. The piston rod is connected to Turbine Guide
mechanism which controls the amount of water entering
the turbine.

It is a flyball mechanism operated by a sleeve
connected to the turbine main shaft.

Distributing valve is housed inside a cylinder with a
piston and connecting rod connecting to the rigid fulcrum.
And the distributing valve cylinder consists of two ports
P and Q which controls the supply of oil to the servomotor.
(iv) Oil pump

The function of an oil pump is to pressurize the oil
from the sump and send it to the cylinder of distribution
valve.
(v) Pipes connecting to oil sump

The pipes connecting oil sump is connected to
distributing valve and the distributing cylinder is connected
to servomotor.
4.7.1 Working of oil pressure governor

When the turbine is running at normal speed, the
distributing valve and relay cylinder position remains same
in their Normal place as shown in Fig.4.17 the ports P
and Q remain closed.
When the load on the turbine increases, the speed of

turbine reduces due to this speed of the central spindle
reduces which brings the flyball down.
Due to the displacement of flyball, the sleeve will also

come down. This causes the main liver to rise and pulling
the piston upward of distributing valve. This slight upward
movement will open the port P and the oil under pressure
C entral P endulum or
S pin dle A ctu ator
M ain Le ve r P iston R o d
Fly Ba ll (or)
S lee ve C onnecting
R od
R ig id F ulcrum
D istrib uting
Fro m Turbine
Turbine Valve
M ain S ha ft
P
Q
G ea r
P um p
O il S um p
S ervom otor P iston R o d to

(or) R e lay C ylinder C ontrollin g D evice
Fig:4.17 A Typical Oil Pressure G overno r
will move from distributing valve to the servomotor (or)

relay cylinder. This causes the piston to move to the left.
This movement is transmitted to the turbine guide
mechanism (or) controlling device, which causes more water
to enter the turbine and hence the turbine will run faster
and the speed will begin to increase, therefore speed
becomes normal again.
As the speed becomes normal, the piston of

distributing valve, the main lever and servomotor will reach
their initial position.
Similarly when the load on the turbine decreases, the

speed will increase (i.e) vice versa. To bring the speed to
normal, the oil pressure governor acts quickly and operates
the guide mechanism.
To B ucket of
S pear P elton W h eel
Rod
Fro m R ela y
C ylinder of
N eedle
G overning
M echan ism
N ozzle
Fig:4.18 G uide M echanism of

P ensto ck Im pulse Turb ine
For better understanding of turbine guide mechanism,

the guide mechanism of impulse turbine is shown in
Fig.4.18.
The Fig.4.18 shows that the governor closes the

nozzle opening partially by pushing the needle into the
nozzle thus allows less water to enter the turbine, therefore
the turbine will run slow.
4.8 SELECTION OF TURBINE

It is very important to select the type of Hydraulic
turbine which will give maximum possible efficiency. The
hydraulic turbines selected should always match specific
conditions under which it has to operate and attain
maximum possible efficiency.
The choice of suitable hydraulic turbine depends upon

given head and discharge at a particular site of the power
plant. If the power to be developed, speed and head are
available, then the type of turbine can be determined.
The following factors should be considered for

selecting right type of Hydraulic turbine.
(i) Rotational speed of turbine

(ii) Specific speed of turbine
(iii) Maximum efficiency
(iv) Part load efficiency
(v) Head
(vi) Type of water
(vii) Runaway speed
(viii) Cavitation
(ix) Number of units
(x) Overall cost
(i) Rotational speed of turbine

Nowadays in all modern hydro power plant to reduce
transmission losses, the turbines are directly connected
with the generator by means of coupling. This arrangement
of coupling narrow down (or) depends upon to the range of
speed used for the turbine. The purpose of generator is to
generate the power at constant voltage and frequency. To
attain constant voltage and frequency, the generator should
be operated at synchronous speed. The synchronous speed
of generator is given by
60 f
N sy n c
p
where
N sy n c synchronous s peed
f frequency
p number of pairs of poles used

Therefore, for directly coupled turbines, the turbine

has to run at synchronous speed only. Frequency is more
or less fixed (50 to 60 cycles/sec). It always preferable to
run generator at high synchronous speed because the
number of poles required for generator reduces with
increase in synchronous speed which reduceS the size of
generator.
The major problem with high speed turbine are the
cavitation and centrifugal forces acting on turbine parts
which requires robust construction. But the overall cost can
be reduced by adopting higher rotational speed as by
smaller turbine and smaller generator are required to
generate the same power produced by larger turbines and
larger generator.
(ii) Specific speed of turbine
If the head is high for given speed and power output
then low specific speed machines such as impulse turbine
is required. If the head is low, high specific speed machines
such as propeller turbine is required.
The specific speed can be calculated by the equation
N
P
Ns
H5/4
The conditions of specific speed to the head of water

is drawn as graph with practical observation shows that
there is an increase in latitude of specific speed of runners
with decrease in head provided and the height of the
runner should be above latitude to avoid cavitation.
200 0
150 0
100 0
50 0
Fr
an
c is
10 0 Tu
4 N o zzles rb
in e
50 (Im pu lse)
Ka
pla
H ead in M e te rs (m )
n tu
20 rb in e
10
0 1 00 2 00 300 4 00 50 0 600 7 00 800

S pecific Sp eed (N S )
Fig:4.19 Head (vs.) Specific Sp eed of Turbines
4.41
Sl. Specific Type of turbine

No speed
1. 10 to 35 Pelton wheel with one nozzle
2. 35 to 60 Pelton wheel with two (or) more nozzles
3. 60 to 300 Francis turbine
4. above 300 Kaplan turbine
(iii) Maximum efficiency
1 00
90
R eaction tu rbine
E fficien cy (% )
80
P elton w he el
70
60
50
0 50 1 00 1 50 2 00 2 50 3 00 3 50 4 00 4 50 5 00
S pecific S p ee d (N S)
Fig: 4.20 Maximu m Efficiency
The maximum efficiency of turbine depends upon the

type of runner used. The turbine which can give maximum
power for the given input will give the maximum efficiency.
In impulse turbine due to its low specific speed,
efficiency of the turbine is reduced because the large
diameter of wheel which causes more bearing friction and
windage losses. The value of specific speed N s for higher
efficiency is nearly 20.
Reaction turbine also gives less efficiency due to low

specific speed. The larger diameter of wheel in low specific
speed tends to friction losses. In addition to this leakage
loss is more when comparing with leakage area through
the clearance space and hydraulic friction comes in to
notification due to small bracket passage. Due to low
specific speed, these factors tend to reduce the efficiency.
In high speed reaction turbine, the friction and
leakage losses are reduced with an increase in specific
speed but the discharge losses increases rapidly. So the net
effect of increase in specific speed tends to decrease the
efficiency. Therefore it is preferable to select medium
specific speed for reaction turbine and at constant load
conditions.
The effect of specific speed on maximum efficiency is
shown in Fig.4.20. High efficiency can be achieved by
reaction turbine and impulse turbine. The maximum
possible efficiency for impulse turbine is 82% but for
reaction turbine is 90%.
The efficiency of pelton wheel does not decrease with
its size and at the same time, pelton wheel is suggested
for smaller power than reaction turbine.
(iv) Part load efficiency
Full load is defined as maximum efficiency of the
turbine. If the load increases above full load, then it is
called over load. If the load decreases below full load, then
it is called part load.
The part load efficiency for all type of turbine depends
upon type of turbine and specific speed. The variations in
part load efficiencies with different types of wheels are
shown in Fig.4.21.
4.44
10 0
Ka plan Tu rbin e
90
80
5
=2
70
S
N
0
e
=8
ls
60 NS
pu
is 00
Im
a nc =4
N S
50 Fr is
a nc
Fr
00
40 =9
rNS
ll e
pe
P ercenta ge of E fficie ncy (% )

30 p ro
ed
F ix
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1 00
Power Plant Engineering - www.airwalkpublications.com
P e rcen tag e of Fu ll Lo ad (% )
Fig:4.21 E ffect of L oad on the Efficien cy of Turbine ( Different Tu rbin es)

In pelton wheel, the flow of water through jet is

reduced by governing mechanism, when the load on the
turbine is reduced below full load. Therefore the part load
curve is more flat in case of pelton turbine.
In reaction turbine, the water completely fills the
bucket passage and rate of discharge is reduced [which is
required at part load]. Thus increases the discharge (or)
and the velocity of water at outlet. Therefore, the efficiency
decreases with decrease in load (part load) on the turbine.
(v) Heads
The choice of turbine depends upon function of power,
speed and head of water available.
A G O = G ate Ope ning
H - C onstan t H - C onstan t H - C onstan t
Full G .O
Full G .O
G .O Full G .O G .O
G .O G .O
G .O G .O G .O

G .O G .O
P
Q
N N N
Fig 4.22 M ain Characteristic C urves for a Pelton Wheel.
These curves are drawn by maintaining a constant

head and a constant gate opening (G.O) on the turbine. By
changing the load on the turbine, the speed is varied. For
each speed N, the corresponding values of power P,
discharge Q are noted and the overall efficiency 0 is
calculated. The unit power P u, unit discharge Q u and
unit speed N u are also calculated using these readings.
Taking unit speed in the X-axis and the other values are
.O B
ll G
Fu Fu
G .O ll G
.O

G.
G .O O
G.
O O
G.

Qu
G.
Qu
O
Nu Nu
(i) Kap lan Turbine (i) Francis Turbine
Fu ll G .O
Fu ll G .O G .O
G .O G .O
G .O G .O

G .O
Pu
Nu Nu
Fig 4.23 E ffect of Heads on Efficiency, Pow er and Discharge.
taken in the Y-axis, various curves are plotted as shown

in Fig.4.23. By changing the gate opening, the values of
Q u, P u and 0 are plotted. Fig.4.22 and Fig.4.23 show the
effect of heads on efficiency, power and discharge for a
Pelton wheel and reaction turbines [Francis and Kaplan]
respectively.
Sl. Head of water Type of turbine

No. in meters
1. Above 300 m Pelton turbine
2. 60 to 300 Francis turbine
3. Below 60 Kaplan (or) propeller turbine
(vi) Types of water available
Water carrying dirt and sand is not suitable for
reaction turbines at high head conditions which leads to
erosion in runner blades and water is further restricted due

to very small cross sectional area and easily becomes
chocked due to floating debris which leads to high fluid
friction losses.
The greater accessibility and simplicity of parts are
required for replacement of parts due wear and tear (or)
due to the chemical reaction of water.
(vii) Runaway speed
The speed of turbine increases with increase in head.
Due to the increase in speed of turbine, the generator must
2 40
2 20
P ercen tag e of N orm al Spe ed (% )
2 00
1 80
)
0)
00
50
=7
to
S
00
(N
0)
1 60
=2
er
=2
e ll
S
(N
op
(N
c is
Pr
ls e
an
pu
1 40
Fr
Im
1 20
1 00
80
20 40 60 80 1 00 1 20 1 40 1 80
P ercen tag e of R ated H e ad (% )
Fig:4.24. Effect of Head on R un Aw ay Sp eed.
be designed to stand the full runaway speed of turbines to

which is connected to maximum head conditions. Due to
higher runaway speed, the cost of machines increases.
The percentage runaway speed and percentage
increase in power is shown in Fig.4.24.
(viii) Cavitation
When the specific speed of the turbine increases and
crosses the recommended value leads to cavitation. The
cavitation characteristics of the turbine is also to be
considered since it affects the installation of a reaction
turbine.
If cavitation occurs, it corrodes the runner blades with
in a years operation. The dense material like steel and
stainless steel resist better to cavitation than porous
material like cast iron.
(xi) Number of units
The overall efficiency of a large plants depend upon
the number of units installed. A plant with two similar
unit will have better average efficiency than one unit
having the capacity of two unit. The plants containing three
(or) more units would have still better average efficiency.
The effect of increase in number of units to same

generation of power on efficiency is shown in Fig.4.25.
The selection of number of unit is management and

economical problem, depends upon capital cost and running
expense and it is not a design problem.
1 00
90 Infin ite U nits
80
70
60
Thre e U nits
50
Tw o U nits
E fficie ncy (% )
40
O ne U n it
30
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1 00
(% ) Pe rcen ta ge lo ad
Fig:4.25. Effect o f L oad on th e E fficiency o f a Turbine
Taking Nu mb er of Units as P arameter.
(x) Overall cost of the plant

The plant should be designed with minimum cost and
also to give maximum efficiency (i.e, to generate power with
minimum cost). The total cost includes capital cost and
running cost. (which is discussed in Economics of power
plant).
4.9 MICRO HYDEL DEVELOPMENT

Micro hydro was the most common way of electricity
generating in the early 20th century. The first commercial
use of hydroelectric power to produce electricity was a
waterwheel on the Fox River in Wisconsin in 1882 that
supplied power for lighting to two paper mills and a house.
India has a century old history of hydropower and the
beginning was from small hydro. The first hydro power
plant was of 130 kW set up in Darjeeling during 1897,
marked the development of hydropower in the country.
Micro hydro is a type of small scale hydroelectric
power plant that makes advantage of naturally-flowing
streams to produce 5 kW - 100 kW of electricity. This
process produces no direct emission. Micro hydro can bring
electricity to remote communities, ranging from a single
home, to few hundred kilometer for selling into national
grid. Water can be harnessed from small scale to large
scale.
Small hydro is the largest contributor of electricity
from renewable energy sources, over the last few decades.
Development of small hydro power projects are done mainly
due to its benefits particularly concerning environment and
ability to produce power in remote areas. Small hydro
projects are economically viable and have relatively short
gestation period. A general classification of hydro power
plant is as follows.
Micro hydel development
Type Capacity
Large-hydro More than 100 MW and usually feeding
into a large electricity grid
Medium-hydro 15 - 100 MW - usually feeding a grid
Small-hydro 1 - 15 MW - usually feeding into a grid
Mini-hydro Above 100 kW, but below 1 MW; either
stand alone schemes or more often feeding
into the grid
Micro-hydro From 5 kW up to 100 kW; usually
provided power for a small community or
rural industry in remote areas away from
the grid
Pico-hydro From a few hundred watts up to 5 kW
4.9.1 Components of Micro hydel power plant

The main components of micro hydro plant are
explained here.
1. The water in the river diverted by the weir through

an opening in the river side (the intake) into a
channel.
2. A settling basin is built into the channel to remove
sand and silt from the water and this channel
preserves the elevation of the diverted water.
3. The channel directs the water in to a small
reservoir/tank known as the forebay from there it
is directed to the turbines through a closed pipe
known as the penstock.
W eir a nd Inta ke
P ow er C han ne l
S pillw a y
Fore B ay
P ensto ck
P ow er
H o use
Tra nsm issio n

L in e
Tail R a ce Hydro Power Plant
Fig:4.26. Micro Hydel Pow er Plant
4. The penstock essentially directs the water to the

turbine at a lower level.
5. The turning shaft of the turbine can be used to
rotate a mechanical device such as a grinding mill,
wood lathe etc. directly, or to operate an electricity
generator.
6. The machines which are energised by the turbine
are called the load.
7. When electricity is generated, the power house
where the generator is located transfers the
electricity to a step-up transformer which is then
transmitted to the grid sub-station or to the
village/area where this electricity is to be used.
4.9.2 Power from a micro hydro plant

To know the power potential of water in a stream, it
is necessary to know the flow quantity of water available
from the stream (for power generation) and the available
head.
The quantity of water available for power generation
is the amount of water (in m 3 or liters) which can be
diverted through an intake into the pipeline (penstock) in
a certain amount of time. This is normally expressed in
cubic meters per second m 3 /s or in liters per second (l/s).
Head is the vertical difference in level (in meters)
through which the water falls down.
The theoretical power (P) available from a given head
of water is in exact proportion to the head and the quantity
of water available.
P Q H 9.81 Kilow atts kW
Where,
P Power at the generator terminal, in kilowatts (kW)
H The gross head from the pipeline intake to the

tailwater in metres (m)
Q Flow in pipeline, in cubic meters per second

3
m /s
The efficiency of the plant, considering head loss

in the pipeline and the efficiency of the turbine and
generator, expressed by a decimal.
This available power will be converted by the hydro

turbine in mechanical power.
4.9.3 Suitable conditions for micro-hydro power

The best geographical areas for exploiting small-scale
hydro power are those where there are steep rivers flowing
all year round, for example, the hill areas of countries with
high year-round rainfall or the great mountain ranges and
their foothills, like the Andes and the Himalayas. Islands
with moist marine climates, such as Caribbean Islands,
Philippines and Indonesia are also suitable. Low-head
turbines have been developed for small-scale exploitation of
rivers where there is a small head but sufficient flow to
provide adequate power. To assess the suitability of a
potential site, the hydrology of the site needs to be known
and a site survey carried out, to determine actual flow and
head data. Hydrological information can be taken from the
meteorology or irrigation department usually run by the
national government.
The site survey gives more detailed information of the
site conditions to allow power calculation to be done and
design work to begin. Flow data should be gathered over a
period of at least one full year, so as to ascertain the
fluctuation in river flow over the various seasons. There
are many methods for carrying out flow and head
measurements and these can be found in the relevant texts.
4.9.4 Turbines for micro hydro power
Turbine is the main piece of equipment in the micro
hydro plant scheme that converts energy of the falling
water into the rotating shaft power. The selection of the
most suitable turbine for any particular hydro site depends
mainly on two of the site characteristics - head and flow
available. All turbines have a power-speed characteristic.
This means that they will operate most efficiently at a
particular speed, head and flow combination. Thus the
desired running speed of the generator or the devices being

connected/loading on to the turbine also influence selection.
Other important consideration is whether the turbine is
expected to generate power at part-flow conditions.
The design speed of a turbine is largely determined
by the head under which it operates.
4.10 TURGO TURBINE

The Turgo turbine is an impulse water turbine
designed for medium head applications. Operational Turgo
Turbines achieve efficiencies of about 87%. It works with
net heads between 15 and 300 m. It is a modification of
the Pelton wheel, the Turgo has some advantages over
Francis and Pelton designs for certain applications.
First, the runner is less expensive to make than a
Pelton wheel. Second, it doesnt need an airtight housing
like the Francis. Third, it has higher specific speed and can
handle a greater flow than the same diameter Pelton wheel,
leading to reduced generator and installation cost. Turgos
operate in a head range where the Francis and Pelton
overlap. While many large Turgo installations exist, they
are also popular for small hydro where low cost is very
important. Like all turbines with nozzles, blockage by
debris must be prevented for effective operation.
4.10.1 Working of Turgo Turbine
The Turgo turbine is an impulse type turbine; water
does not change pressure as it moves through the turbine
blades. The waters potential energy is converted to kinetic
energy with a nozzle. The high speed water jet is then
directed on the turbine blades which deflect and reverse
the flow. The resulting impulse spins the turbine runner,
imparting energy to the turbine shaft. Water exits with
very little energy. Turgo runners are extremely efficient.
Tu rgo R u nn er
Tu rgo
p elton
Fig. 4.27 Tu rgo turb ines.
A Turgo runner looks like a Pelton runner split in

half. For the same power, the Turgo runner is one half the
diameters of the Pelton runner, and so twice the specific
speed. The Turgo can handle a greater water flow than the
Pelton because exiting water doesnt interfere with adjacent
buckets.
4.10.2 Load factor
The load factor is the amount of power used divided
by the amount of power that is available if the turbine
were to be used continuously. Unlike technologies relying
on costly fuel sources, the fuel for hydropower generation
is free and therefore the plant becomes more cost effective
if run for a high percentage of the time. If the turbine is
only used for domestic lighting in the evenings then the
plant factor will be very low. If the turbine provides power
for rural industry during the day, meets domestic demand
during the evening and pumps water for irrigation in the
evening, then the plant factor will be high.
It is very important to ensure a high plant factor if

the scheme is to be cost effective and this should be taken
into account during the planning stage.
4.10.3 Load control governors

Water turbines, like petrol or diesel engines, will vary
in speed as load is applied or relieved. This speed variation
will seriously affect both frequency and voltage output from
a generator. Traditionally, complex hydraulic or mechanical
speed governors altered flow as the load varied, but recently
an electronic load controller (ELC) has been developed to
increase the simplicity and reliability of modern
micro-hydro sets. The ELC prevents speed variations by
continuously adding or subtracting an artificial load, so that
the turbine is working permanently under full load. A
further benefit is that the ELC has no moving parts, and
hence virtually maintenance free.
4.10.4 Electrical power from micro hydro plant

Machines can be driven directly by a turbine as in
traditional grain mills and many modern timber sawing
mills, but converting the power into electricity has several
additional advantages. Because it enables the use of all
types of electrical appliances from lighting to electric motors
and also the flexibility of having the appliances at any point
either near or far from the turbine. The device which
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is called
a generator. The most common type of generator produces
alternative current and is known as an alternator.
Two types of current are produced by electrical

generators, either Alternating Current (AC) or Direct
Current (DC). In the case of AC, the voltage cycles are
sinusoidal with time, from positive peak value to negative.

Because the voltage changes its sign, the resulting current
also continually reverses direction in a cyclic pattern. DC
current flows in a single direction as the result of a steady
voltage. DC is not usually used in modern power
installations except for very low-powered systems of a few
hundred watts or less.
Alternating voltage can be produced in a stationery
coil or armature by a rotating magnetic field, but mostly a
coil is rotated in a stationery magnetic field. The magnetic
field can be produced either by a permanent magnet or by
another coil (i.e., an electro-magnet) known as a field coil
which is fed by direct current known as the excitation
current. A generator supplying alternative current (AC) is
described as an alternator and the machine supplying DC
current is known as a DC generator or dynamo. Current
flows when a voltage difference is placed across a
conducting body. In AC circuits, the magnitude and timing
of the Current cycle relative to the voltage cycle will depend
on the conductivity body resistance, inductive, capacitive or
some combination of these elements.
4.10.5 Economics of micro hydel plant
Normally, small-scale hydro installations in rural
areas of developing countries can offer considerable
financial benefits to the communities served, particularly
where careful planning identifies income-generating uses for
the power.
The major cost of a scheme is for site preparation and
the capital cost of equipment. In general, unit cost
decreases with a larger plant and with high heads of water.
It could be argued that small-scale hydro technology does

not bring with it the advantages or economy of scale, but
many costs normally associated with larger hydro schemes
have been designed out or planned out of micro hydro
systems to bring the unit cost in line with bigger schemes.
This includes such innovations as:
1. Using run-of- the river schemes - away with the cost
of an expensive dam for water storage.
2. Locally manufactured equipment where ever possible
and appropriate.
3. Use of HDPE (plastic) penstocks where ever
appropriate.
4. Electronic load controller - allows the power plant
to be left unattended, thereby reducing labour costs
and introduce useful by-products such as battery
charging or water heating as dump loads for surplus
power; also does away with bulky and expensive
mechanical control gear.
5. Using existing infrastructure, for example, a canal
which serves an irrigation scheme.
6. Setting of power source close to village to avoid
expensive high voltage distribution equipment such
as transformers.
7. Using Pumps As Turbines (PAT) - in some
circumstances, standard pumps can be used in
reverse as turbines; this reduces costs, delivery time
and makes for simple installation and maintenance.
8. Using motors as generators - as with the PAT idea,
motors can be run in reverse and used as
generators; pumps are usually purchased with a
motor fitted and the whole unit can be used as a

turbine/generator set.
9. Use of local materials for the civil works.
10. Use of community labour.
11. Good planning for a high plant factor and well
balanced load pattern (energy demand fluctuation
throughout the day).
12. Low-cost connections for domestic users.
13. Self-cleaning intake screens - this is recent
innovation which is fitted to the intake weir and
prevents stones and silt from entering the headrace
canal; this does away with the need for overspill
and desilting structures along the headrace canal
and also means that, in many cases, the canal can
be replaced by a low-pressure conduit buried
beneath the ground - this technology is, at present
still in its early stages of dissemination.
Maintenance costs (insurance and water abstraction
charges, where they apply) are a comparatively
minor component of the total - although they may
be an important consideration in marginal economic
cases.
4.10.6 Low cost grid connection
Where the power from a micro-hydro scheme is used
to provide domestic electricity, one method of making it an
affordable option for low-income groups is to keep the
connection costs and subsequent bills to a minimum. Often,
rural domestic consumers will require only small quantity
of power to light their houses and run a radio or television.
There are a number of solutions that can specifically help
low-income households to obtain an electricity connection

and help utilises meet their required return on investment.
These include:
(a) Load limited supply
Load limiters work by limiting the current supplied
to the consumer to a prescribed value. If the current
exceeds that value, then the device automatically
disconnects the power supply. The consumer is charged a
fixed monthly fee irrespective of the total amount of energy
consumed. The device is simple and cheap and does away
with the need for an expensive metre and subsequent meter
reading.
(b) Reduced service connection costs
Limiting load supply can also help reduce costs on
cable, as the maximum power drawn is low and so smaller
cable sizes can be used. Also, alternative cable poles can
sometimes be found to help reduce costs.
(c) Pre-fabricated wiring systems
Wiring looms can be manufactured ready to install
which will not only reduce costs but also guarantee safety
standards.
(d) Credit
Credit schemes can allow householders to overcome
the barrier imposed by the initial entry costs of grid
connection. Once connected, energy savings on other fuels
can enable repayments to be made. Using electricity for
lighting, for example, is a fraction of the cost of using
kerosene.
(e) Community involvement

Formation of community and co-operatives who are
pro-active in all stage of the electrication process can help
reduce costs as well as provide a better service. For
example, community revenue collection can help reduce the
cost of collection for the utility and hence the consumer.
4.10.7 Advantages of Micro hydro plant

It is a long-lasting and robust technology.
High efficiency (80 - 90%).
Output is maximum in winter seasons.
Environment friendly, does not produce any direct
emission.
Produces power from Naturally-flowing streams.
Micro hydro power can bring electricity to remote
communities.
Micro hydro plants are economical.
4.11 WIND ENERGY AND WIND POWER

Wind is a form of solar energy. It is caused by the
uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun due to the
irregularities of the earths surface, and rotation of the
earth. Wind flow patterns are modified by the earths
terrain, bodies of water, and vegetative cover. The terms
wind energy or wind power describe the process by
which the wind is used to generate mechanical power or
electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy of the
wind into mechanical power. This flow, or kinetic energy of
the wind, can be harvested with the help of modern wind
turbines, and can be used to for various applications
including generation of electricity by coupling the turbine
to a generator. This mechanical power can be used for

specific tasks like grinding grain, saw milling, pumping
water or electricity to power homes, businesses, schools, etc.
4.11.1 Advantages of Wind energy

Wind energy is a free.
Renewable resource.
Wind energy is also a source of clean,
non-polluting, electricity.
Low operation cost.
Wind turbines can be located on land that is also
used for grazing or even farming.
4.11.2 Disadvantages of Wind energy

A higher initial investment.
Cost of the machinery is high.
Environmental concerns.
The noise produced by the rotor blades.
Birds and bats having been killed (avian/bat
mortality) by flying into the rotors.
Good wind sites are often located in remote
locations far from load centre.
4.11.3 Characteristic of a good wind power plant site

High annual wind speed.
A mountain gap.
An open plain or an open shore line.
There should not be any obstruction within a
radius of 3 km.
4.11.4 Wind-Electrical generating power plant

The various components of a wind electric generating
power plant are:
1. Wind Turbines or rotor
Wind turbines, like aircraft propeller blades, get
turned by the moving air and power an electric generator
that supplies an electric current. Simply stated, a wind
turbine is the opposite of a fan. Instead of using electricity
to circulate wind in a fan, wind turbines use wind to make
electricity. The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft,
which connects to a generator and makes electricity.
B lad e W ind Tra nsm ission

(S p ee d In cre ase r ,
D rive S h aft ,
C lu tch , C o u pling Etc.)
Hub
W ind
E lectrica l
Tu rb ine G en e rator
S tructu re
C o ntrol B u ild in g
Fig:4.28 W ind - Electric G enerating Po w er Plant.

2. Wind mill head

The wind mill supports the rotor housing and bearing,
it also houses control mechanism like changing blades pitch
for safety device and allow the rotor to face the wind.
3. Electrical generator
It is coupled to the turbine and generates electricity.
4. Supporting structure
It is designed to withstand the wind force and the
self load of the plant.
4.11.5 Wind Turbine Types

Modern wind turbines fall into two basic groups;
The horizontal-axis variety, like the traditional

farm windmills used for pumping water, and
The vertical-axis design, like the eggbeater-style
Darrieus model, named after its French inventor.
Most large modern wind turbines are
horizontal-axis turbines.
4.11.5.1 Horizontal turbine components include:

Blade or rotor, which converts the energy in the
wind to rotational shaft energy.
A drive train, usually includes a gearbox and a
generator.
Horizontal shaft that transfer energy from mills
to rotor.
A tower that supports the rotor and drive train;
and
Other equipments, including controls, electrical

cables, ground support equipment, and
interconnection equipment.
W ind
R otor
W ind M ill
Tail Va ne
H e ad
S upportin g
S tructu re
Fig:4.29 Horizontal Axis

Win d M achine.
4.11.5.2 Vertical turbine components include:

Aerofoil blades or rotor, which converts the energy
in the wind to rotational shaft energy;
Guys that supports the shaft and generator;

Vertical shaft that transfer energy from mills to
rotor;
Generator that produces electricity;
Other equipments, including controls, electrical
cables, ground support equipment, and
interconnection equipment.
Ae ro Foil Blades
G uys (C ate nary S hap e)
6.5 m
Ve rtica l
Sh aft
G ene rator
Fig:4.30 Vertical Axis Win d M achine
4.11.6 Types of wind mills

Wind mill comes in various shape and size and can
be categorised into different types as shown in Fig.4.31.
1. Multiple blade type
2. Propeller type
3. Sail type
4. Darrieus type
5. Savonius type
The multiple blade type is the widely used wind mill,
it may have 10 to 20 numbers of blades made up of metal
sheets.
M ulti Blade Type
Four - Blade Dutch W ind M ill
Savoniu s Typ e +
A ir Foil
Sail Typ e
G uy
W ire s
Pro peller Type

Darrieu s Type
Fig:4.31 Types of W ind M ills.
The propeller type of mill has two blades which is

connected through a rod and the centre of the rod is
mounted over the hub.
The sail type has three blades made up of triangular

pieces cloths that are stitched out together.
All the above three blades has low rotating speed upto
80 r.p.m.
Darrieus type wind mill needs much less surface area,

it looks like an egg heater and may have two or three
aerofoil blades, It is best suited for vertical wind power
plant, it has high speed, high efficiency and low cost but
it is not self starting.
Savonious type wind mill consists of hollow cylinder

sliced into two half and are mounted over vertical shaft
with a gap in between. Due to the gap between the two
half tongue is produced. It needs a large surface area. It
is self starting but has low speed and low efficiency.
4.11.7 Performance of wind machine

The wind electrical plant should properly utilize the
wind energy in the best possible method. The overall
efficiency of the plant is calculated by
o A g c gen
where
o overall efficiency of the power plant
A efficiency of the aeroturbine
g efficiency of the Gearing

c efficiency of the coupling
Gen efficiency of the Generator
useful shaft power output

o Cp
wind power input
where C p Co-efficient of performance
C p of an horizontal axis wind machine is 0.593
Wind speed plays a very important role in the power

output as the efficiency of the system depends on design of
wind rotor and speed of rotation of blade.
VT
Speed of rotation of blade
V
where
V T Blade speed
V Wind speed
Blade speed V T DN m/sec
where
D Diameter of rotor
N Rotation frequency or rotation per second
4.12 TIDEL POWER PLANT

4.12.1 Introduction
Gravitational force between the moon, the sun and
the earth causes the rhythmic rising and lowering of ocean
water, around the world that results in tide waves. The
moon exerts more force (twice) on the tides as the sun
exerts, due to its much closer position to earth. Due to

these forces tides are formed. Here the energy of tides is
converted into useful form of power. Tidal power has more
potential for future electrical generation and is more
predictable than wind and solar energy.
4.12.2 Tidal power plants

The periodic rise and fall of the water level of sea
which is carried out by the action of the sun and moon is
called the tide.
The large scale up and down movement of sea

water represents an unlimited source of energy. If
some part of this vast energy can be converted
into electrical energy, it would be an important
source of hydropower.
The main feature of the tidal cycle is the
difference in water surface elevations at the high
tide and at the low tide. If this differential head
could be utilized in operating a hydraulic turbine,
then this tidal energy could be converted into
electrical energy by means of an attached
generator.
4.12.3 Components of Tidal power plants

The following are the components of a tidal power
plant. Refer Fig.4.32.
1. The dam or dyke (low wall) to form the pool or

basin.
2. Sluice ways from the basins to the sea and vice
versa.
3. The power house.
Dam or dyke The function of dam or dyke is to form a

barrier between the sea and the basin or between one basin
and the other in case of multiple basins.
Sluice ways are used to fill the basin during the high
tide or empty the basin during the low tide, as per
operational requirement. These devices are controlled
through gates.
Power house: A power house has turbine, electric

generators and other auxiliary equipment.
1. Single basin arrangement

In a single basin arrangement, power can be
generated only by intermittently. In this arrangement only
one basin interacts with the sea. Sea and basin are
separated by a dam and the flow between them is through
sluice ways located conveniently along the dam. The rise
and fall of tidal water levels provide the potential head.
Fig.4.32 shows a general arrangement of single basin

tidal power plant (double cycle system). Such plants
generally use reversible water turbines so that power is
generated on low tide as well high tide. The operation of
the plant is as follows:
When the incoming tide sea level and tidal-basin level

are equal, the turbine way is closed. When the sea level
rises, the turbine valves are opened and the sea water flows
into the basin through the turbine runner generating
power. This also raises the level of water in the basin. The
turbine continues to generate power until the tide passes
through the turbine. Bypass valve then quickly opens to let
water into the basin to gain maximum level. When sea and
basin water level are equal, the valves are closed as well
Da m O r Dyke
H ig h Tide
Se a
Tidal B asin
Turbine G e nerator S et
(R e ve rsib le Tu rbines)
(a) Hig h Tid e
Da m O r Dyke
L ow Tide
Tidal B asin
Se a
Turbine G e nerator S et
(R e ve rsib le Tu rbine)
(b) Lo w Tide
Fig.4.32. General Arrang em en t of Tidal P ow er
Plant - Single Basin.
as the turbine conduit. The basin level then stays constant

while the tide continues to go out. After sufficient head has
developed, the turbine valves are again opened and water
now flows from basin to the sea, thereby generating power.
The plant continues to generate power till the tide reaches
its lowest level.
2. Double basin arrangement
A single basin plant cannot generate power
continuously, though it might do so by using a pumped
storage plant if the load it supplies fluctuates considerably.
S luice G a te U pper B asin
S luice G a te L ow er B asin
Fig:4.33. Tidal Po wer P lan t - Double Basin Operation.
A double basin scheme can provide power continuously

or on demand, which is a great advantage. The drawbacks
is that the civil works become more extensive. In the
simplest double-basin scheme there must be a dam between
each basin and the sea and also a dam between the basins,
containing the power house. One basin is maintained
always a lower level than the other. The lower reservoir
empties at low tide, the upper reservoir is replinshed at
high tide. If the generating capacity is to be large, the
reservoirs must be large which means that long dams would
be required.
4.12.3.1 Advantages and Limitations of Tidal Power

Generation
Advantages:
1. Tidal power is completely independent of the
precipitation (rain).
2. Large area of valuable land is not required.
3. When a tidal power plant works in combination with
thermal or hydroelectric system peak power demand
can be effectively met with.
4. Tidal power generation is free from pollution.
4.12.3.2 Limitations
1. Due to variation in tidal range the output is not
uniform.
2. Since the turbines has to work on a wide range of
head variation (due to variable tidal range) the plant
efficiency is affected.
3. Machineries are corroded due to corrosive sea water.
4. It is difficult to carry out construction in sea.
5. As compared to other sources of energy, the tidal
power plant is costly.
6. Sedimentation and silteration of basins.
7. The power transmission cost is high because the
tidal power plants are located away from load
centres.
4.13 PUMPED STORAGE

Introduction
Pumped storage plants are generally used for peak
loads.
An interconnected system of pumped storage plants
are more suitable, when the quantity of water available for
power generation is insufficient in peak period and also
highly suitable for areas of high dam construction.
Pumped storage plant essentially consists of head
water pond and a tail water pond. During off-peak period
the water from the tail water pond is pumped with the
help of pump using the energy available from the thermal
power plant as shown in Fig.4.34.
The energy available during off-peak period is stored
as a hydraulic potential energy by lifting the water from
lower level to higher level. Thus the same energy is utilised
during peak load period by supplying water from the upper
P o w er S u pp lied L oa d C urve
By Pump S h are d B y Th erm a l
S tora ge & P um p S to ra ge -
P lan t P lan ts
(E s )
B a se L oa d
Lo a d in kw
Taken B y
Th erm a l P la nt
(E g )
P o w er U sed To L ift
Th e W a ter Fro m Lo w e r
B a sin To U p pe r B asin
Tim e in H o u rs
Fig:4.34 L oad C u rve fo r Pum ped Storage Po w er P lan t
basin to the hydraulic turbine through penstock. Hence the

quantity of water pumped may be equal to the water
passing through the turbine during peak load period
depending upon the requirement.
Number of interconnected pumped storage
hydroplants uses the concept of pump storage for meeting
peak loads and to decrease the thermal station operating
cost.
Operating modes of pumped storage plant
Sl.No Mode Duration Conversion

1. Peak load hours Turbine-genera Hydro-electrical
tor
2. Off-peak hours Motor-pump Electrical-Hydro
There are three types of operating cycles (i.e.,) Daily,

weekly and yearly.
4.13.1 Types of pumped storage plant

(i) Overground pumped storage plant
(ii) Underground pumped storage plant
(a) Overground pumped storage system with

hydro-electric power plant
The Fig.4.35 shows the overground pumped storage
system.
The system consists of
(i) Penstock
(ii) Dam
(iii) Powerhouse pumps & turbine
(iv) Lower basin
(v) Upper basin
U pper B asin
P ensto cks
H ead
P ow er H ou se
w ith Pum p s
Turbine s
L ow er D am
B asin
Fig:4.35 O ver Groun ded Pumped

Sto rag e S ystem
Upper basin is located at higher level and away from

the power plant. The lower basin is located near power
house where pumped storage plant is installed.
Working
The water from upper basin is transmitted to lower
basin by means of penstock through turbine and the water
is stored in lower basin for pumping.
During low load condition, the water is pumped from

lower basin to upper basin using the extra energy available.
This water can be again used for generating power during
peak load periods.
Pumping of water may be done seasonally (or) daily

depending upon the nature of load on the plant and
condition of site.
(b) Overhead pumped storage plant in combination

with steam power plant
The over head pumped storage plant consists of
(i) Pressure conduit

(ii) Upper basin
(iii) Base load steam plant
(iv) Turbine
(v) Motor (or) Generator
(vi) Pump
The Fig.4.36 shows the over head pumped storage

power plant in combination with steam power plant.
U p pe r Ba sin
Ba se L oa d Steam
Plant
Po w er
To
C o nsum e rs
Pressu re
C o nd uit
Valve
Pu m p Tu rbine
M /G
Low e r Ba sin
Fig:4.36 Over Headed P um ped Storage System
Working
This type of plant is interconnected with steam plant.
During low load conditions, the capacity of steam plant is
used in pumping water. Then the pumped water is again
used in peak load conditions.
The energy available from the quantity of water

pumped by the plant is less than the energy input given
during pumping operation. Again using the pumped water
the power available is reduced due to losses occuring in
prime mover.
(ii) Under ground pumped storage plant

The concept of over ground hydel pumped storage is
similar to under ground pumped storage plant except the
upper basin is at ground level and the lower basin power
plant is at underground.
This types of plants are preferred for sites having

large under ground chamber or salt solution mines which
can store water in lower reservoir. The underground
pumped hydel plant does not depend upon the topology of
low and high level reservoirs. The operating principle is
similar to over ground pumped hydel systems.
Advantages
1. There is an improvement in load factor of the power
plant.
2. Load on the hydroelectric plant remains constant.
3. The energy available during peak load periods is
higher than the low load period including losses in
pumping.
4. The pumped storage plant can be constructed near

to the load centers than the conventional hydel (or)
thermal plant.
5. The capacity of plant does not depend upon river
flow and seasonal variations in flow.
Disadvantages
It requires a minimum water head of 200 m.
Dual energy conversion system is required for
every pumped storage plant.
4.14 SOLAR POWER PLANTS
The surface of earth receives energy of 10 14 kW from

the sun. It is evident that sun will last for 10 11 year. Even
though the sun light is filtered by atmosphere, for every
one square meter of land exposed to direct sun light
receives the energy of 1 HP (or) 1 kW.
There are two obstacles to harness solar energy, one
is the energy is not constantly available on earth so storage
is needed to sustain a solar power system through the night
and during bad weather conditions. Second the solar energy
is diffused (i.e.,) scattered all over. Since the total amount
of energy available is enormous, the collection and
conservation of solar energy should be carried out over a
large area, which requires large capital investment for the
conversion apparatus.
4.14.1 Types of solar power plant

(i) Solar pond electric power plant
(ii) Low temperature solar power plant
(iii) Medium temperature systems using focusing -

collector
(iv) High temperature systems - [solar farm and solar

power plant]

A low temperature thermal electric power production
scheme using solar pond is shown schematically in
Fig.4.37. The energy obtained from a solar pond is used to
drive a Rankine cycle heat engine. Hot water from the
bottom level of the pond is pumped to boiler where the
C o olin g To w er
Sun
C o nd en ser
C o ld W a ter
S o la r R a diation E vap o rato r/B oile r
O rg an ic Pum p
S o la r P o nd Fluid
C o ld
B rin e
T u rb in e
Fig:4.37. Solar Pond Electric Po wer P lan t. E lectrica l

O utpu t
organic working fluid is vapourized. The vapour then flows

under high pressure to the turbine where it expands and
runs an electric generator producing electricity. The exhaust
vapour is then condensed in a condenser and the liquid is
pumped back to the evaporator and the cycle is repeated.
In Australia, a 2000 sq.m solar pond equipped with
a 20 kW engine has been installed.
(ii) Low temperature solar Power Plant

Fig.4.38 shows a schematic diagram of a low
temperature solar power plant. In this system, an array of
flat plate collectors is used to heat water to about 70C
and then this heat is used to boil butane in a heat
exchanger. The high pressure butane vapour thus obtained
H o t Water C ircuit
Array of Flat
t io n
Plate
R a d ia
C o lle ctors
S o la r
Bu ta ne
Water
Pu m p
Bu ta ne
Bo iler
Pu m p
Water for Irrigation

Pu rposes
W ell
C o ndenser
Fig:4.38 L ow Te m pe ra tu re S olar Po w er P lan t.
runs a butane turbine which in turn operates a hydraulic

pump which pumps the water from well for irrigation
purposes. The exhaust butane vapour (from butane turbine)
is condensed with the help of water which is pumped by
the pump and the condensate is returned to the heat
exchanger (or boiler).
(iii) Medium Temperature Systems Using Focusing
Collectors
A circular or rectangular parabolic mirrors can collect
the radiation and focus it on to a small area. A mechanism
for moving the collector to follow the sun is necessary. Such
devices are used for metallurgical research where high
purity and high temperature are essential. For example, a
55 m diameter collector is giving about 1 MW (th) at Mont
Louis in Pyrenees. Smaller units having 20 m diameter
reflector can give temperature of 300C over an area of
about 50 m 2. The collector efficiency is about 50%. On a
small scale, units about 1 m diameter giving temperature
of about 300C are being used for cooking purposes.
Fig.4.39. C on cave So lar Energy C ollecto r

Fo cu ses Sun s R ays on B o ile r at Foca l Po int.
Fig.4.39 shows a concave solar energy collector

focusing suns rays on boiler at a focal point. Generation of
steam at 250C could give turbine efficiencies up to 20 -
25 per cent.
(iv) High Temperature Systems - Solar Farm and
Solar Power Plant
For a large scale production of solar-heat, the
following two concepts are available:
1. The solar farm: It consists of a whole field covered
with parabolic trough concentrators.
2. The solar tower: It consists of a central receiver on
a tower and a whole field of tracking.
In case of a solar farm, temperature at the point of
focus can reach several hundred degrees celsius. Fig. 4.40
shows a solar tower systems.
Fig.4.40 S olar To w er S ystem .
In case of central receiver solar tower concentrators,

temperature can reach thousands of degrees celsius, since
a field of reflectors (heliostats) are arranged separately on
sun-tracking frames to reflect the sun on to a boiler
mounted on a central tower. (Fig.4.41).
Fig. 4.41
With both systems (solar farm and solar tower), a

heat transfer fluid of gas is passed through the point or
line of insolation concentration to collect the heat and
transfer it to the point of use. Such heat can be used either
directly in industrial or commercial processes or indirectly
in electricity production via. steam turbine.
R e ce iver
H e liostat
Field
Tra nsform er
So dium
Stora ge
Tan ks Bo iler Steam M otor
G ene rator
........
...........
........... ..........
..............
............ ....
..... .
.. ... ..
..
Fig.4.42 D iag ram of So lar Tower Power Plant.

The solar technologies discussed in the above two

systems that produce very hot water or steam are currently
still under development and, in general, these technologies
are not cost competitive with conventional power sources
such as oil or gas.
4.14.2 Solar Central Receiver system

Power plant ranging from 50 MW to 200 MW comes
under Central Receiver systems. In central receivers
system, several heliostats are located on ground level and
focussed to central receivers, mounted on tall tower.
The system is sub divided into following subsystems.
(i) The tower with central receiver
(ii) Heat conversion system

S u n R ays
C e ntral
R e ce iver
S u n R ays
H e lio stats w ith

Tow e r Tra ck ing M echa n ism
Fig:4.43 C entra l R eceiv er Syste m
(iii) Heat storage device
(iv) Heliostats
(i) The tower with central receiver

Heliostats placed in ground level redirects the sun
rays towards a receiver at the top of the tower. The central
receiver is responsible for transforming the concentrated
radiation into heat.
(ii) Heat conversion system

The water at high pressure (100 atm) is allowed to
pass through heat conversion system in the tower and the
water is converted into superheated steam 500 C.
Then the steam is piped to ground level to drive

turbine system. Air and organic salts also used as working
fluid which can be used to increase performances of gas
turbine by intake air heating at the entrance of combustion
chamber.
(iii) Heat storage devices

The short term heat storage is provided by, fire
bricks, fixed salt, sulphur, ceramic oxides. The selection of
conventional storage material is determined by its corrosion
characteristics, cost, convenience of use, thermal
conductivity and operating temperature of working fluids.
(iv) Heliostats (Mirrors)

The glass mirrors are manufactured by using
metalization flexible plastic sheets. The glass mirror
produced must be capable to withstand wind load without
any supporting structure and the glass mirrors should be
steerable.
The system consists of a central stationary receiver

to which the solar radiation is reflected by heliostats. A
heliostat is composed of a large array of mirrors fixed with
a tracking mechanism to track the sun as desired. They
focus solar radiation on a central receiver which is
stationary. High concentration ratio can be achieved.
The Fig.4.44 shows a solar central receiver system.
The absorbed energy from the tower is extracted from the
receiver by means of converting water into steam at
suitable temperature and pressure, then the steam passes
through steam drum and separate water and also used to
store steam. Then steam at suitable temperature and
pressure is allowed to pass through turbines for power
generation. Then the steam passes through the condenser
and gets condensed into water. This process continues again
by pumping water to receiver with suitable pressure.
Pum p
S tea m C on de ns e r
E lectricity
R e ce iver
Fe ed W ate r
R e he ater
G en e rator
Tu rbine
S tea m D rum
(S tea m an d W ater
S e pe ra tor )
H e lio s tats
Fig:4.44
4.15 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS (SPV)

It was first noted by Edmond Becquerel in 1839 that
a voltage was developed when light was directed onto the
electrodes of an electrolytic solution. Solar Photovoltaic (PV)
converts sunlight directly into electricity. PV gets its name
from the process of converting light (Photons) into
electricity (Voltage), which is called the PV effect. The PV
effect was discovered in 1954, when scientists at Bell
Telephone discovered that silicon (an element found in
sand) created an electric charge when exposed to sunlight.
Soon solar cells were being used to power space satellites
and smaller items like calculators and watches. Utility
companies are also using PV technology for large power
stations. Solar PV is used primarily for grid-connected
electricity to operate residential appliances, commercial
equipment, lighting and air conditioning for all types of
buildings. Through stand-alone systems and the use of
batteries, it is also well suited for remote regions where
there is no electricity source. Solar PV panels can be ground
mounted, installed on building rooftops or designed into
building materials at the point of manufacturing. Solar
panels used to power homes and businesses are typically
made from solar cells combined into modules that hold
about 40 photovoltaic cells. A typical home will use about
10 to 20 solar panels to power the home. The panels are
mounted at a fixed angle facing south or they can be
mounted on a tracking device that follows the sun, allowing
them to capture maximum solar radiation. A number of
solar PV modules can be grouped together as an array of
series and parallel connected modules to provide any level
of power requirements, from mere watts (W) to kilowatts
(kW) and megawatts (MW) size. For large electric utility or

industrial applications, hundreds of solar arrays are
interconnected to form a large utility-scale PV system.
4.15.1 Photovoltaic cell
Solar energy can be directly converted into electrical
energy by means of photovoltaic effects that causes them
to absorb photons of light and release electrons. When these
free electrons are captured, an electric current results in
that can be used as electricity.
S u n Ligh t
Fro n t C o ntact
A n ti - R e fle c tive
C o ating
S p ecia lly Tre ate d

S e m i - C on du ctor
M aterial
B a ck C o n tact
Fig. 4.45 Pho to Vo ltaic C ell.
The Fig.4.45 illustrates the operation of a basic

photovoltaic cell, also called a solar cell. Solar cells are
made of the same kinds of semiconductor materials, such
as silicon, used in the microelectronics industry. For solar
cells, a thin semiconductor is specially treated to form an
electric field, positive on one side and negative on the other.
When light energy strikes the solar cell, electrons are
knocked loose from the atoms in the semiconductor
material. If electrical conductors are attached to the
positive and negative sides, forming an electrical circuit,
the electrons can be captured in the form of an electric

current that is, electricity. This electricity can then be used
to power a load, such as a light or a work.
4.15.2 Basic photovoltaic system
A basic photovoltaic system with utility grid is shown
is Fig.4.46. This system helps enable the generated power
to be delivered to the load.
B a tte ry
S tora ge L oc al L oa d
S o la r C e ll
A rra y In ve rte r
B lock in g D iod e
Fig: 4.46 F rom U tility Fe e de r
The solar array converts the solar radiation to useful

D.C electrical power. The blocking diode confines the
electrical power generated by solar array to flow towards
the battery. Battery storage stores the electrical power
generated. Invertor converts the battery voltage to A.C
needed to integrate to the utility grid.
The size of the solar array, battery bank, and AC
inverter required for a typical solar PV application depends
on a number of factors, such as the amount of electricity
used, the amount of sunlight at the site, the number of
days without backup required, and the peak electricity
demand at any given time. Sufficient battery storage can
easily allow a solar PV system to operate fully
independently of a utility or generator set back-up.
Traditional solar photovoltaic cells are made from

silicon, with flat-plate, which makes them very cost
efficient. Second-generation solar cells are made from
amorphous silicon or nonsilicon materials such as cadmium
telluride. Thin film solar cells use layers of semiconductor
materials with only a few micrometers thick. Because of
their flexibility, thin film solar cells can be used as rooftop
tiles, building blocks, or the glazing for skylights.
Third-generation solar cells are being made from a

variety of new materials besides silicon, including solar inks
using conventional printing press technologies, solar dyes,
and conductive plastics. Some new solar cells use plastic
lenses or mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto a very small
piece of high efficiency PV material. The PV material is
more expensive, but because so little is needed, these
systems are becoming cost effective.
4.15.3 Limitation of PV system

1. Reflection losses on the surface.
2. Inefficient absorption of solar radiation.
3. Incomplete collection of electron hole pain.
4. Internal series resistance.
5. Fluctuating voltage.
4.15.4 Advantages of solar photovoltaic cell

1. No environment problem.
2. There is no moving part.
3. Easy operation and maintenance.
4. High reliability.
5. System fabrication is easy.
6. Ability to function unattended for long periods

enables their use to remote area and space
programme.
7. The source is unlimited (unconventional).
4.15.5 Disadvantage of solar photovoltaic cell

1. Cost of solar cell is very high.
2. Voltage output is not constant, it varies with time
of the day and weather.
3. Amount of power generated is small.
4.16 GEO THERMAL POWER PLANT
Introduction
The growing demand of power will exhaust all fossil
fuel sources in few decades. Therefore there is a permanent
need for unconventional energy sources such as sun, wind,
tidal and geothermal. The geothermal energy has a great
potential and is being commercially exploited in few
developed countries. 94% of the earth is molten. Only the
outer shell is a solidified rocks which ranges in thickness
from 6 to 150 km. The temperature at the centre of the
earth (core) is around 3100 C and the temperature at the
junction between the magma body and crust is around
1200 C. (i.e.,) the temperature at which most rocks melts.
The crust of the earth is an excellent insulator, allows only
little amount of heat to reach earth surface. When the heat
escapes from the crust reaches water source it evaporate
the water and converts it into steam. This steam is
converted into useful work (or) power.
As we travel down earths surface radially, there

exists a temperature gradient of 0.03 C per metre. Thus a
30C increase in temperature can be obtained per kilometer

depth from the earths crust. There are many local hot spots
just below the surface where the temperatures are much
higher than expected. Ground water, when comes into
contact with these hot spots, either dry or wet steam is
formed. By drilling holes to these locations, hot water and
steam can be tapped and these can be used for power
generating or space heating.
H o t spring
Bo ilin g B eg in s
0
Pu re Wa ter
Wa te r W ith
D issolve d G ase s
B ack
D e pth (Metres)
. . .. .. .. .. . .. . ... .. ..
. . .. .... .. . .. . .. . .. ..
3 00 0 . .. . . . . . . .. . ... . .
F lo w
. .. . . . . . . .. .... .. Pe rm ea ble
. . . . . ..... . .. . . .. . . . . . ..... . .. . ...
R o cks
Of W
C rystalline R o cks
a te r
w He a
t f lo t f lo
H ea w
6 00 0 C o nvecting M ag m a
Fig. 4.47 Hot Spring System S tructure.
Geothermal energy is the primary energy from earths

own interior. The geothermal energy from earths interior
is almost inexhaustible as solar, wind and tidal energy.
Geothermal energy can be used for power generation.
Geothermal energy is present all over the entire

extent of earth surface, except the volcanic areas.
Fig. 4.47 shows how hot springs are produced

through hot magma (molten mass), the fractured crystalline
rocks, the permeable rocks and percolating ground water.
The three primary means of heat transfer from the

earth interim are
(i) Direct heat conduction.

(ii) Rapid injection of ballastic magma along natural
rifits from deep earths mantle.
(iii) Bubble like magmas that buoys upwards towards
the surface.
4.16.1 Geothermal sources

These are the five categories of geothermal sources
that have been identified
1. Hydrothermal corrective system

(i) Dry steam fields
(ii) Wet steam fields
(iii) Hot water fields
2. Geopressure resources
3. Petro-thermal (or) hot dry rocks (HDR) thermal
4. Magma resources
5. Volcanoes
From the above mentioned geothermal sources the
best resources for geothermal energy are Hydrothermal
convective sources and dry rock is also being considered.
4.16.2 Hydrothermal convective system

1. Dry steam systems
The arrangements of the components of dry steam
system is shown in Fig.4.48. This system consists of pump,
condenser, steam turbine and generator.
Working
The centrifugal separator separates the liquid
particles and suspended solid particles from the steam
coming out from geothermal zone and directs the steam
into turbine. The turbine is directly coupled with generator.
C onden ser
G en erator
S tea m + -
Turbine To P ow er P um p
D ry H ouse
S tea m
o
a t 1 50 C C onden sed
C entrifu ga l S tea m To
S epera tor R e inje ctio n
W e ll
G eo therma l Zone
Fig. 4.48 Dry Steam Open System
Then the dry steam passes through condenser and the

condensed water is pumped into the reinjection well. After
depletion of thermal energy in geothermal region or
insufficient supply of steam, to keep uninterrupted steam
supply, new wells must be drilled.
2. Wet steam system

The main problem in this type of plant is salt
corrosion. There is a need for steam separation and brine
reinjection to avoid ground subsidence. This type of power

plant requires larger area. This type of power plants can
be made more economical by associating with chemical
industries with power plant to make use of brine solutions
and gaseous effluent.
The arrangement of component of wet steam system
or flash steam open type system is shown in Fig.4.49.
Water at high temperature coming out of geothermal
zone is directed to flash chamber where the water is
converted into steam and also separates the brine. Then
the steam from the flash chamber is directed to steam
turbine which is directly coupled to generator. The steam
coming out of turbine is condensed by condenser. From
condenser the condensed steam and brine from the flash
chamber is pumped and sent to re-injection well as shown
in Fig. 4.49.
G en e rator C o nd en ser
S tea m + -
D ry Tu rbine To P ow e r
S tea m H o use
Flas h C ha m be r
a nd B rine
S e pe ra tor B rine Pum p
G eo th erm a l B rine a nd
Hot Zo ne C o nd en sate to
B rine R e -in fe ction W e ll
Fig:4.49 F lash Steam O pen Typ e.
The temperature of reservoir is in between 200 to

300C and the volume of reservoir is many tens of cubic
kilometer and the reservoir must have a low permeability
to keep the heat and the water. The water should not
contain excessive salt otherwise salt corrosion and effluence
deposition become serious problems.
(b) Binary system
Many times, the temperature and pressure of water
available is not sufficient to produce the flash steam. So in
this type, the heat in the water is used as a closed system
as shown in Fig. 4.50. In this system Isobutane (or) Freon
is used as working fluid which is continuously recirculated.
The main advantage with closed system is that, lower hot
water temperature can be used and brine corrosion is
prevented.
Vap ou r
C o nd en ser
Vap ou r
G en erator
C o nd en sed
S tea m - S o lu tio n
+ Pump
Tu rbine To P ow e r H ouse
H e at Exch ang er
Hot G eo th erm a l Zon e

B rine
Fig:4.50. H ot W ater C lo sed (Binary) System
The working fluid Freon or Isobutane has a nature

to absorb heat [which is used as a refrigerant in
Refrigeration] & also rejects heats when condensed and
converts into liquid solution. In this system the flash

chamber is replaced by heat exchanger.
When the hot brine passes through the heat
exchanger, it transfer the heat to working fluid. Then due
to absorbtion of heat, working fluid is converted into vapour
and allowed to pass through turbine where turbine is
coupled with generator to produce power. This vapour then
passes through condenser and condenses into liquid
solution, which is pumped again to heat exchanger to
absorb heat hence called as closed system.
3. Hot dry rock system
In this type of geo thermal energy, heat content is
found in the form of hot dry rock. In this type of energy,
heat will have to be
transferred to the surface by
means of artificially injected H o t D ry R o cks
water by means of specially (O lym pic da n up pe r
Sp ancer G ell)
contracted pathways and
the rock will have to be Po w er
fractured to give good
contact of heat in between
Se dim ents
I nsulating
water and rock.

This type of
geothermal source is more
attractive, because one cubic
mile of hot rock when it C lo sed
System
cooled from 350C to 180C ,
it will give energy of a
major oil field, about (1/3) H o t Fractured
R o cks
billion barrel of oils and it
Fig:4.51 Hot Dry Rocks
could yield about 8000 MW - year of energy.

4. Magmatic molten chamber systems
The temperature range of volcano is from 1000 C to
1300 C. More than 30% of energy from a volcano between
1150 C and ambient temperature 25C is recoverable above
the solidification temperature of lava. Extraction of heat
from magma is studied at a temperature of about 1450 C
under laboratory conditions. Based on the experiment to
produce 100 MW power, 400 m 2 of heat exchange surface
area is required, using an average value of 250 kW/m 2 of
heat extraction rate.
It is required to use a single 20 cm diameter tube
extending upto 700 m into volcanic chamber. Extension of
tube in magma chamber for magma source will be possible
upto 4 to 5 kilometers of the surfaces.
The energy recovery from deeper source is very
difficult because we need to drill for a large distance and
solidification of magma around tubes reduces heat exchange
rate. The above are some major problems in developing
such system.
Advantages of Geothermal Energy:
1. Geothermal energy is cheaper.
2. It is versatile in its use.
3. It is the least polluting as compared to other
conventional energy sources.
4. It is amenable for multiple uses from a single
resource.
5. Geothermal power plants have the highest annual

load factors of 85 percent to 90 percent compared to
45 percent to 50 percent for fossil fuel plants.
6. It delivers greater amount of net energy from its
system as compared to other alternative or
conventional systems.
7. Geothermal energy from the earths interior is
almost as inexhaustible as solar or wind energy, so
long as its sources are actively sought and
economically tapped.
Disadvantages:
1. Low overall power production efficiency (about 15%
as compared to 35 to 40% for fossil fuel plants).
2. Drilling operation is noisy.
3. Large areas are needed for exploitation of
geo-thermal energy.
4. The withdrawal of large amounts of steam or water
from a hydro-thermal reservoir may result in surface
subsidence or settlement.
4.17 OCEAN ENERGY CONVERSION (OTEC) PLANT

Introduction
OTEC or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion is an
energy technology, which uses the oceans natural
temperature gradient to drive a turbine, which is connected
to a generator. It is desirable that the temperature
difference between the warm surface water and the cold
deep water in sea should be at least 20C 68F.
The Basic principle

OTEC systems rely on the basic relationship between
pressure (P), temperature (T) and volume (V) of a fluid,
which can be expressed by the following equation:
PV
a constant
T
where pressure, temperature and the volume of a

fluid can be closely controlled by manipulating the other
two variables.
Hence the differential in temperature of the fluid can

be used to create an increase in pressure in another. The
increase in pressure is utilised to generate mechanical
work.
Most of the suns radiation is absorbed by sea water.

Thus warm water on the oceans surface flow from tropics
towards poles. Cold water circulates at the ocean bottom
from poles to the tropics. Hence, in the tropical regions the
water temperature is around 5C at a depth of 1000 m,
where as at the surface, it remains almost constant at
25C .
Thus, we can employ a closed Rankine cycle to

generate power between these two steady temperatures.
Such plants are called Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion Plants (OTEC).
These systems would be located offshore on large

floating platforms or inside floating bulls. The warm surface
water is used for supplying the heat input in the boiler,
while the cold water brought up from the ocean depths is
used for extracting the heat in the condenser.
Bo iler/Evap ora tor

Wa rm Su rfa ce
W ate r
G en erator
W orking
Fluid Turbine
Pu m p
C o ndenser
Pu m p
C o ld W ater
from O cean
Fig 4.52 Schem atic Layou t O f OT EC
D e pth
Fig.4.52 Shows a schematic diagram of an Ocean

Thermal Energy Conversion Plant OTEC.
OTEC works on a closed cycle Rankine cycle and use
lower boiling point working fluid like propane, ammonia,
R-12, etc., This system can be located off shore i.e on large
floating platforms. To supply heat input to boiler, warm
surface water is used and for extracting heat in condenser,
cold water is brought up from depths of the ocean.
The efficiency of the rankine cycle will be low due to
small temperature difference between hot and cold streams.
This system allows only small temperature drop of 4 to
5C across the boiler and condenser. OTEC system is
attractive because both the collection and storage of energy
is done automatically by nature.
4.17.1 Types of OTEC

There are basically three types of OTEC systems
developed that can utilise sea water temperature
differentials.
(i) Closed cycle
(ii) Open cycle
(iii) Hybrid cycle
4.17.2 Closed-cycle OTEC System

The closed-cycle system uses a working fluid, like
ammonia, pumped around a closed loop, which has three
components: a pump, turbine and heat exchangers
(evaporator and condenser). Warm seawater passing
through the evaporator converting the ammonia liquid (4)
into high-pressure ammonia vapour at (5).
The high-pressure vapour at (1) is then fed into an

expander where it passes through and rotates a turbine
connected to a generator. Low-pressure ammonia vapour
kW
R e turn W ate r
M ain W ater i n to S ea
W orking W orking
Fluid Va po r Tu rbo Fluid Va po r
E vap o rato r G e ne ra tor C o nd en ser
5 1 2
4
R e turn W ate r 3 C o ld
to S e a W a te r in
W orking Fluid
Fe ed P um p
W orking Fluid
W orking Fluid C o nd en sate
Fig:4.54. Sch em atic of a C losed - C ycle O T EC System
leaving the turbine (2) is passed through a condenser,

where the cold seawater cools the ammonia, returning the
ammonia back into a liquid (3).
4.17.3 Open-Cycle OTEC system
W a rm S e a C o ld S e a W ater
W ate r in To Va cu u m R e turn to S ea
kW
Pump Vacu um P u m p
9
1 A tm o sph eric
D e sa lina te d D e sa lina te d
W a te r W a te r 8 D is solve d G as
Vacu um C h am b er G e ne rator Va po r
Turb o
Va po r
Flash 2 C o nd en ser
E vap o rato r 3 5 D e sa lina te d
W a te r 7
6
4
C o ld
W a rm S e a W ater
S e aw a te r in
R e turn to S ea
Fig:4.55. Schem atic of an O pen - C ycle O TEC System .
The open-cycle system is generally similar to the

closed-cycle system and uses the same basic components.
The open-cycle system uses the warm seawater as the
working fluid. The warm seawater passing through the
evaporator (2) is converted into steam (3), which drives the
turbine/generator. After leaving the turbine (5), the steam
is cooled by the cold seawater to form desalinated water.
The desalinated water is pure fresh water for domestic and
commercial use.
4.17.4 Hybrid OTEC System
The hybrid system uses parts of both open-cycle and
closed-cycle systems to produce electricity and desalinated
water. In this arrangement, electricity is generated in the
closed-cycle system and the warm and cold seawater
discharges are passed through the flash evaporator and
condenser of the open-cycle system to produce fresh water.
4.17.5 Important points about OTEC

(i) The advantages and disadvantages of the working
fluids used in OTEC (i.e) Ammonia and Propane.
Ammonia is less inflammable and has better
operating characteristics than propane. The
disadvantage is that ammonia forms irritating
vapour and could not be used with copper heat
exchanger.
Propane is compatible with copper heat exchanger
but is highly inflammable and forms an explosive
mixture when it mixes with air.
Ammonia has been used as the working fluid in
successful test of OTEC concept with base cycle
system.
Due to the low cycle efficiency, the heat to be
transferred in the boiler and condenser is large.
Also the temperature difference between sea water
and the working fluid in heat exchangers should
be restricted to very small values. For these
reasons, very high flow rates are required for
boiler, condenser and evaporator.
This results in higher pumping power requirements
which decreases net power output.
Due to the higher flow rate, evaporator and
condenser are made larger than similar
components in conventional type.
Due to high corrosive nature of sea water, the
materials suggested for heat exchanger are
titanium or alloy of copper and nickel.
Advantages
It is clean form of energy conversion.
It does not occupy land areas.
No payment for the energy required.
It can be a steady source of energy since the
temperature are almost steady.
Disadvantages
About 30% of power produced will be used to
pump water.
The system should to withstand strong harmful
effects of sea water. (hurricane, debris, fishes)
The material used should withstand corrosive
atmosphere.
Very high investment is required.
Plant size is limited to 100 MW due to large size
of components.
4.18 BIOGAS POWER PLANT
Introduction
Biogas is a combustible gas mixture of methane,
carbon dioxide, water and hydrogen sulphide produced
during the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter.
During anaerobic digestion, wastes are treated and
degraded and biogas is produced. Anaerobic treatment also
has the advantage over aerobic treatment of a smaller
emission of greenhouse gases. Biogas can be recovered and
used either directly for cooking, lighting or it can be
transformed into any kind of thermal, electrical or
mechanical energy. It can also be compressed, much like
natural gas, and used to power motor vehicles. The calorific
value of biogas is about 6 kWh/m3, what corresponds to
about half a liter of diesel and can be utilised directly as
a heat source or to produce electricity. In all cases, the
biogas must be dehumidified and purified before
combustion, since it may damage the gas engine.
Therefore, biogas is a renewable green energy source.
4.18.1 Biogas Composition

Biogas consists mostly of methane (CH 4, about
65-70%) carbon dioxide (CO 2, about 25-30%) and varying
quantities of water H 2O and hydrogen sulphide H 2S and
some trace amounts of other compounds, which can be
found, especially in waste dump biogas (e.g. ammonia,
NH 3, hydrogen H 2, nitrogen N 2, and carbon monoxide, CO).
The amount of each gas in the mixture depends on many
factors such as the type of digester used and the kind of
organic matter.
4.18.2 Biogas applications

The main applications of biogas are:
Cooking
Domestic lighting and heating
Fuel for I.C Engines
Used to make fuel cell (the electrolyte used in
Potassium Hydroxide KOH)
The gas needs to be upgraded by removing CO 2 with
the help of water scrubbing.
4.18.3 Converting Technologies

Various technologies to generate electricity from
biogas on a household level are available. In principle, the
chemical energy of the combustible gases is converted into
mechanical energy in a controlled combustion system by a
heat engine. This mechanical energy then activates a
generator to produce electrical power. The most common
heat engines used for biogas energy conversion are gas
turbines and combustion engines. Combustion engines can
be either internal or external combustion engine.
For small-size heat engines, combustion engines are

popular as they are more efficient and less expensive than
small gas turbines. Biogas is burnt for running a generator
(e.g. micro turbine). The installation is usually less than 5
kWe (Kilowatts-electrical). Instead of burning fuel to merely
heat the space or water, some of the energy is converted
into electricity in addition to heat. This electricity can be
used within the home or business or, if permitted by the
grid management, sold back to the electric power grid.
Plants producing electricity more than 5 kWe and less than
500 kWe generally sells the excess energy into the

electricity grid.
Biogas systems show the environmental friendly way
of energy production and have a positive impact on climate
change.
The technology is easily adaptable and can be applied

at household or community level. To minimise distribution
losses, it is normally useful for a single house or small
business because of the low power output.
4.18.4 Biogas plant

Biogas plant converts wet biomass into biogas by the
process of anaerobic fermentation. Biogas plants are very
popular in rural areas where biomass (cow dung,
agricultural waste, etc.) are abundant. A typical biogas
plant is shown in Fig.4.56.
The biomass (cow dung) is mixed with water to form

slurry in mixing tank. The slurry is stored in the inlet
chamber. From the inlet chamber the biomass is fed into
H ose G as O u tlet
Fina l S lurry P ipe P ipe U se for
L evel C ookin g or to
G as R un E n gin e Fina l
Valve S lurry
C lo sed D om e L evel
M ixing
Tan k O utlet O utlet
C ham b er Initial
S lurry L evel C ham b er
G a s
S lurry M ovem ent
D ue to Ga s M ax
P re ssu re D ig e ster P re ssu re
Fina l S lurry
..... .... ..
.. ..... ..
..... .... ..
. ....... ....... . ....... . ..... ......... ..... ........
.... ..
.. .... .. .. .. .. ....
.. .... .. .... ..... .. ....... ..... .. ....... ..... ..
. .. ... .. ... Found ation
L evel in
D ig e ster Fig:4.56 G as Plant.
the digester where the biomass undergoes anaerobic

fermentation and then the biogas (methane) is released as
a result of biomass decomposition.
The slurry fed in the plant comprises mainly of cow
dung mixed with other biodegrable waste. The slurry when
confined in a place without air, gives rise to mainly two
types of bacteria - Acid forming bacteria and Gasifying
bacteria. Volatile acids are formed from carbohydrates, fats
and proteins by the acid forming bacteria and
carbondioxides are formed by gasifying bacteria. This phase
is called as liquification phase. After this phase, the
methane bacteria work upon the volatile acid, producing
methane and carbon dioxide with the help of introcelluar
enzyme. This phase is called gasification phase.
The whole process is governed by factors like
temperature of slurry, loading rate, detention period, pH
value, nutrients concentration, solid concentration, toxic
substance, etc.
The Biogas produced consists of 55-60% methane and
40-45% carbonmonoxide with little amount of hydrogen and
hydrogen sulphide.
The gas being lighter in weight rises to the top of the
digester and stored there. A dome structure is made at the
top to prevent the biogas from escaping out into the
atmosphere. The plant has a strong foundation made up of
concrete.
The slurry move to the outlet chamber after being
fermentated. The moving of slurry is due to difference in
the gas pressure. The slurry at the outlet can be used as
manure.
A gas outlet pipe is provided on the dome structure
which is governed by a valve. When the biogas is required,
the valve is opened and when not required, it is closed.
The biogas from the outlet pipe is supplied for various

uses like cooking, domestic heating and lighting, I.C engine,
etc.
The I.C engine is coupled to a generator which
produce the electricity. The biogas need to be upgraded
before using it in an I.C engine by removing CO 2 and
heating the gas in order to make the gas free from
moisture.
4.18.5 Biogas problems
The dangers of biogas are mostly similar to those of
natural gas, but with an additional risk from the toxicity
of its hydrogen sulphide fraction. Biogas can be explosive
when mixed one part of biogas to 8-20 parts air. When the
tank is open for cleaning or repair work, open flames,
sparks, and smoking should be avoided. If light is needed,
a flashlight or sunlight reflected off of a mirror should be
used. Biogas leaks smell like rotten eggs (hydrogen
sulphide). If someone enters a biogas digester they should
always have someone with them in case they stop breathing
due to low oxygen intake.
It is important that a biogas system should never
have negative pressure as this could cause an explosion or
kill the digesting bacteria. Negative gas pressure can occur
if too much gas is removed or leaked.
Frequent smell checks must be performed on a biogas
system. If biogas is smelled anywhere, windows and doors
should be opened immediately. If there is a fire, the gas
should be shut off at the gate valve of the biogas system.
4.18.6 Site selection
While selecting the site for a biogas plant, various
points should be considered.
1. Land should have high bearing stress.
2. Easy water availability.
3. Adequate space for making composite pit.

4. Sun light should be available whole day through out
the year.
5. It should be atleast 3 meters away from foundation
of building.
6. Biomass should be easily available (near the cattle
shed).
7. Should be away from drinking water source.
8. Foundation surface should be plane and should be
at a higher elevation so that in rainy season water
logging problems do not occur.
4.18.7 Advantages
Generation of renewable, green electricity.
Low operating costs.
Underground construction minimizes land use.
Long life span.
Reduces greenhouse gases.
Increases family income by selling back electric
energy to the electric power grid.
No maintenance problems due to the absence of
moving parts.
No corrosion problems.
Requires expert design, skilled construction and
expert maintenance required.
Biogas production below 15C, is no longer
economically feasible.
High capital costs.
Variable gas pressure.
Scum formation.
4.19 FUEL CELL

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts
chemical energy of a conventional fuel directly into low
voltage D.C electrical energy. It is then described as a
primary battery in which fuel and oxidizer are stored
external to the battery and fed to it when needed.
A schematic diagram of fuel cell is shown in Fig.4.57.
The fuel gas is diffused through the anode and is oxidized,
thus releases electrons to the external circuit. The oxidizer
is diffused through the cathode and is reduced by the
electrons coming from the anode through the external
circuit.
L oa d
E lectro ns - A n od e +
C a tho d e
E lectro lyte
Fu el in O xid izer
in
Io ns O xid ation
P ro du c t
O ut
Fig:4.57 F uel C ell
The fuel cell keeps permitting the fuel molecule to

mix with the oxidizer molecules, and allow the transfer of
electron by a metallic path that contains a load.
4.19.1 Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell

This fuel cell uses hydrogen as fuel and oxygen as an
oxidiser. A typical hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell is shown in
the Fig.4.58.
Load
An od e - + C a thod e
H ydrog en O xyg en
.. . . . . ... .. . . . . ...
. .
. .. . .. ..... . .. . .. .....
. . . . .. . . . . ..
..... .. ... . Electro lyte ..... .. ... .
. . . .. .. .
. . .. . . . .
..... .. .... .. ... .. .. .... ..
. .. ..... . . . . ... .. .
...... .. . KO H + H 2 O ...... .. .
... .. .. . .... ... .... . ....
.. ..
. . .. . .. . . .. . ..
. .. .. .. ... . .. .... . ..
. .. . . .. . ... . . .. . Wa te r
Fig:4.58 Hydrogen - Oxygen F uel Cell
There are three chambers separated by two porous

electrodes, the anode and cathode. The middle chamber
between the two electrodes is filled with electrolyte (strong
solution of potassium hydroxide). The electrodes surfaces
are chemically treated to repel the electrolyte in order to
restrict the flow of potassium hydroxide to the outer
chambers.
The gases diffuse through the electrodes by
undergoing the following reaction.
At Anode: 2H 2 4H 4e
At Cathode: 4H 4e O 2 2 H 2O
Overall cell reaction: 2H 2 O 2 2H 2O

When the temperature is high, the electrolyte

material acts as a sieve and the hydrogen ions migrates
through the material. An electrical load is connected
between the anode and the cathode.
The chemical reaction in the cathode, the energy
representing the enthalpy of combustion of fuel is released
and a part of it is available for conversion into electrical
energy.
The water formed is drawn off from the side.
4.19.2 Advantages of fuel cells
1. Conversion efficiency is high.
2. Easy and simple construction.
3. Require very little attention and maintenance.
4. High power to weight ratio.
5. Fuel cell does not make any noise.
6. Less space required.
7. Quick operation.
8. Can be installed at the use point.
4.19.3 Disadvantage of fuel cell
1. It is very costly.
2. Short service life.
3. Low voltage output.
4. Proper attention is needed while selection of
materials.
4.19.4 Application of fuel cell
There are numerous applications of fuel cell because
of its compact size and easy to handle nature. Some of the
main areas of applications are
1. Domestic use
2. Automotive vehicle
3. Central power station
4.20 MHD POWER PLANT

Magneto Hydro Dynamic (MHD) is concerned with the
flow of a conducting fluid in the presence of magnetic and
electric field. The fluid may be gas at elevated temperature
or liquid like sodium (or) potassium.
4.20.1 MHD Power Cycle Principles
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction states that
a changing magnetic field is induced in an electric field in
any conductor located in it. The magneto hydro dynamic
(MHD) generator is based on the Faradays law of
electromagnetic induction.
This electric field while acting on the free charges in
the conductor causes a current to flow. In case of
conventional electric generator, the conductor crosses the
line of the magnetic field and a voltage is induced.
Similarly, in a magnetic hydrodynamic generator, when an
ionised gas flows across the lines of magnetic field, a
voltage is induced. The ionised gas acts like an electrical
conductor.
Magneto hydro dynamic generator is an efficient heat
engine which directly converts thermal energy into
electricity. A MHD generator uses a suitable working fluid
which is electrically conducting. The working fluid is a
partially ionised gas. The concepts of MHD generation
depends much more on the conductivity of the gas.
The conductivity of the gas is a function of
temperature.
Gases become conducting when their atoms of

molecules are stripped off one (or) more electrons thermally,
electrically (or) by using radiations.
However, extremely high temperatures are necessary
to achieve thermal ionization of the products of combustion
of fossil fuel (or) inert gases. Reasonable value of electrical
conductivity is obtained at temperature around 2000 to
3000 K, when the gases are soaked with additives of easily
ionising materials like alkali metals. This type of power
generation will reduce environmental pollution considerably.
Normally, the initial cost of MHD power plant is
slightly higher than that of conventional thermal power
station but it will be tolerated by its higher efficiency and
improved cycle of operation.
The important components of MHD generator are
shown here.
Hot
Ionised
G as S
Load
M agnet
Electrode s
Fig. 4.59 M HD G en erator

The hot ionized gas passes between the poles of an

electro-magnet. It induces a potential difference between a
pair of electrodes which are set at right angles of magnetic
field. During this, a current starts flowing in the resistive
load connected between electrodes.
The ionised gas has high temperature and pressure

and after passing through MHD generator, it is passed
through a generator where energy is added to it and it is
then recirculated in the MHD generator. This system is
simple one. This system has large power and temperature
handling capacity. It has high-reliability since the system
does not have any moving parts.
The MHD power plants can operate as base load unit,

peak load unit (or) semi peak load unit. It can operate
along with a large load variations without significant loss
in efficiency.
4.20.2 Types of MHD generators:

1. Open cycle MHD
2. Closed cycle MHD
3. Closed cycle MHD with liquid metal
1. Open cycle MHD:

The open cycle MHD generator is shown in Fig.4.60.
The gaseous fuel is burnt in the presence of high pressure
air (5 bar) in the combustion chamber. The high
temperature gas is passed through MHD after seeding.
To achieve the conductivity of the copper, the plasma

must be heated to very high temperature. The MHD
generator can operate at ionization levels well below this
temperature and the ionization can be simulated at lower
E lectro M agne t To A tm osp he re
Fuel+ S uper
S eed H eater R eheater
C om bu stion
C ham b er A ir p re B oiler
h ea ter and
G as in Inve rto r see d R ecove ry
C om pre sso r
. . .......
.
G en erator H .P ......... LPT
.
T
O ut put to grid
A ir in
.......
Fig.4.60 O pen Cycle M HD C onden ser ..
.............
.
temperature by seeding the gas with small quantities of

alkali metals such as cesium (or) potassium.
The interaction between magnetic field and plasma
gas produces electricity.
The hot gas is utilized to generate steam. The steam
generated is used in conventional power plants. The power
from the generator is coupled to steam turbine and power
from MHD after converting from DC to AC is fed to the
grid. The efficiency of open cycle MHD is between 50% to
60%.
2. Closed cycle MHD: The line diagram of closed cycle

MHD is shown in Fig.4.61. In closed cycle MHD, the
working fluid used are rare gases. The rare gas is heated
by the gas cooled nuclear reactor. The working principle of
closed cycle MHD is similar to open cycle MHD except that
the working fluid is recirculated again and again instead
of exhausting to the atmosphere. The most suitable working
fluid gases are noble gases like helium, neon, argon,
krypton and xenon because they have low electron affinity.
Neon is best suitable but helium is used mostly since it is
available readily. With the use of noble gas, calcium is used
as seed material which is most economical than potassium.
S uper C ondu cting

M ag ne t
S uper R eheater
S eed
H e ater
Inje ctor
He HD
B oiler S eed
reco very
Inve rto r
H ig h Tem p
N u cle ar
R eacto r To G rid
H E-com pre sso r

G en erator H .P L .P.
C onden ser
P um p
Fig:: 4.61 Clo sed Cycle MH D

3. Closed Cycle MHD with Liquid metal:

In this, liquid metal is used instead of gas as they
have high electrical conductivity (ie about 10 6 times that
of plasma). The liquid metal MHD cycle is shown in
Fig.4.62.
C onden ser
P um p MHD
G en erator
N ozzle
S epara tor
Fast
B re ede r
R eacto r Inve rto r
G en erator
C onven tion al
S tea m Pow er
P ow er To G rid P la nt
P ota ssium
P um p L iq uid
Fig.4.62. Closed Cycle M HD G en erator using Liq uid M etal
as W orking Fluid Coupled with Steam Plant
The liquid metal generator is linked with breeder

reactor which has thermal flux source. The only difficulty
in this system is that the production of liquid flow with
high kinetic energy from a thermal power source. Before
passing thorough MHD, the liquid potassium from the
breeder reactor at high temperature is passed through a

nozzle to increase velocity of liquid metal. The vapors
formed due to nozzle action are separated in the separator
and condensed and then pumped back to the reactor. The
heat of the liquid potassium from MHD is utilized in
conventional steam power plant.
Chapter 5
ENERGY, ECONOMIC AND

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF
POWER PLANTS
Power tariff types, Load distribution parameters, load curve,

Comparison of site selection criteria, relative merits & demerits,
Capital & Operating Cost of different power plants. Pollution
control technologies including Waste Disposal Options for Coal and
Nuclear Power Plants.
5.1 ECONOMICS IN PLANT SELECTION

The plant capacity and size depends upon the power
demand. A power plant should be reliable i.e. its capacity
must be more than the predicted maximum demand. It is
desirable that the number of generating units should be
two or more than two in order to use the capacity of the
plant efficiently. Generating cost for large size units
running at high load factor is considerably low, however,
the unit has to be operated near its point of maximum
economy for most of the time through a proper load sharing
programme as too many standby will increase the capital
investment and rise the over all cost of generation.
In a steam power plants, the thermal efficiency and

operating cost depend upon the steam conditions like
throttle pressure and temperature. Also addition of boiler
accessaries like economiser, air preheater, superheater
increases the efficiency of the boiler. Boiler accessories cost
has to be balanced against the gain in the operating cost.
In hydel power plants, power can be produced at low

operating cost provided water should be in abundant. If the
quantity of water available is small, then the capital cost
per unit will be high as installation of hydel project involves
large capital expenditure.
The nuclear power plant should be installed in an
area having limited conventional resources, it must also be
noted that the plant located should be in remote or
unpopulated area in order to prevent the damage due to
radioactive leakage during operation as well as any
unpredicted hazards. Disposal of radioactive waste may be
another issue which demands abundant of water at the
plant site. The capital investment in a nuclear power plant
is large as it needs a large area to accommodate itself and
a large capital for its operation and maintenance.
The diesel power plant is best suited for the areas
where resources like land, water, etc., are an issue. They
can be easily located in the load centre. The choice of the
diesel power plant depends upon the thermodynamic
consideration. The efficiency of the engine increases with
higher compression ratio. Diesel power plants are quite
suitable for areas where small output without interuption
is needed like cinema hall, hospital, malls, industries, etc.
The gas turbine plant is also suitable for small
output. The cost of gas turbine plant is relatively low as
compared to diesel power plant, but its capital increases
with the addition of equipments like generators, reheater
and intercooler. The above cost is balanced by the
improvement in efficiency of the plant. The plant is widely
used in regions where gaseous fuel is available in large
quantities.
Energy, Economic and Environmental Issues of Power Plants 5.3
During the operation, there is a variation in load

according to the demand, therefore prime mover and
generators have to act fairly quickly to take up this
variation of voltage of the system. This requires that supply
of fuel to prime mover should be carried out by the action
of a governor. Diesel and hydro-power plant are quick to
respond to load variation as the control supply is only for
the prime mover, where as in steam power plant the control
is required for the boilers as well as turbine. Further to
cope up with the variable load operation, it is necessary for
the power station to keep reserve plant ready to maintain
reliability and continuity of power supply at all times.
5.2 IMPORTANT TERMS AND DEFINITIONS:

(i) Connected load: It is the sum of ratings in kW of
equipment installed in the consumers premises. If a
consumer has connections for 5 lamps of 60 watts each, a
TV consuming 100 W and a grinder consuming 1000 W,
then the total connected load of the consumer is
5 60 100 1000 1440 W
(ii) Maximum demand: It is the maximum load which

a consumer uses at any time. It can be less than or equal
to connected load. When all the electrical devices in
consumers house run to their fullest extent simultaneously,
then the maximum demand will be equal to the connected
load. But actually, the maximum demand will be less than
the connected load because all the devices never run at full
load simultaneously.
(iii) Demand factor: Demand factor is defined as the

ratio of maximum demand to the connected load.
(iv) Load curve: It is a graphical representation between

load in kW and time in hours. It shows variation of load
at the power station. If it is plotted for 24 hours of a day,
then it is called daily load curve and if it is plotted for one
year, then it is called annual load curve. The area under
the load curve represents the energy generated in a
particular period.
If the area under the load curve is divided by the
total number of hours, then the average load of the power
station can be arrived. The peak load indicated by the load
curve indicates the maximum demand on the power station.
A sample load curve is shown in Fig.5.1.
P e ak L oa d
P ow e r D e m an d (kw )
A ve ra ge
L oa d
B a se L oa d
12 AM PM
AM Tim e (h ou rs )
F ig.5.1 . L oa d C u rve
(v) Average load

Average load can be calculated by dividing the area
under the load curve (energy in kWh) by the time period
(24 hours)
Area under load curve

Average load
24
Energy consum ed in 24 hours

24
When the plant runs continuously at an average load,

it generates the same amount of energy that the actual
load curve shows.
(vi) Load factor: Load factor is defined as the ratio of

average load to the peak load (or) maximum demand. Load
factor and demand factor are always less than unity. Load
factor is used to estimate the cost of generation per unit.
If the load factor is more, then the cost of generation per
unit for the same maximum demand will be less.
The load factors for different types of consumers are

given below.
Nature of load Load factor

1. Residential load 10 - 15%
2. Commercial load 25 - 30%
3. Industrial load
Small scale industries 30 - 50%
Medium size industries 55 - 60%
Heavy industries 70 - 80%
4. Municipal load 25%
To get low production cost of electric energy, it is

always advisable to run the plant to its full capacity for
the maximum period of operation to give high load factor.
Hence, the base load plants (very high capacity) are allowed
to run at high load factor and peak load plants are allowed
to run at low load factors in order to reduce the overall

production cost.
(vii) Base load and Peak load Power Plants

Normally the power plants work at different load
factors. If the power plant is used to supply the load of the
base portion of load curve, then it is called base load power
plant. Base load power plants run through out the year.
They are of the large capacity and run at high load factors.
The fixed and semi fixed cost of these plants are usually
high.
If the power plant is used to supply the load on the

top portion of the load curve, then it is known as peak load
plant. This type of power plants are of smaller capacity,
run for a short period in a year and work at low load
factors. Peak load power plants should be able to start
quickly.
Hydraulic and Nuclear power plants are normally

considered as base load power stations. Thermal steam
power plant is considered as intermediate power station.
Diesel power plant is considered as peak load power
stations.
In order to meet the fluctuating power demand, the

hydraulic power is used along with the conventional steam
power plant.
In hydraulic power plants, the power can be easily

regulated by restricting the discharge through the water
turbine. Also, the time taken to start the hydraulic power
station is hardly 5 to 15 minutes. But the time taken to
heat the boiler of thermal power station is 2 to 10 hours.
Hence both thermal power plant and hydraulic power plant

are operated to supplement each other.
When both plants are used, the hydraulic power plant
with ample water storage will be used as base load plant
and steam power plant can be used as peak load plant. If
there is no sufficient water storage, then steam power plant
will act as base load plant and hydraulic power plant will
act as peak load plant.
The steam power plant can be located near the load

centre resulting in reduction of transmission losses and cost
of transmission lines.
The hydraulic plants usually rely on the availability

of water which in turn rely on the natural rain fall. Its
operating cost is very less. If the hydel plant is located
much far away from the load centre, then it is not desirable
and thermal power plant will be preferable.
(viii) Plant capacity factor

Plant capacity factor is defined as the ratio of actual
energy produced in kWh to the maximum possible energy
that could have been produced during the same period.
E
Plant capacity factor
Ct
where E Energy produced kWh in a given period
C Capacity of the plant in kW
t Total no. of hours in the given period.
(ix) Plant Use factor: Plant use factor is defined as the

ratio of energy produced in given time to the maximum
possible energy that could have been produced during the

actual number of hours the plant was in operation.
E
Plant use factor
C t1
where
t1 actual number of hours the plant has been in operation.
If the plant use factor approaches 1, then it indicates

the need for additional capacity of the plant. The high value
of plant use factor indicates that the plant is used most
efficiently.
(x) Diversity factor

It is important to provide the generating capacity
equal to consumers maximum demands to fulfill their needs
and the energy supplied should be charged as minimum as
possible. This is not possible in practice because of variable
load characteristics when a number of consumers with
different load requirements at different times during the
day are to be supplied. To make it possible, an attempt is
made to smoothen the load curve and obtain a load factor
as high as possible.
The time distribution of maximum demands for

similar types of consumers is measured by the diversity
factor.
The diversity factor is defined as the ratio of sum of

individual maximum demand to the simultaneous
maximum demand of a system.
In general, the high values of demand factor, load

factor, diversity factor and capacity factor are always
desirable for economic operation of the plant and to produce

the energy at a cheaper rate.
(xi) Variable load operation

The generation of power should be controlled and
regulated according to the demand and governing is needed
to achieve the same. The variable load problem affects the
power plant design, operation and cost of generation of
power. In all variable load problems, the generator and
prime mover must be able to take varying load as quick
as possible without change in voltage and frequency.
If the load on generator increases, then the motor and

prime mover will be slowed down in order to reduce the
frequency. While the speed of the prime mover is decreased,
the governor will admit more fuel in case of thermal power
plants and more water in case of hydraulic power plants,
in order to bring the speed back to normal and pick up the
load.
The base load plant should be run at high load factor.

The peak load plant should be of as small capacity as
possible to reduce the cost per kWh. It is desirable to have
economical load sharing between base load plant and peak
load plant. Steam power plants and nuclear power plants
are preferred as base load plants whereas diesel power
plant and hydraulic power plant can be used as peak load
plant.
Hydraulic power plant with ample water storage can

also be used as base load plant. If the whole load should
be supplied by the same power plant, then the prime
movers and generators should act quickly and take up load
without variation of voltage (or) frequency of the system.
As already stated, the governor is very much needed to

control the supply of fuel to the prime mover. The
equipment to be used for variable load conditions should
be so designed that it operates at lower loads with nearly
same frequency as at full load. The size of the generators
should be chosen so as to suit and fit into the portions of
the predicted load curve. If the load conditions vary too
much from the ideal one, then the cost of energy will be
increasing too much.
5.3 ECONOMICS OF POWER GENERATION

The main objective of a plant design is to make the
plant economic i.e., to generate power at low cost and thus
supply the same to consumer at low rates. The total cost
of power generation comprises of the fixed cost and
operating cost.
Fixed cost: It includes the following cost
1. Cost of land
2. Cost of building
3. Cost of equipment
4. Cost of installation
5. Interest
6. Depreciation cost
7. Insurance
8. Management cost
Operating cost: It consists of following
(i) Cost of fuel

(ii) Cost of operating labour
(iii) Cost of maintenance labour and materials
(iv) Cost of supplier like

(a) Water for feeding boilers, for condensers and
for general use.
(b) Lubrication oil and grease
(c) Water treatment chemicals, etc.
The cost of power generation can be reduced by taking
following points into consideration.
(i) Selecting equipment of longer life and proper capacity.
(ii) Running the plant at high load factor.
(iii) Increasing the efficiency of the power plant by
introducing accessories like preheater, economiser, etc.
(iv) Schedule maintenance of plant equipment to prevent
uncertain breakdown.
(v) Keeping proper supervision.
(vi) Simple plant designs.
5.3.1 Land, building and equipment cost and
installation cost
Normally the cost of land and building will not change
much with different types of plants. But the cost of
equipment changes considerably. The cost of the equipment
(or) the plant investment cost is normally expressed in
terms of kW capacity installed. The capital cost per kW
installed capacity does not change much for thermal power
plant but it varies a lot for hydraulic power plants.
Because, the hydraulic power plants cost varies with the
foundation available, type of dam and spillways used,
available head of water and quantity of water.
Interest: If the same capital is invested in some other
profitable business, then it might have fetched more profits.
To compensate this one, an interest on capitable investment
must be considered. An appropriate interest should be

charged on the capital invested.
5.3.2 Depreciation cost

Depreciation cost is the amount to be set aside per
year from the income of the plant to meet the depreciation
caused by the age of service, wear and tear of the
machinery and equipments. Depreciation amount collected
every year helps in replacing and repairing the equipment.
The capital investment for the plant can be recovered

by the depreciation amount at the end of life span of the
plant so that it can be replaced by the new plant.
Different methods are used to calculate the annual
depreciation cost.
The most commonly used methods are:
(i) Straight line method
(ii) Sinking fund method
(iii) Diminishing value method
(i) Straight line method

In this method, the depreciation occurs uniformly
according to a straight line law as shown in Fig.5.2.
Let P Initial investment to install the plant

S Salvage value at the end of the plant life ie.
end of nth year
n life of plant in years.
A Principal sum (or) capital cost of the plant.
(or) the amount set aside every year as
depreciation amount.
C ost Tota l
D epreciatio n
S alvag e va lue
L ife in yea rs
Fig.5.2. Straig ht Lin e Method
According to this method,
PS
A
n
The depreciation amount collected every year does not

depend on the interest it may draw. Any interest if earned
by the depreciation amount will be considered as the
income.
(ii) Sinking fund method

In this method, the annual amount to be set aside
per year consists of annual installments plus the interest
on all the installments.
r
Annul depreciation amount A P S n
1 r 1
where r rate of compound interest.
Fig 5.3 shows the depreciation curve for sinking fund

method.
The above formula can be derived by the following

steps.
Total
D e preciatio n
C ost
Sa lvag e Value
Life in years
Fig. 5.3. S inkin g F und M eth od
A is the amount set aside at the end of each year for

n years, then
Amount set aside at end of the first year A
Amount at the end of 2nd year
A interest on A A Ar
A 1 r
Amount at the end of 3rd year
A 1 r interes t on A 1 r
A 1 r A 1 r r
A 1 r2
Amount at the end of nth year 1 rn 1
Total amount accumulated in n years y P S
Sum of the amounts accumulated in n years.
y A A 1 r A 1 r2 A 1 rn 1
A [1 1 r 1 r2 1 rn 1] ... (1)
Multiplying the above equation by 1 r, we get
y 1 r A[1 r 1 r2 1 r3 1 rn]... (5)
Subtracting the equation (1) from equation (2), we get
y r 1 rn 1 A

1 rn 1
y A
r
r 1n 1
i.e. P S A
r
r
A n P S
1 r 1
(iii) Diminishing value method
In this method, the depreciation amount set aside per
year decreases as the life of the plant increases. This can
be explained by the following problem.
Problem 5.1: An equipment cost is Rs.30,000. The depreciation
amount set aside is 10% of the initial cost at the beginning of
the year and 10% of the remaining cost with every successive
year. What is the amount set aside during third year?
Therefore,
T he amount set aside 10
30,000 30,000
during first year 100
27,000 bala nce
27000 27000
during second year 100
24,300 bal ance
24,300 24,300
during third year 100
21,870 balance.
Since the maintenance charges are minimum in the

early years, heavy installments are required at the early
stages. And the installments will go on decreasing as the
time passes but the maintenance charges increase.
5.3.3 Insurance
It is very much important to insure the costly
equipments specially for fire accident. A fixed sum is set
aside every year to remit the insurance charges.
5.3.4 Management cost
The salaries of people working in the plant should be
paid whether the plant is working (or) not. Therefore, these
salaries should be included as a fixed charges of the plant
and are known as Management costs.
5.3.5 Operating cost
It is also known as running cost. This operating cost
includes fuel cost, operating labour cost, maintenance
labour and material cost.
The fuel cost is proportional to the amount of energy

generated. The rate of fuel consumption per unit of energy
generated also varies according to the load on power point.
The cost of oil, grease and water is also

proportional to the amount of energy generated. This cost
increases with the age of the power plant.
5.3.6 Total cost

The total cost of energy produced is the sum of fixed
cost and operating cost.
Apart from the above fixed cost and operating cost,

there are some important costs to be considered which are
explained below.
Customer charges
The costs included in these charges depend upon the
number of customers. The various costs to be considered
are as follows.
(i) Capital cost of secondary distribution system.
(ii) Cost of inspection and maintenance of distribution
lines and transformers.
(iii) Cost of labour required for meter reading and office
work.
(iv) Cost of publicity.
Investors profit: Normally, any investor will expect a
satisfactory return on the capital investment. The rate of
profit depends up on the business conditions prevailing in
different localities.
5.3.7 Cost of power generation
The cost of power generation can be reduced by
adopting the following economical measures.
(i) Initial investment on the power plant can be reduced.
(ii) Adequate capacity of the power plant can be selected.
(iii) The power plants should be run to their maximum
possible load factor.
(iv) Efficient fuel burning devices can be installed in
order to reduce the fuel cost.
(v) Operation of the power plant can be simplified in
order to reduce the power operating staff.
(vi) The power plant should be located near the load
centre as far as possible.
(vii) The transmission and distribution losses should be
minimised.
5.4 POWER TARIFFS

Power tariffs or Energy tariff / rate are the different
methods of charging the consumers for the amount of power
consumed by them. Cost of electrical energy generation
consists of fixed cost and operating cost and since the
generated energy is to be supplied to the consumers, the
total cost of generation of energy is recovered from the
consumers with the help of power tariffs. Consumers are
charged according to the maximum demand (kW) and
energy consumed (kWh). The power tariff chosen must be
able to recover the total cost, profit, operating cost, etc.
involved in the generation of electricity.
5.4.1 Aim of tariffs

Operation and maintenance cost recovery.
Recovery of cost capital involved during
generating, equipment, transmission and
distribution system.
Cost of materials, equipment, billing and collection
recovery.
Net return plus profit on the total capital.
5.4.2 Selection of tariffs

Easy to understand.
Provide low rate for high consumption.
It should be uniform over large population.
It should take into account maximum demand
change and energy change.
It should provide less charge for power connection
only for lighting.
5.4.3 Types of tariffs

The various types of tariffs are:
1. Flat demand rate.
2. Straight line meter rate.
3. Step meter rate.
4. Block meter rate.
5. Two-part tariff (or) Hopkinson demand rate.
6. Three-part tariff (or) Doherty rate.
7. Wright demand rate.
All the various types of tariff are derived from a

general equation T RX SY C
T Total amount of bill for the period considered
R Rate per kW of maximum demand
X Maximum demand
S Energy rate per kW
Y Energy consumed in kW during the period

considered
C Constant amount such as meter charges which

is to be added to the bill even if the consumers does not
use any energy for the period considered
1. Flat demand rate

It is based on the maximum demand irrespective of
the amount of energy consumed. It is expressed by
TRX
Flat demand rate eliminates the use of metering

equipments and were popular during the early times and
bill the amount based on the number of lamps used for a
fixed number of hour during the period considered.
Now-a-days this tariff is restricted to signal system, street
lighting, etc, where number of hours are fixed and energy
consumption can be easily predicted.
X =4
T
X =3
X =2
X =1
R
Fig. 5.4. F lat D em and Rate.
2. Straight line meter rate

This energy rate is the simplest form of tariff,
according to this rate the amount to be charged from the
consumer depends upon the amount of energy consumed in
kWh, which is recorded by kWh meter. It is expressed in
the form of T SY
This tariff in sometimes used for residential and
commercial consumer and are charged accordingly to the
energy consumption. This tariff has a major drawback that
a consumer using no energy will not pay any amount, even
though he has opted the service and has incurred some

expenses to the power station, also it discourage consumer
to use more power unless the tariff is very low.
Y
Fig. 5.5 . S traight Lin e Me ter.
3. Step meter rate

According to this tariff the charge for energy consumption
goes down as the energy consumption becomes more.
r
Fig. 5.6. S tep M eter R ate .
T SY
(Here S - energy rate in kWh decrease after use of

certain kW of energy)
4. Block meter rate
r
Fig. 5.7 . B lock M eter R ate .
In order to remove the inconsistency of straight meter,

the block meter rate charges the consumer on a sliding
scale. The term block indicates that a certain specified
price per unit is charged for all or any part of such unit.
The variation in bill is shown in Fig.5.7 and expressed as
T S1 Y 1 S 2 Y2 S 3 Y 3
The block meter rate does the same purpose of

decreasing unit energy charge with increasing consumption
as the step meter rate without its defect.
5. Two-part tariff or Hopkinson demand rate

According to this tariff, the consumer is charged as
per his maximum demand and energy consumption. It is
expressed as
T RX SY
This method requires two meters to record the

maximum demand and energy consumption of the
consumer.
T
X=3
X=2
X=1
r
Fig. 5.8 . Tw o - Part Tariff (or) H o pkinson D em and Ra te .
The tariff in variation is shown in Fig.5.8 which

shows the variation of T with respect to Y and taking X
as parameters.
This method is suitable and generally used for
industrial consumers.
6. Three-part tariff (or) Doherty rate
In this method of tariff, an addition of customer
charge is added to the Hopkinson demand rate, making it
a three-part tariff. It was introduced by Henry L. Doherty

therefore it is also called as Doherty rate.
This additional customer charge is fixed which
includes labour wages, fuel charges, etc.
It is expressed as T RX SY C
T X=3
X=2
X=1
C=
r
Fig. 5.9 . D oherty Ra te (or) Three - Part Tariff .
7. Wright demand rate

It was introduced by Arthur Wright in 1896. The
tariff focus of lowering both the demand and energy charge
for a reduction in maximum demand or in other words an
improvement in load factor. This tariff is best suited by
industrial consumers who have some measure of control
over their maximum demand. The rate is modified by
stating a minimum charge which must be paid if the energy
for the billing period falls below the amount by such charge.
For allowing fair return, some adjustments in the rate
forms are provided.
Some of them are
1. Higher demand charges in summer.

2. Tax adjustment.
3. Wage adjustment.
4. Discount to customers pay their bill on time.
5. Power factor adjustment etc.
Problem 5.2: A 65 MW power plant station has an annual
peak load of 50 MW. The power station supplies loads having
maximum demands of 20 MW, 17 MW, 10 MW, and 9 MW.
The annual load factor is 0.45. Find
(i) Average load
(ii) Energy supplied per year
(iii) Diversity factor
(iv) Demand factor
Solution
Given data:
Capacity of the power plant = 65 MW
Maximum demand on power plant = 50 MW
(i) Average load

A verage load
Load factor
Maximum load
Average load Load factor Maximum load
0.45 50 MW
22.5 MW
(ii) Energy supplied for year

Energy supplied per year
Average load No of hour in one year
22.5 MW 365 24 h
197100 MWh
197.1 10 6 kWh
(iii) Diversity factor

Sum of individuals maximum demand
Diversity factor
Sim ultaneous maximum demand
20 17 10 9 MW

50 MW
56

50
1.12
(iv) Demand factor

Maximum demand
Demand factor
Connected load
50 50

20 17 10 9 56
0.89
Problem 5.3: A power plant of 200 MW installed capacity has

the following data:
Annual load factor = 0.6
Annual capacity factor = 0.5
Calculate (i) Reserved capacity (ii) Energy generated per
annum
Solution
Average load
Load factor
Maximum demand ...(1)
Average load
and capacity factor
Rated capacity ...(2)
Comparing equation (1) & (2), we get
Load factor Rated capacity

Capacity factor Maximum demand
0.5 200
Maximum demand 166.6 MW
0.6
(i) Reserved capacity
Installed capacity Maximum demand
200 MW 166.6 MW
33.4 MW
(ii) Generation capacity

Average load load factor maxim um dem and
0.6 166.6 99.7 MW
Energy generated per annum 99.7 365 24
873.372 10 6 kWh
5.5 CHOICE OF POWER PLANT AND ITS SITE:

The choice of power plant and its site is a vital
decision making process in which the designer decide, as
to which type of power plant is best suited for a site and
will efficiently meet the energy demand.
The various factors to be considered while choosing

the type of power plant are as follows.
(i) Power plant site:
In order to select a site for power plant installation
the foremost requirement is that the cost of the land as
well as taxes on land should be low and must be near to
the load centre so that the transmission loss is low. The
site must be accessible by at least any one of the means
of transportation (rail, road, sea, etc.) in order to install
heavy machinery during construction and supply fuel
during operation easily. Sufficient amount of water should
be available near the site as it is needed as working fluid
in some power plant like steam power plant and for cooling
in others including the steam power plants. The site must
be away from thickly populated area in order to avoid
nuisance. The site sub-soil condition should be strong
enough so that the foundation can be made at reasonable
depth and withstand the load of the plant. Also, the site
must have sufficient space for future expansion that may
be needed with the course of time.
(ii) Type of fuel available
Selection of power plant also considerably depends
upon the type of fuel available near the site. For example,
if the site selected is near a coal mine, then a steam power
plant is preferred where as hydel power plant is chosen if
water is available in large quantity. A nuclear power plant
is best suited near river or sea so that nuclear waste can
be disposed easily. Diesel power plant and gas turbine are
best suited from area where load demand is low and
available resources are not adequate.
(iii) Type of load

It is important for a power plant to maintain
reliability and uninterrupted power supply at all times.
Load variation occurs during the operation and the plant
must cope up with the variation and supply energy at
constant voltage. If the load variation is not large, then we
can go for a diesel power plant. A hydel power plant of
small capacity can also be used as it can be started in short
period and take up load quickly. The power plant capacity
must be equal to at least the peak demand. The nuclear
power plant cannot be operated efficiently at varying load,
so a steam power plant or large hydel power plant is best
suited for large varying load.
(iv) Generating unit

For higher efficiency of a power plant, it is
recommended to have a set of smaller sizes, rather than
having a single generating unit of large size. This small
generating unit have better efficiency than a single large
unit. There should be at least two generating sets what
ever the total capacity of power plant may be. For example,
in a hydel power plant of capacity 200 MW, instead of
having a generating unit of 200 MW, we can go for three
smaller generating units of capacity 65 MW each i.e.
65 3 195 MW. The working of smaller generating units
will show a better result. It is also recommended not to
have too many small generating units (more than four).
(v) Cost
The initial cost of hydel power plant is very high but
the operation cost is low as it uses natural flowing water
(K.E) to convert into mechanical energy. The capital cost
of a nuclear power plant is very high, but its higher

capacity is an advantage. Diesel power plant and gas
turbine power plant are cheap to construct but are costly
in operation as it uses conventional fuel and is thus suited
for small capacity only. Steam power plant is costlier to
install when compared to diesel or gas turbine power plant
but has the same operating cost. But it is best suited for
its compact design.
It is always desirable to run the power plant at high
load factor so that the installed capacity can be used to its
optimum condition and produce maximum electrical energy
which will eventually lower the fixed as well as operating
cost of the power plant.
5.6 AN ELECTRIC LOAD (OR) POWER DISTRIBUTION

SYSTEM:
An electric load (or) power distribution system is the
final stage in the delivery of electric power to the end user
i.e., it carries electricity from the transmission system to
individual consumers. The distribution substations connect
to the transmission system lowers the transmission voltage
Transm ission L in es
500,34 5,23 0
and 13 8 kV
Su bsta tion
Step -D ow n
Transform er
G enerating Transm ission to

G enerating
Step U p C u stom er
Station
Transform er 130kV or 230kV
Se co nda ry
C u stom er
Fig.5.1 0. Load D is tribu tion Sy stem . 120kV and
240 kV
to medium voltage ranging between 2 kV and 35 kV with

the use of transformers to reduce the transmission loss and
increase the efficiency of the plant. Primary distribution
lines carry this medium voltage power to distribution
transformers located near the customers premises.
Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to the
utilization voltage of household appliances and typically
feed several customers through secondary distribution lines
at this voltage. Commercial and residential customers are
connected to the secondary distribution lines through
service drops. Customers demanding a much larger amount
of power may be connected directly to the primary
distribution level or the sub transmission level.
The modern distribution system begins as the primary
circuit leaves the sub-station and ends as the secondary
service, enters the customers meter socket by way of a
service drop. Distribution circuits serve many customers.
The voltage used is appropriate for the shorter distance and
varies from 2,300 to about 35,000 volts depending on utility
standard practice, distance, and load to be served.
Distribution circuits are fed from a transformer located in
a substation, where the voltage is reduced from the high
values used for power transmission.
Conductors for distribution may be carried on
overhead pole lines, or in densely populated areas, buried
underground. Urban and suburban distribution is done with
three-phase systems to serve residential, commercial, and
industrial loads. Distribution in rural areas may be only
single-phase if it is not economical to install three-phase
power for relatively few and small customers.
Only large consumers are fed directly from

distribution voltages; most utility customers are connected
to a transformer, which reduces the distribution voltage to
the relatively low voltage used by lighting and interior
wiring systems. The transformer may be pole-mounted or
set on the ground in a protective enclosure. In rural areas
a pole-mount transformer may serve only one customer, but
in more built-up areas multiple customers may be
connected. In very dense city areas, a secondary network
may be formed with many transformers feeding into a
common bus at the utilization voltage. Each customer has
a service drop connection and a meter for billing. With the
introduction of digital meter very small loads, such as yard
lights can be metered, small loads were too small to meter
in the conventional meter and so were charged only a
monthly rate before the introduction of digital meter.
A ground connection to local earth (Earthing) is
normally provided for the customers system as well as for
the equipment owned by the utilitys safety. The purpose
of connecting the customers system to ground is to limit
the voltage that may develop if high voltage conductors fall
down onto lower-voltage conductors which are usually
mounted lower to the ground, or if a failure occurs within
a distribution transformer. If all conductive objects are
bonded to the same earth grounding system, the risk of
electric shock is minimized. However, multiple connections
between the utility ground and customer ground can lead
to stray voltage problems; customer piping, swimming pools
or other equipment may develop objectionable voltages.
These problems may be difficult to resolve since they often
originate from places other than the customers premises.
Distribution networks are divided into two types,

radial and network. A radial system is arranged like a tree
where each customer has one source of supply. A network
system has multiple sources of supply operating in parallel.
The secondary network is commonly found in big cities and
is the most reliable system. Spot networks are used for
concentrated loads. Radial systems are commonly used in
rural or suburban areas.
Radial systems usually include emergency connections

where the system can be reconfigured in case of problems,
such as a fault or required replacement. This can be done
by opening and closing switches. It may be acceptable to
close a loop for a short time.
Characteristics of the supply given to customers are

generally mandated by contract between the supplier and
customer.
5.6.1 Parameter of load distribution include

AC or DC - Virtually all public electricity supplies
are AC today. Users of large amounts of DC power
such as some electric railways, telephone
exchanges, etc. usually either operate their own or
have adjacent dedicated generating equipment, or
use rectifiers to derive DC from the public AC
supply.
Nominal voltage, and tolerance (for example,
or 5 percent)
Frequency, commonly 50 or 60 Hz, 16.7 Hz and

25 Hz for some railways and, in a few older
industrial and mining locations, 25 Hz.
Phase configuration (single-phase, polyphase

including two-phase and three-phase).
Maximum demand (some energy providers

measure as the largest mean power delivered
within a 15 or 30 minute period during a billing
period).
Load factor, expressed as a ratio of average load
to peak load over a period of time. Load factor
indicates the degree of effective utilization of
equipment (and capital investment) of distribution
line of system.
Power factor or connected load.
Earthing systems - TT, TN-S, TN-C-S or TN-C.
Prospective short circuit current.
Maximum level and frequency of occurrence of

transients.
5.7 LOAD DURATION CURVES
5.7.1 Important terms and defination:
(i) Load curve

A load curve is a graphical representation of power
consumed by a consumer with respect to time. The
consumer will use power as and when required. The load
will always be changing with time and will not be constant.
(ii) Residential load

The power consumed by domestic appliances and
domestic lightings are called residential load.
(iii) Industrial load

The power consumed by various industries are called
as industrial load and load demand varies from industry to
industry.
(iv) Municipal load
The power consumed for street lighting, water supply
and drainage purposes are called municipal load.
(v) Irrigation load
The power consumed by pumps driven by electric
motor to supply water to fields is called as irrigation load.
(vi) Traction load
The power consumed by tram cars, trolley, buses and
railways are called as traction load.
(vii) Commercial load
The power consumed by shops, offices and hospitals
are called as commercial load.
(a) Residential load curve
Refer Fig. 5.11 The power consumed by a group of
residential community is plotted as a curve. During early
morning hours (6 A.M to 9 A.M), the electrical appliances
such as lights, refrigeration,
water heaters etc., consume
more power.
W inter
After 9 A.M, the
Lo ad
demand decreases and

Sum mer
remains constant till about
4 P.M. Then the cooking
appliances causes slight 12 3 6 9 12 3
A .M
6 9
P.M
12
demand after 4 P.M. After 5 Fig.5.11. R esidential

Lo ad C urve
P.M, the early sun-set of winter makes to switch on light

and total load approaches to peak by 6 P.M. During month
of december, the high demand occurs about 8 P.M. The load
drops fairly when families leave home for entertainment
outside (especially sunday evenings).
(b) Industrial load curve for one shift
The power consumed
by an industry for one shift
is plotted as a curve. In the
early morning hours, the
demand is generally for
Lo ad
lightings and auxiliary

drives (i.e.) for heating
boiler plants, electric
furnances, etc., The energy A .M P.M
Fig.5.12. Ind ustrial Lo ad C urv e
demand increases from 5
A.M to 8 A.M. This is
because machineries are run to warm up prior to operation.
By 8 A.M industry starts running and energy demand
remains constant until noon. Load falls as some of the
machines are shut down for lunch time. By 2 P.M the
machines are started which again increases the load. After
the load starts to drop just before 4 P.M as the work shifts
ends. 6 P.M most of the machines are that down and load
gradually reduces of until 10 A.M.
(c) Municipal load curve
Street lighting load is the only form of load that
does not exhibit peak demands. Normally all lights
are switched on at the same time and the turning
on and turning off depends upon time of sunset
and sunrise respectively. When the lights are on
W inter
L oa d
Lo ad
Sum mer
12 3 6 9 12 3 6 9 12 12 3 6 9 12 3 6 9 12
A .M P.M A .M P.M
(a) Street Lig hting Load (b) Water P um pin g L oad
Fig. 5.13. M unicipal Lo ad C urves
during night, the total demand remains almost

constant.
Water pumping load curve is shown in the Fig.
5.13(b) The water pumping load gradually
increases from 12 A.M to 6 P.M then starts
reducing. The curve depends upon the load
demands at different locations.
(d) Traction load curve
The power consumed
by traction load is drawn as
curve shown in Fig.5.14
From midnight till 3 A.M,
L oa d
the demand tapers and

reach its minimum and
continues up to 5 A.M. After
5 A.M, as the people 12 3 6 9 12 3
A .M
6 9 12
P.M
working in early shifts start Fig. 5 .14. Traction Load C urve
for their work, then the
required train service increases rapidly and load
continuously rises as the other office goes on working,
general shifts follow. The peak load reaches about 9.30 A.M.
The load after 10 A.M. rapidly diminishes as some of the
trains return to the yards. The minimum day-load is
reached during noon hours and rises continuously until the
evening rush hours. When the workers go back to their
homes, the load after 6 P.M rapidly falls. After midnight
the same cycle is repeated.
(e) Commercial load curve
The power consumed
by commercial load is drawn
as a curve shown in
Fig.5.15 At 8 A.M. the
lights in shops and offices
L oa d
are switched on for cleaning

and it reaches peak at 10
A.M. when the offices and 12 3 6 9 12 3 6 9 12
shops start. During 10 A.M A .M P.M
Fig. 5.15. C om m ercial Lo ad C urve
to 4 P.M the load remains
constant. It further
increases during 4 P.M to 6 P.M since more lights are
required due to decreased sunlight. Then the load rapidly
falls during 7 P.M to 12 night as the offices remain closed.
From 12 night to 8 A.M, only night lights are switched on,
so the load remains the same.
Load duration curve
The rearrangement of daily load curve with loads set
up in descending order of magnitude (or) power consumed
is called as Load duration curve.
The area under the load duration curve and the
area under the corresponding load curve are equal
and represent the energy consumed by the system

for that period.
The graphical method of constructing the load
duration curve from the load curve is described here and
shown in the Fig. 5.16
P max L oa d d u ration
P1 curve
a1 a1
P o w er in kw
P2 b1 b2 ( b 1 + b 2)
L oa d c u rve
P m in
12 3 6 9 12 3 6 9 12 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
A .M P.M Tim e in h ou rs
0% 2 5%
5 0% 7 5% 1 00 %
% Tim e
Fig. 5.16. Lo ad D uratio n C urve and the C o rrespon din g L oad C u rve
First, the daily load curve is divided by equally spaced

vertical lines. Now, to plot the load duration curve, the
value of abscissa (X-coordinate) corresponding to any load
ordinate (Y-coordinate) is equal to the length of the abscissa
intercepted by the load ordinates on the load curve (Refer
Fig.5.16) As the load duration curve is the loads arranged
in descending order of magnitude, we first consider the
maximum power demand P max. Here the intercept is a
single point, so it is plotted in zero hours. At load P 1, the
intercept is a1 hours, so the abscissa is taken as a1 and
plotted. At load P 2 the intercept are b 1 and b2, so the
abscissa is b1 b 2 hours. At minimum load P min, the
intercept covers the entire period of 24 hours and plotted

accordingly as shown.
We can see that any point on the load duration curve
corresponds to the number of hours the given load has
prevailed in a given period.
Thus the loads for a day, week, month (or) year can
be summarised using the load duration curve. This makes
the load duration curve very advantageous for power plant
design as the peak demand, the variations in demand, the
length of time they existed and the total energy involved
can be summarised in one simple curve. The load duration
curve is more convenient and easy to deal with than the
load curve.
5.8 POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL:

Day by day, the power requirement in the world is
on the rising side. In order to meet the requirement, it is
necessary to increase the number of power plants. By
increasing the capacity of power generation, it increases the
pollution from the power plant, which is undesirable to
every one. It is important to keep the pollution under
control. The effect of pollution on air and water are more
and to a lesser extent on the land.
5.8.1 Air Pollution by Thermal Power Plants:

Air pollution by thermal power plants causes various
respiratory diseases and lung cancer to human beings and
vegetables and plants are most sensitive to air pollution.
The major pollutants from the thermal power plant

are sulphur dioxide SO 2, carbon monoxide CO, minute
particles such as fly ash, carbon particles, silica, aluminum

and ion oxides.
Burning of the fuels like coal, oil (or) gas majorly
contribute to the air pollution by thermal power plants. The
combustable elements of the fuel are converted into gaseous
products and non-combustable elements are converted into
ash.
If no safe guards are provided, a coal fired 350 MW

plant emits about 75 tons of SO 2, 16 tons of nitrogen oxide
and 5 tons of ash per day.
In thermal power plants, the major problem is

removal of particulates and SO 2, which causes health
hazards. The oil fuels sulphur content is in the range of 2
to 5%. At ground level, the maximum permissible
concentration of SO 2 are 0.05 to 0.08 for 24 hrs, 0.12 to
0.2 ppm for 1 hour.
Under the influence of sunlight, the SO 2 is gradually
converted into sulphur trioxide SO 3. This reacts with
atmospheric moisture and forms H 2SO 4, which causes acid
rains.
At high temperatures, the nitrogen in the fuel is
oxidised and forms Nitrogen oxides NO and NO 2. They
produce sharp irritating effects on eyes. Lung congestion
and even death may be the result of high concentration of
NO 2. The maximum permissible limit of nitrogen oxide is
0.05 to 0.1 ppm. The amount of excess air supplied, method
of firing and furnace configurations are responsible for
amount of nitrogen oxide in the exhaust. The NO 2 is
3 3.5 times more toxic than NO. The concentration of
Nitrogen oxide varies during 24 hours. It has high

concentration at noon and low at night.
Burning of coal oil and gaseous fuel produce large
quantities of CO 2. Approximately it is 6000 million tonnes
per year. This may affect the heat balance and cause
uncontrolled change in climate. CO 2 absorbs the radiant
energy from earth surface and heats up and prevents the
heat lost by the earth. The climate changes could cause
melting of polar ice cap and change the fertile land into
desert. CO is produced by incomplete combustion. It is very
toxic and it is colourless and odourless. If body is exposed
to CO with concentration of 120 ppm, upto 5% of the bodys
haemoglobin becomes inactive. In the table 1, the quantities
of pollutants emitted by 400 MW plant for different fossile
fuel are listed in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1
Annual release in Lbs from 400 MW plant

using emission control equipment of 97.5%
Coal Oil Natural gas
Fuel used 9.2 10 5 6.97 10 8 7.7 10 10
annually tons (3.5% litres (1.6% litres
sulphur and sulphur
9% ash) content)
Pollutants 4.6 10 4 1.03 10 2.72 10 4
Aldehydes
Oxides of 1.84 10 7 1.91 10 7 1.06 10 7
nitrogen
Oxides of 1.22 10 8 4.64 10 7 1.08 10 4
sulphur
Carbon 4.6 10 5 7.36 10 3 Negligible

monoxide
Hydrocarb 1.84 10 5 5.88 10 5 Negligible
ons
Particulate 3.96 10 5 6.4 10 5 4.08 10 5
The effects of different pollutants on human health

are listed in table 5.2.
Table 5.2.
Pollutant g/m 3 Effects

SO 2 115 On human-suffocation, irritation of
throat and eyes, respiratory, asthma,
lung cancer.
On vegetation-destruction of sensitive
crops and reduced yield.
On Materials - corrosion
NO 2 in the presence of hydrocarbon
(HC) and sunlight causes
photo-chemical smog containing O 2
and peroxy acetylnitrate known as
Los Angeles Smog
NO 2 On human-irritation, bronchitis,
oedema of lungs.
H 2S On human-irritation, diseases of bone,
mottling of teeth, respiratory disease
On Vegetation-destruction of crops.
On Animals-fluorosis in cattle
grazing.
CO 15 On human-poisoning cardiovascular
diseases, increased accident liability
Particula 100 On human-respiratory diseases like

te (Dust silicosis (cough, cold, sneezing),
fume mist asbestosis.
and soot On Material-soiling and corrosion.
(0-1.10 The particulate and SO 2 together is
size) known as London smog.
5.8.2 Control of Atmospheric Pollution by Thermal

Power Plants:
Control of particulate matter:
The following types of mechanical arresters are used
for removal of solid particles from thermal power plant.
1. Fabric filters
2. Electrostatic precipitators.
It is economical to remove particles of 2 to 3 microns.

The particles below 2 microns are difficult and costly to
remove.
The ash removal is major problem in the power plants

which uses pulverised fuels. About 1% of the particulate is
always discharged to the atmosphere irrespective of the
steps taken to arrest it. The effects of particulates can be
reduced by the following methods.
(a) Coal cleaning
(b) Using improved electrostatic precipitator design
(c) Controlling the dust within allowable limit. This

can be done by increasing the height of the chimney there
by reducing the concentration.
The various equipments used for ash collection are

1. Electrostatic precipitator, 2. Fly ash scrubbers, 3.

Cinder catcher and 4. Cyclone dust collector
Control of SO 2:
The following methods are adopted for removal of
SO 2
1. Desulphurisation of fuel:
It is the process of reducing the sulphur content in
the fuel.
The following methods are adapted for

desulphurisation.
1. Chemical treatment
2. Forth flotation
3. Magnetic separation
Chemical treatment:
In this, the coal is bleached with an aqueous solution
of ferric sulphate in the temperature range of 90 130C
Forth flotation:
In this process, the coal is suspended in water in
which air is bubbled. The air particles attach themself to
the coal and the mineral waste falls down and is
discharged.
Magnetic separation:
Through strong magnetic field, finely crushed coal is
passed and pyrite FeS 2 is removed since coal has
non-magnetic property.
2. By using low sulphur fuel:

By using low sulphur fuel, the emission of SO 2 can
be controlled.
3. Using tall stacks:

Tall chimneys are employed to prevent air pollution
by SO 2, which disperse flue gases over large area.
4. Cleaning of flue gases:

The generally adopted methods to remove SO 2 from
flue gases are as follows.
1. Wet scrubbing
2. Solid absorbent and
3. Catalytic oxidation
The SO 2 removal methods adopted for gaseous, liquid
and solid fuels are different to each other. Removing of
SO 2 from flue gas is economical compared to removal from
fuels.
Removal of sulphur from liquid fuels are carried out

in the following ways by subjecting the fuels to a higher
temperature either with the use of oxidants called
gasification or without them called as pyrolysis.
The gasification is carried out at high temperature

900C to 1300 C with limited oxygen.
Pyrolysis is carried out at temperature between

700 1000C with out an oxidant.
1. Wet scrubber
Wet scrubber is also called as wet flue gas
desulphurisation system which uses lime stone in the form
of an aqueous slurry. When this slurry comes in contact

with the flue gas, it absorbs SO 2 in the flue gas. This
absorbed SO 2 reacts with water and lime stone and the
products of the reaction is transfered from scrubber to tank.
The scrubbing liquid is sent back to the scrubber and make
up slurry is added to the tank.
Exhau st C h im ney
G ases
Scrubb er
Wa ter
M ake-up Thickner
R e action
Tan k
Fig. 5.17. W et Scrubber. So lids to

Wa ste
The following reactions take place in the scrubber.
Ca OH2 SO 2 CaSO 3 H 2O
CaCO 3 SO 2 CaSO 3 CO 2
These scrubbers are capable of removing SO 2 upto

90%.
Advantages of wet scrubber:

1. Efficiency is high.
2. Low flue gas energy requirement.
3. Higher reliability.
Disadvantages
1. Capital cost and operating cost are high.
2. Waste material disposal is costly and problematic

in the form of water logged sludge.
The dilute SO 2 in the flue gas is converted into
sulphuric acid. This sulphuric acid is separated from flue
gases.
3. Magnesium oxide scrubbing

In this, the magnesium sulphate and sulphate salts
are used and regenerated, producing a concentrated steam
of SO 2 and magnesium oxide is recirculated
The following reactions take place
MgO SO 2 Mg SO3
MgSO 3 reacts with SO 2 and water and gives

magnesium bi sulphate MgSO 3 SO 2 H 2O Mg HSO32
MgO is added for netralisation
Mg HSO 32 Mg O 2 MgSO3 H 2O
This is decomposed to original products at a

temperature of 800 900C.
The M gO is recirculated and SO 2 is reprocessed to

form sulphuric acid.
Control of NO x
Nitrogen oxide is poorly soluble in liquids. Because of
this property, it will penetrate deep into lungs and can
cause harmful diseases.
NO x is formed at high temperature Zones. The

formation of NO x from air is negligible upto 1000 C and
increases with temperature for above 1000 C . The methods
used to reduce the emission of NO x from steam power plant
and gas turbine power plant are given below.
1. Reducing the temperature in the zone of combustion

and using low nitrogen fuels if possible.
2. Reducing the residence time in the combustion zone.
3. Increasing the equivalence ratio in the combustion
zone. In the ratio between 1.6 to 1.8, the NO x
produced is less.
5.8.3 Water Pollution By Thermal Power Plant And
Its Control
Water is polluted by discharging hot condenser water
and water with ash to the river. The hydrological and
biological effects on the surrounding ecology are affected by
the polluted water. Another pollutant is cooling water
which has residual chlorine.
Along the path of the river if ash gets spreaded over

the large cultivated area, then it affects the growth because
of its high Alkaline characteristics. The ash destroys
fertility of the land forever.
Demineralization plants waste water contains large

quantities of chlorides of Ca, Mg, Na and K. By
channelising this waste water into the rivers or ash ponds,
the ground water becomes salty. Using this polluted ground
water is harmful to human beings and also for irrigation
process.
The recovery of these salts are simple and economical.

The line diagram of treatment of waste water from

DM - plant is shown in Fig.5.18.
S oda a sh
L im e(C a(O H ) 2 )
Wa ter S olu tio n N a cl

M ixer S ettler M ixer S ettler E vapo rato r
from w ith C aC l 2 S oln
D M Plant M g(O H ) 2 CaCO3
Filte r Filte r C o nc N acl
for R e fuse
D rier D rier
C a lcin
P acking
P acking
CaCO3
M gO
Fig. 5.18. Treatm ent of Waste Water from DM - Plant to
Con trol the Water Pollutio n.
The waste water is treated first with lime which

precipitates magnesium hydroxide. Then treated with soda
which precipitates calcium carbonate and resulting sodium
chloride is reused for regeneration in softness.
The reactions are given below
MgCl 2 Ca OH2 Mg OH2 CaCl 2
CaCl 2 Na 2 CO 3 CaCO 3 2 NaCl
The precipitated magnesium can be used as

refractories and CaCO 3 can be used in chemical, paint,
paper and many other industries.
5.8.4 Instrument used to monitor pollution:

5.8.4.1 CO 2 recorders
In thermal power plants, it is necessary to keep the
concentration of CO 2 as low as possible; To achieve this, a
constant recording of concentration of CO 2 is necessary.

These recorders are based on three different principles, they
are described below:
1. Thermal conductivity cell,
2. Chemical absorption cell,
3. Density balance.
Thermal conductivity cell
M ea suring M ea suring R eferen ce

C ham ber Fila m en t(R m ) Fila m en t(R r )
R eferen ce
G as in G as o ut Ch am b er Fille d
w ith A ir
A m p lifie r
slide r B ala ncin g

S cale
R1 R 3 M otor
R2
Fig. 5.19. E lectrical Circuit for the M easurem ent of
Co 2 Content in the G ases
The method of recording of CO 2 is shown in the

Fig.5.19. In this, the higher electrical conductivity of CO 2
is utilised for representing its percentage. The recording
device consists of hot wire thermal conductivity gas analysis
cell, which consists of two chambers with wire filament. In
one chamber, the flue gas is passed and other contains the
reference gas.
A wheatstone bridge is used for measuring the
temperature and resistance between two filaments. When
the thermal conductivity of the gases passing around the
filament decreases, then the temperature of the filament is
increased. By the temperature difference between two
chambers, the resistance also differs. Thus it unbalances
the bridge. This unbalance voltage is proportional to the
percentage of CO 2. The higher content of H 2 and water
vapour affects the accuracy of the system.
2. Chemical absorption cell

In this, the CO 2 percentage is determined by its
chemical absorption in potash solution. The known volume
of flue gas is delivered to the tank containing potash
solution. The potash solution absorbs CO 2, then the
residual float is made to accumulate under a float. The
position of float is proportional to the CO 2 content of the
flue gas.
3. Density balance
The density of CO 2 is proportional to the CO 2
concentration in the flue gas. In this, the air and flue gas
are blown by separate fans in adjacent chambers. The
difference of the forces created in the chamber gives the
CO 2 content. This may be recorded by an indication pointer.
5.8.4.2 Automatic controls for feed water

Normally, the electrical load on power plant varies in
an irregular manner. The control provided at a steam power
plant successfully meets over the variable load.
The automatic control for feed water is necessary

since the supply of feed water depends upon plant load.
Some of the automatic controlling method for feed water
are given below.
(i) Single element pilot operated system.
(ii) Single element self operated system.
(iii) Two element pilot-operated system.
(iv) Three element pilot-operated system.
The following Fig. 5.20 shows a single element pilot
operated feed water control system.
S tea m Feed W ate r

R egula ting
Valve &
B oiler D rum Valve
P osition er
Feed L in e
R ela y
P
C
A ir
P ilo t Fig.5.20. Auto matic
Valve Feed W ater
Con trol System.
This system permits manual adjustment of water

level with flow variation. In this system, the water level
recorder R operates an air pilot valve C which through
a relay and indicator P controls the feed water regulating
valve.
The air pilot valve C can be automatically reset and
this makes it possible to hold boiler drum level constant at
all rates of steam flow. By manually adjusting the pilot
valve, it is possible to lower the water level at low load.
5.8.4.3 Automatic combustion control

Automatic combustion control is very popular
nowadays and this has been developed mainly to maintain
load against demand, to prevent smoke, to increase boiler
house efficiencies, to carry out routine adjustments and to
provide interlocking safeguards.
If we want to change the rate of combustion, then the
draught, air supply and fuel supply have to be regulated.
The draught and air supply depend on fans and it can be
regulated either by dampers and vanes. The fuel supply
can be regulated according to the firing method employed.
An automatic combustion control system is shown in
Fig.5.21.
The operation of the system is controlled by a master
relay A which is sensitive to small variations in steam
pressure and is connected to the system of 42 bar range.
When the steam pressure falls, this drop in pressure makes
the relay A to operate the servomotor coupled to the vanes
of ID fan, causing this to open slightly. And at the same
time, the secondary air fan damper is opened at a
proportionate amount.
With the change in the induced draft, the stabilised

condition in the furnace is changed. This, in turn, alters
the position of FD fan servomotor by means of the relay
B. The position of the FD fan vanes is adjusted until the
stabilised condition in the furnace is re-established. This
change causes extra air to flow past the pilot-tube D which
operates relay C causing the motor of the stoker to speed
up at a proportionate amount and supply extra amount of
fuel to the furnace. An increase in pressure is the reverse
of the above process. Each servomotor can be adjusted
4 2 b ar
S erom oto r S tea m R ange
4.4
Fan
van es
M aste r R e lay
I.D .Fa n A
H e ad
R e gula tors
A ir Su pply
B oiler
S econ dary
A ir Fa n
C o mb u stion
C h am b er
C onnection
S toker
D raft
S troke
R e la y
M otor
C A ir Su pply
D
Fan
R e la y
Van es
A ir
B
S upply
F.D .F an
Fig. 5.21. Autom atic Co mb ustion Co ntrol System

manually to make its action to be advanced (or) retarded.

The master relay A has hand control which allows the
manual control of the whole combustion system.
The combustion control regulates the flow of fuel and
air in order to generate the required amount of steam in
accordance with the steam load. Fuel feeding is controlled
by varying the speed of coal feeder. Air flow is controlled
by positioning the damper in the primary air inlet ducts
and inlet vanes of forced draft fans.
Feed water control is activated to regulate the flow
of feed water to the boiler. The quantity of feed water
flowing to the boiler will depend upon the steam
requirements. The feed water flow is measured by a nozzle
fitted in the feed water discharge pipe.
Flow of steam through a stationary turbine is usually
regulated in order to produce constant rotative speed in the
presence of variable load demand. Control is activated by
varying the quantity and pressure of steam flowing through
the turbine.
5.8.5 Indian Boiler Act
The high pressure boilers are required to be operated
within safe pressure limits with regular maintenance,
because the failure of boiler may prove extremely
disastrous. To ensure full safety, some laws have been
enforced through a legislation which is commonly known as
India Boiler Act 1923 and after amendment Indian Boiler
Act 1953. All boiler owners are required to follow this
legislation in a strict sense. The main provisions of this act
are given below.
(i) A boiler cannot be operated unless it has been

registered with the Chief Inspector of Boilers.
(ii) The maximum working pressure of the boiler has to
be determined by the Boiler Inspector. The owner is
not allowed to run his boiler at a pressure higher
than this, under any circumstances whatsoever.
(iii) In case of any accident, the boiler owner has to
report giving full details of the nature and cause of
accident, within twenty four hours of the occurrence
of the accident.
(iv) The rules and regulation and bye-laws governing the
upkeep and maintenance of boilers, the procedure
for their registration, inspection and determination
of maximum pressure and inside safety, conditions
etc. are subject to revision by a Central Board under
the control of Government of India.
(v) Violation of Law is liable to prosecution and
punishment with fine.
5.8.6 Boiler Inspection

The boiler inspector inspects all the boilers installed
in his area. The inspection is generally carried out annually
but in the case of complaint or accident, the boiler is subject
to inspection at any time. The inspection includes the
following.
Inspection for registration. It is the first inspection

which is carried out when a new boiler is registered. This
inspection is made after the boiler is completely stripped
off all its mountings, covering and lagging, etc. All parts
are carefully examined for defects which might have taken
place either in transit or would have already been there
due to some defective design or workmanship. All these

defects are noted in the registration book of defective spots.
Under this test the boiler is completely filled with water
and tested for following specifications.
(i) For an old boiler, the test pressure applied will be
one and a half times the prescribed pressure for
operation. The boiler should not leak at all under
this pressure.
(ii) For a new boiler, the specifications are
(a) If the working pressure is less than

100 lbs in2 the boiler will be subjected to a
test pressure double than the working
pressure and it should not leak under this
pressure.
(b) If the working pressure is more than
2
100 lbs in , the test pressure applied for test
will be one and a half times the working
pressure plus 50 lbs in2 and the boiler should
again be free from any leakage under this
pressure.
Hydraulic Tests: The test is carried out to check
the tightness of boiler joints, fittings and leakage arising
from the repairs.
Steam test: The test is carried out to check safety

valves at the working pressure. After performing this test,
the safety valves are properly sealed to avoid any damage.
Annual Inspection: This type of inspection is

carried out annually after removing all parts, fittings,
mountings and accessories. The boiler is inspected both
internally and externally for any defect. The certificate is

renewed only if the boiler is found to be completely free
from any defect.
Inspection under steam: This inspection is carried
out when the boiler is generating steam. Such an inspection
is very rare and is only done in cases where the boiler
cannot be stopped due to some urgent public or private
work.
In this case prior approval of government is obtained

to run the boiler beyond the expiry date of its current
certificate.
Internal Inspection: This type of inspection is

carried out in case of small boilers where it is not possible
for the inspector to enter inside and make close inspection
of the internal parts. The inspection is done when internal
parts like the tubes and furnaces etc., are taken out for
repair or renewals etc.
Accident Inspection: When some accident occurs

the boiler inspector conducts enquiry and looks into the
cause of accident, the damage to the boiler and the men,
by inspection at site.
Casual Inspection: This type of inspection is

carried out by surprise visits from time to time to ensure
that the boiler owners do not run the boiler beyond their
pressure limit.
5.8.7 Boiler Performance

The performance of a steam boiler can be expressed
in terms of the following.
(i) Heat release per m 3 of furnace volume.

(ii) Thermal efficiency of boiler.

(iii) Heat transferred / m 2 hr.
(iv) Rate of combustion in kJ/m 2 of grate area per hour
for solid fuel.
(v) Amount of steam produced per hour.
The thermal efficiency of the boiler is defined as the
ratio of heat actually utilized by water in generation of
steam to the heat supplied during combustion of fuel.
W H 2 H1
boiler
W 1 CV
where
W Weight of steam produced in kg
H 1 enthalpy of feed wa ter in kJ/kg
H 2 T otal heat of steam in kJ/kg at the generation pressure.
W 1 W eight of fuel burnt in kg
C.V Calorific Value of fuel in kJ/kg
Even though the major portion of heat produced

during combustion of fuel is utilized to heat the feed water
for conversion of steam, some amount of heat is lost in flue
gases leaving the chimney and some amount of heat is lost
due to radiation from furnace to the outside. Boiler
efficiency can be improved by proper maintenance.
Equivalent evaporation
In order to compare the evaporative capacity of
different boilers working under different conditions, it is
necessary to provide a common base so that water is
assumed to be evaporated under standard conditions.
The standard conditions are:

The temperature of feed water 100C and it is
c o nverted to dry and saturated steam at 100C.
According to these conditions, 1 kg of water at
100C requires 2257 kJ of heat to get converted into steam
at 100C
Therefore equivalent evaporation is defined as the
amount of water evaporated from water at 100C to dry
and saturated steam at 100C
H1
Factor of evaporation is defined as F e
H2
where
H 1 Heat recieved by 1 kg o f water under working conditions
H 2 Heat recieved by 1kg of water evaporated from a nd at 100C.
5.8.7.1 Boiler Testing

All boilers should be tested hydraulically in the
pressure of the boiler inspector. Normally the hydraulic test
pressure is twice the approved working pressure (or) one
and half times the working pressure (or) one and half times
the working pressure plus 4 bar which ever is less. Each
component before it is fitted in its position is subjected to
a hydraulic test at a pressure of the boiler.
The boiler drum after welding is subjected to a
hydraulic test pressure of one and a half times the working
pressure and the test should be endured sufficient to
inspect various seams and connections. Normally not less
than half an hour. If there is no leakage during the test
time, then the inspector permits to use the boiler up to the
working pressure.
5.8.7.2 Boiler Trial

Steam is generated in boilers under certain conditions
of feed water and exits as steam while a certain amount
of fuel is burnt. To study the performance of boiler, some
experiments are conducted by operating the boiler for a
certain length of time and recording the data. This
procedure is known as boiler trial.
A heat balance sheet is prepared. The heat balance

sheet indicates the heat supplied, heat utilized through
various sources and heat wasted.
The objectives of the boiler trial are given below.
1. To determine the thermal efficiency of the boiler

when working at a definite pressure.
2. To draw up heat balance sheet for the boiler to
check the performance of the boiler.
Problem 5.4: Determine the boiler thermal efficiency, if the
boiler generates 20,000 kg of steam at 10 bar dry and
saturated. The amount of coal used is 2000 kg and the calorific
value of coal is 36000 kJ/kg. The feed water enthalpy is 448
kJ/kg.
Solution
Mass of steam = 20,000 kg
Total heat of steam at 10 bar is h1 2780 kg
The enthalpy of feed water h2 448 kJ/kg
Heat used to raise steam ms 2780 448
20,000 2780 448
46.64 MJ
Heat supplied by fuel m f C.V
2,000 36,000
72 MJ
Heat used for raising steam

Boil
Hea supplied by fuel
46.64
0.6477
72
64.77%
Heat balance sheet

1. Heat supplied by fuel m f C .V
where m f mass of fuel per hour
C.V Calorific lower value of fuel.
2. Heat utilized for raising steam m s h1 h2
where m s mass of steam per hour
h1 Total hea t of steam raised,
Sensible heat of feed water

h2
entering the boiler.
3. Heat carried away by dry flue gases.
4. Heat lost due to moisture in fuel and due to

hydrogen in fuel.
M 9H [h 4.187 tb 2.01 Tg 100]
where M Moisture percentage in coal
H Hydrogen pe rcentage in coal

h Total heat of steam at 1.013 bar
2675.5 kJ/kg
tb boiler room tem perature
Tg Final gas tempe rature
5. Heat lost by carbon in ash pot

m c C.V of carbon
where m c mass of carbon in ash pit per kg of fuel
6. Heat lost by incomplete combustion:
mass of CO in flue gas per kg of fuel
C.V of CO burned in CO 2
7. Heat lost by radiation (unaccounted loss of heat)
Total heat supplied in fuel Total heat losses.
Problem 5.5: In a boiler trial, the following observations were

made.
Atmospheric pressure 0.998 bar
Boiler gauge pressure 8.58 bar
Hot well temperature 50C
Temperature of boiler house 28C
Steam condensed per hour 480 kg
Moisture in fuel 2.1 % by mass
Mass of flue gases
18 kg
per kg of fuel
Coal used per hour 58 kg
L.C.V of coal 33700 kJ/kg
Brake power of engine 40 kW
Temperature of flue gases 325C
Mean specific heat of flue gases 1.005 kJ/kgK

Condition of steam 0.95 dry
Draw up the heat balance sheet for the boiler and find the
boiler efficiency and the overall efficiency of the plant.
Solution
Pressure of steam raised 8.58 0.998
9.578 bar
Total heat of steam h1 hf x1hfg

1
753.66 0.95 2021.065
2673.66 kJ/kg
480
Mass of steam per kg of fuel 8.276 kg
58
Heat utilized

for raising steam 8.276 h1 hf

per kg of fuel
8.276 2673.66 4.187 50
20,394.63 kJ [hf C p T]
Heat carried away by flue gases m g C p T g Tb
18 1.005 325 28
5372.73 kJ
Heat carried away

by m oisture M [h 4.187 tb 2.01 T g 100]

in flue gases
0.02 [2675.5 4.187 28 2.01 325 100]
60.21 kJ
Heat balance
Heat supplied per kg of fuel 0.98 33700
33026 kJ
Heat utilized for steam

20,394.63 kJ
per kg of fuel
Heat carried away by flue gases per kg of fuel

5372.73 kJ
H eat carried away by m oiture

60.21. kJ
per kg of fuel
Heat lost by radiation

33026 [20,394.63 5372.73 60.21 ]
7198.43 kJ
H eat utilized for raising stea m

Efficiency of boiler
Heat in 1 kg of fuel
20,394.63
100
33026
61.753%
He at equivalent of BP
Overall efficiency of plant
Heat supplied by fuel
40 3600
100
58 33026
7.51%
5.8.8 Boiler safety regulations as per Indian Boiler

Act
Boiler registration: Without registration, the boiler
should not be installed. The owner of the boiler should
apply for registration of the boiler to the chief inspector of
the boiler. Then the inspector will examine the boiler and
submit the detailed report to chief inspector. If everything
is satisfied, then the chief inspector will issue a certificate
as approval of registration and the certificate will be valid
for a period of 12 months at a given maximum pressure.
The boiler registration number will be mentioned in the
certificate.
Restriction on use of boiler

1. Unless the boiler is registered, no owner will be
allowed to use the boiler.
2. In case a boiler is transferred from one state to
another state, it should not be used until the
transfer is reported to concerned officer and gets
approved.
3. The boiler should not be operated at a pressure
more than the maximum pressure recorded in the
boiler certificate.
4. The boiler should be under the control of a person
holding the competency certificate.
Renewal of Certificate
The certificate can be renewed under the following
conditions.
1. On the expiry of the period for which it was granted.

2. When any accident occurs to the boilers.
3. When the boiler is transferred to the another state.
4. When any structural modification, alteration (or)

addition is made to the boiler.
5. When the steam piping connections are damaged
(or) in dangerous conditions.
Report of Accident
If any accident occurs to the boiler, then the owner
should inform to the inspector within 24 hours of accident.
Report should be in writing form giving full details about
it and injuries and damages. The inspector will then
investigate the matter and decide whether the boiler can
be reused or not.
Repairs of boiler
Before doing the service of the boiler, the sanction of
the chief inspector should be obtained. However, few water
tubes and smoke tubes may be renewed pending the
sanction of chief inspector in emergency condition.
Extensive repairs such as renewal of furnace plate and fire
boxes etc should be carried out under the supervision of
the inspector.
5.9 NUCLEAR WASTE DISPOSAL AND SAFETY

Introduction
Radioactive waste from nuclear power plants
activities, defence related nuclear weapon activities or other
applications of nuclear technology is hazardous to many life
forms and the environment. It poses a problem of handling
and protecting the environment to be safe to the present
and future generations.
Radioactive waste
Waste is defined as any material that has been
discarded as being of no further use. This concept also holds
for radio active waste. In other words, waste that emits
nuclear radiation is called radio-active waste.
Since radioactivity decays in course of time naturally,

radio active waste has to be isolated and confined in
appropriate disposal facilities for a sufficient period of time
until it no longer poses a threat. The type of waste and
radio active isotopes determine the time period of storage
of waste which may vary from few days (for short living
isotopes) to millions of years (for long living nuclear fuel).
The radioactive wastes are of three forms, namely

liquid, solid or gaseous form, each of which are treated
differently.
Types of Radio active waste

Radio active wastes are generally classified into
following types.
1. Low level radio active waste.
2. Intermediate level radio active waste.
3. High level radio active waste.
Low level radio active waste:

It is larger than the high level radio-active waste in
volume wise. Radio-activities are contained in the low level.
Radio active waste is significantly less and made up of
isotopes with shorter lives than the isotopes in high level
radio active waste. Large amounts of waste such as
protective clothing, cleaning rags, glove boxes, air filters,
shielding material, etc. are contaminated with small

amount of radio activities.
If low level radio active waste is stored for a period
of 10 to 50 years to decay, then it can be well disposed off
in normal way.
However, it may be useful for mammals for greater

reproductive capacity, better disease resistance, increased
growth rate, greater resistance to higher radiation doses,
better neurological function, better wound healing.
It also beneficial for plants, like accelerated growth

and increased harvest.
Intermediate level waste

Higher amounts of radioactivity is present in
intermediate level waste. It requires shielding but not
cooling. It typically comprises resins, chemical sludges,
metal fuel cladding and contaminated materials from
reactor decommissioning. Intermediate level waste may be
solidified in concrete or bitumen for disposal.
High level radio-active waste

High level radio active waste consists of the spent
nuclear fuel, from generally material from the core of a
nuclear reactor (or) from Nuclear weapons. This waste
includes uranium, plutonium and other highly radio-active
elements created during fission. High level radio-active
waste is made up of fission fragments and transuranic
elements.
These two components have different time periods to

decay. The radioactive fission fragments decay to different
stable elements via different nuclear reaction chains
involving , & emissions to dispose off normally. It may

take 1000 years. On the other hand, transuranics take
nearly 500,000 years to reach such levels. Most of high level
radio-active waste isotopes emits large amount of radiation
and have long half lives - some longer than 100,000 years.
Collection, storage and disposal of nuclear materials
1. Low activity, solid nuclear wastes are collected in
paper (or) plastic lined containers and disposed by
incineration (or) land disposal method.
2. High activity solid nuclear wastes are collected in
shielded containers.
3. Low activity liquid and gaseous wastes are usually
diluted (or) dispersed before disposal.
4. Special glass containers are used to store high
activity liquid and solid wastes and are maintained
at 100 150 C so that these wastes will become
glassy materials.
Waste disposal process from nuclear reactor
The withdrawn spent fuel with cladding from the
nuclear reactor is placed in a waste pond where heat is
removed and short living radio nuclides decay. To remove
activity due to release of fuel from defective cladding,
treatment of the water pond is needed continuously. Then,
the spent fuel is transferred to the reprocessing plant where
the fuel cladding is removed. The spent fuel is dissolved in
nitric acid and U 235 and Pu 239 are separated having the
solution with 99% non-volatile fission products known as
Highly Active liquid waste. The removed U 235 and
PU 239 are purified and stored for future use as fresh fuel.
The waste from the cooling pond is transferred to an

intermediate storage and kept there for about 30 to 100
years. Here most of the heat is removed and radioactive
nature is reduced to a low level. Then the waste is
permanently buried in the earth or sea.
Solid wastes disposal

Scrap materials or discarded objects contaminated
with radioactive materials are called solid wastes.
Non-combustible solid wastes are buried deep in the
ground. But if the wastes are combustible, they are burnt
to ashes and then the radioactive matter is mixed with
concrete, poured as cubic block and buried.
Liquid wastes disposal

The disposal of liquid wastes is done in two methods.
(i) Dilute and disperse method: In this method, the

liquid wastes are diluted with large quantities of water and
then released into the ground. The drawback of this method
is that there is a chance of contamination of underground
water if the dilution factor is not adequate.
(ii) Concentrate and contain method: Sometimes due

to the amount or nature of the isotopes, the dilution of
radioactive liquid water is not desirable. In such cases, the
liquid wastes are concentrated to small volumes and stored
in underground tanks. As leakage from these tanks will
lead to significant water contamination, the tanks must be
of assured long term strength and leakage proof.
Gaseous wastes disposal

The gaseous wastes from the ruptures in the fuel
element cladding release gaseous fission products. Gaseous
wastes released into air are absorbed by plants and inturn

affect the health of humans. Many methods have been
developed to remove gases like cypton, iodine, tritium and
CO 2. Generally, gaseous wastes are diluted with air, passed
through filters and then released to atmosphere through
large stacks.
Approaches to radio-active waste disposal

Waste disposal is discarding waste with no intention
of retrieval. Waste management means that operations
starting with generation of waste and ending with disposal.
The following methods are carried out to dispose

radio-active waste.
Deep geological repositories.

Ocean dumping.
Sea bed burial.
Sub-sea bed disposal.
Subductive waste disposal method.
Transforming radio active waste to non-radioactive
stable waste.
Dispatching to the sun.
Geological disposal
This method was started in 1957 to handle long living
waste. The deep geological sites provides natural isolation
system over hundreds of thousands of years to contain
long-living radio active wastes. Low level radio active waste
is generally disposed in near surface facilities. High level
radio-active waste is disposed in rocks that are crystalline
(granite, etc.,).
Ocean dumping
Radio-active waste material is dropped through 4000
m of water and it will be embedded itself 60 - 80 m into
sea-beds clay sediments. These wastes are expected to
survive for 700 to 1500 years. Thereafter the waste will
diffuse through the sediments.
Sub-seabed disposal
High level radio active waste material can be dumped
5 km below the sea surface, covered by hundreds of meters
of thick sedimentary soft clay. These mud flats drilled up
to hundreds of meters. The high level radio active waste
would be lowered into these holes and stacked vertically
one above the other interspersed by 20 m (or) more of mud
pumped in. Therefore these potential waste repositories are
geologically stable over periods of the order of 10 7 years
and likely do not have human activities such as resources
of fishes (or) hydrocarbons (or) minerals.
Subductive waste-disposal method
Subduction is a process in which one tectonic plate
slides beneath another and it is reabsorbed into the mantle.
The high level radio active waste will be deposited in a
subducting plate, so that the waste will be carried beneath
the earths crust where it will be diluted and dispersed
through the mantle.
Transmutation of high-level radio active waste
Transmutational devices are consisting of a hybrid of
sub-critical nuclear reactor and an accelerator of charged
particles to destroy radio activity of neutrons.
Solar option
It is proposed that plutonium and other highly
concentrated waste can be placed in the earth orbit and
then accelerated so that waste would drop into the sun. It
involves vast technical development and extremely high cost
compared to other means of waste disposal. It should be
assured of that no waste would be released in the event of
failure of space transport system.
Two Marks Questions and Answers TM.1
Chapter - 1
COAL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS
1.1 What is a Rankine cycle?

Rankine cycle is the theoretical cycle on which the
steam turbine (engine) works. Here the operating fluid is
continuously evaporated and condensed.It is the cycle based
on which thermal power plant operates.
1.2 What is the function of a condenser in a thermal

power plant?
Condenser is used to convert the low pressure steam
into water. The low pressure steam passes through the
condenser where heat is liberated from the steam. So the
steam becomes water. To cool the steam, separate cooling
water is circulated through condenser from the cooling
tower.
1.3 Define thermal efficiency?

It is the ratio of net work done to the heat supplied.
Wnet
cycle or rankine or thermal
Qsupply
1.4 Why is reheat cycle used? Explain.
If the dryness fraction of steam leaving the turbine
is less than 0.88, then corrosion and erosion of turbine
blades occur. To avoid this situation, reheat is used.
In the reheat cycle, the expansion of steam takes

place in two (or) more turbines. Steam is expanded in the
HP turbine first, then it is reheated. The reheated steam
is again expanded in the LP turbine. Reheat cycle gives
TM.2 Power Plant Engineering
small increase in cycle efficiency. It increases the net work

output.
1.5 What are the different methods of reheating?
Methods of Reheating:
(a) Gas reheating
(b) Live-steam reheating
(c) Combined gas live steam reheater
1.5a What are the important advantages of

Re-heating?
1. Due to reheating, network done increases
2. Heat supply increases
3. Thermal efficiency increases
4. Due to reheating, the turbine exit dryness fraction
increases - so moisture decreases - so blade erosion
becomes minimum - so life of the turbine will be
increased.
1.6 What are the advantages of live - steam reheating
over gas reheating?
The advantages of live-steam reheating over gas
heating are given here.
1. The operation of this reheating system is simple.
2. The reheater can be placed near the HP turbine

and minimise extra pipe fittings.
3. The control of temperature is easy since varying

combustion condition will not affect the live steam reheater
performance.
4. Wet steam can also be reheated.

5. More than one reheating can be used since the

piping requirements are less.
1.7 What is re-generation and bleeding?

Re-generation means heating the feed water by steam
taken from the turbine. The steam is exhausted (or) bled
from the turbine at several locations (before exhaust) and
is supplied to regenerator (feed water heater) to heat the
feed water. Extracting the steam in the turbine before
exhaust is called bleeding.
1.8 What are the advantages of a regenerative cycle?

Advantages of Regenerative cycle
1. Heat supplied to boiler becomes reduced.

2. The heating process in the boiler approaches the
reversible process.
3. Since feed water temperature is high, the range of
temperature in the boiler is minimum. It reduces
the thermal stresses produced in the boiler.
4. Thermal efficiency is increased since the average
temperature of heat addition to the cycle is
increased.
5. Due to bleeding in the turbine, erosion of turbine
due to moisture is reduced.
6. Condenser can be of smaller size.
1.9 What are the different methods of regenerative
heating?
(a) Direct contact method
(b) Drain pump method
(c) All drains to hot well method

(d) Cascade method.
1.10 Name the four major circuits in steam power

plant.
1. Coal and ash circuit
2. Air and flue gas circuit
3. Feed water and steam circuit
4. Cooling water circuit
1.11 What consists of air and flue gas circuit ?

Air and flue gas circuit consists of forced draught fan,
air-pre-heater, boiler furnace, super heater, economiser,
dust collector, induced draught fan and chimney.
1.12 What consists of feed water and steam flow

circuit in steam power plant ?
The feed water and steam flow circuit consists of feed
pump, economiser, boiler drum super heater, turbine and
condenser.
1.13 What consists of cooling water circuit and coal

and ash circuit in steam power plant?
The cooling water circuit consists of a pump,
condenser and cooling tower.
The coal and ash circuit consists of coal delivery,

preparation of coal, handling of coal to the boiler furnace,
ash handling and ash storage.
1.14 What is a super critical boiler?

Super critical boiler is a boiler that operates at super
critical pressure (high pressure) to increase the efficiency
of the plant and to reduce the cost of electricity production.
Normally, water tube boilers are generally preferred for

high pressure.
The working steam pressure range is 125 bar to 300
bar and temperature is 510C to 600C . Usually sub-critical
boiler consists of three distinct sections as preheater,
evaporator and superheater. And in case of supercritical
boiler, only preheater and super heater are required.
Generally super critical boilers are used for more than

300 MW power plants.
1.15 Mention some important super critical boilers.

1. La Mont Boiler, 2. Benson boiler, 3. Loefler
Boiler, 4. Velox boiler.
1.16 What is the disadvantage of La Mont Boiler?

The major disadvantage is the formation and
attachment of bubbles salt and sediment on the inner
surfaces of the heating tubes. This reduces the heat flow
and steam generation.
1.17 What is the principle used in Velox boilers?

When the gas velocity exceeds the sound velocity, the
heat is transferred from the gas at much higher rates than
rates achieved with sub-sonic flow. This advantage is used
to utilize the large heat transfer from a smaller surface
area in this boiler.
1.18 Write about Benson boiler?

It is a high pressure, vertical, fire tube boiler. This
boiler has no drum and is designed to operate at critical
pressure of 225 bar.
1.19 State some important advantages of Benson

boiler?
1. In this system, there is no drum. So the total
weight of the Benson boiler is reduced by 20%, when
compared to other boilers.
2. The erection of Benson boiler is easier and quicker
1.20 Write about Loeffler boiler?

The major disadvantage in La Mont boiler is the
deposition of salt and sediment on the inner surface of the
water tubes. It reduces the heat transfer and ultimately
the generating capacity. The salt deposition will increase
overheating.
In Loeffler boiler, this problem is solved by preventing

water from flowing through the boiler tubes. Most of the
steam is generated outside the tubes.
1.21 What are the advantages of Velox boilers?

Advantages:
1. The combustion rate is more.

2. It is more compact.
3. It has greater flexibility.
4. It can be quickly started even though the separator
has a storage capacity of about 10% of the maximum
hourly output.
1.22 What are the advantages of FBC?
Fluidized bed combustion has emerged as a viable
alternative and has significant advantages over
conventional firing system and offers multiple benefits -
compact boiler design, fuel flexibility, higher combustion
efficiency and reduced emission of noxious pollutants such

as SOx and NOx.
1.23 Mention some fuels used in FBC boilers?
The fuels burnt in these boilers include coal, washery
rejects, rice husk, bagasse & other agricultural wastes.
1.24 What are Fluidised Bed boilers?

When the high velocity gas is passed through a
packed bed of finely divided solid particles, the particles
become suspended in the gas stream and the packed bed
becomes a fluidised bed. When the gas velocity is very high,
the fluidised bed becomes turbulent and rapid mixing of
particles occurs. Ultimately, the behaviour of mixture of
solid particles and gas become a fluid. Burning of a fuel in
such a state is known as Fluidised Bed Combustion. The
boiler plant using this fluidised bed combustion is known
as fluidised bed boilers.
1.25 What are the types of FBC?

There are three types of fluidised bed combustion
system, they are
(i) Bubbling fluidised bed combustion system
(ii) Circulating fluidised bed combustion system
(iii) Pressurised fluidised bed combustion system
1.26 What are Steam Turbines?

Steam turbines are one of the most versatile and
oldest prime movers that transform the potential energy of
the steam into kinetic energy and later in turn transformed
into mechanical energy - rotation of turbine shaft.
1.27 Mention the different types of steam turbines?

Steam turbine can be classified
1. According to the design of the moving blade (steam

flow) turbine is classified into two types.
(a) Impulse turbine
(b) Reaction turbine
2. According to the number of pressure stage.
(a) Single stage turbine
(b) Multi stage turbine
3. According to the direction of steam flow
(a) Axial turbine
(b) Radial turbine
1.28 What is carry over velocity or leaving loss?
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the
steam flow into high speed jets due to the expansion of
steam in the nozzles. These high speed jet contains
significant kinetic energy which is converted into shaft
rotation by the moving blades, as the steam jet changes
direction. There is a pressure drop at the fixed blades, with
net increase in the steam velocity across the stage. The
steam leaving the moving blades has maximum velocity.
The loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity is called
the carry over velocity or leaving loss.
1.29 Define the degree of reaction?

It is given by the ratio of heat drop over moving
blades to the total heat drop in the stage.
Heat drop in moving blades

Rd
Heat drop in the stage
1.30 What are the types of steam condensers?

The condensers are mainly classified into two types,
namely
Mixing type or Jet condensers.
(a) Parallel flow condensers
(b) Counter flow condensers

Non-Mixing Type or Surface condensers.
(a) Two flow condensers
(b) Multi-flow condensers
1.31 Define steam rate and heat rate?
Steam rate: It is defined as the rate of steam flow (kg/hr)
required for producing unit shaft output (1 kW), therefore
3600
Steam rate kg/kWh
W net
Heat rate: It is rate of heat input required for producing

unit output (1 kW)
3600
Heat rate Q1 kJ/kWh
W net
Where Q 1 is heat added per kg of steam
1.32 What are Boiler Accessories?

The appliances used to increase the efficiency of the
boiler are known as boiler accessories.
The important boiler accessories are:
1. Feed pump,
2. Economiser,
3. Air preheater,
4. Superheater,
5. Steam separator and so on
6. Injector.
1.33 What is the use of economiser?

Economiser is used to preheat the feed water using
furnace flue gases.
1.34 What is the function of superheater?

The function of the superheater is to increase the
temperature of saturated steam without increasing its
pressure.
1.35 What is the use of air preheater?

Air preheater is used to transfer heat from the flue
gases to the air before it passes into the furnace for
combustion. It is placed between the economiser and
chimney. The overall efficiency of the plant may be
increased by 10 per cent by the use of air preheater.
1.36 What is the use of feed pump?

A feed pump is used to deliver the feed water to the
boiler.
1.37 Write about boiler mountings?

The devices used for the efficient operation, proper
maintenance, and safe operation are called boiler
mountings.
The different boiler mountings are
1. Water gauge (or) water level indicator

2. Pressure gauge (or) steam gauge
3. Safety valves
4. Fusible plug
5. Stop valve
6. Blow off cock
7. Feed check valve.
1.38 What is the use of steam test?

The steam test is carried out to check safety valves
at the working pressure.
1.39 What is the function of a steam separator?

The steam generated may be either wet steam (or)
dry steam (or) superheated steam. The wet steam must be
seperated from the dry steam before letting it enter the
main steam line. This separation is done by steam
separator. It prevents the wet steam from entering the
main steam line, thus prevents the turbine blades from
corrosion.
1.40 What is electro static Precipitator?

ESP is located between the boiler and the chimney,
it extracts the fly ash from the flue gases and thus prevents
the fly ash from entering the atmosphere.
1.41 What are the different types of load acting on

the chimney?
There are two types of loads acting on the chimney
namely.
(i) Its own weight which is considered to act as a

single vertical force acting through the centroid, and
(ii) The Wind pressure, which is considered to act on
a horizontal force acting on the centroid of vertical
projected area.
1.42 What is the purpose of cooling towers?

The cooling towers are used for large power plants to
cool the hot water in the condenser.
1.43 What is the working principle of Cooling

Towers?
The hot water is sprayed from the top of the tower,
while the air is made to flow from the bottom of the tower
to the top. This air cools the hot water in the cooling tower.
Air vapourizes a small percentage of water, there by cooling
the remaining water. The air absorbs the heat and leaves
at the top of the tower and cooled water leaves at the
bottom and recirculated to the condenser.
1.44 How the atmospheric (or) natural draught

cooling towers are classified?
In atmospheric (or) natural cooling towers, the natural
air provides the required cooling without the use of fans.
This is classified into three types.
1. Natural draft spray filled towers
2. Natural draft packed type towers.
3. Hyperbolic cooling towers
1.45 How mechanical draft cooling towers are
classified?
Mechanical draft cooling tower is classified into three
types
1. Forced draft tower
2. Induced draft counter flow tower
3. Induced draft cross flow tower.
1.46 How the dry type cooling towers are classified?

The dry type cooling towers are classified into two
types as follows.
1. Indirect dry type (or) Heller cooling system
2. Direct dry type cooling system
1.47 What are the methods to reduce the effects of
particulates?
The effects of particulates can be reduced by the
following methods.
(a) Coal cleaning
(b) Using improved electrostatic precipitator design
(c) Controlling the dust within allowable limit. This
can be done by increasing the height of chimney thereby
reducing the concentration
1.48 What are the equipments used for ash collection?
1. Electrostatic precipitator
2. Fly ash scrubbers
3. Cinder catcher
4. Cyclone dust collector
1.49 What is meant by Desulphurisation and name

the methods adopted for desulphurisation?
Desulphurisation of fuel is the process of reducing the
sulphur content in the fuel. The following methods are
adopted for desulphurisation.
1. Chemical treatment
2. Forth flotation
3. Magnetic separation
1.49a. What are the methods adopted to remove SO 2

from flue gases?
1. Wet scrubbing
2. Solid absorbent
1.50 Name the two types of coal handling?

1. Outplant handling
2. In-plant handling.
1.51 Why the preparation of coal is necessary?

The coal from coal nines can not be directly fed into
the furnace. Proper preparation of coal should be done
before feeding the coal to the furnace. In the coal
preparation, the coal passes through the different
equipments like 1. Crushers 2. Sizers 3. Driers and
Magnetic Separators.
1.52 Name the different types of coal transforming

equipments?
1. Belt conveyors 2. Screw conveyors 3. Bucket
elevators 4. Grab bucket elevators 5. Skip hoists 6. Flight
conveyors.
The coal transfer starts by carrying of coal from

unloading point to the storage site.
1.53 What is the use of draught in thermal power

plants?
1. To supply required quantity of air to the furnace for
combustion of fuel.
2. To draw the combustion products through the

system.
3. To remove burnt products from the system
1.54 Define the term draught ?
Draught is defined as a small pressure difference
required between the fuel bed (furnace) and outside air to
maintain constant flow of air and to discharge the gases
through chimney to the atmosphere. Draught can be
obtained by chimney, fan, steam jet (or) air jet (or)
combination of these.
1.55 Write about classification of draught?
Draught is classified as
1. Natural draught
2. Artificial draught
The artificial draught is further classified as
(a) Steam jet draught
(b) Mechanical draught
(c) Induced draught
(d) Forced draught
1.56 Write about forced draught system?
In this system, the blower (forced draft fan) is located
at the base of the boiler near the grate. Air is forced to
the furnace by forced fan and the flue gases are forced to
chimney through economiser and air preheater.
1.57 Why the balanced draught system is preferred

than other system?
In the induced draught system, when the furnace is
opened for firing, the cold air enters the furnace and dilute
the combustion. In the forced draught system, when the
furnace is opened for firing, the high pressure air will try
to blow out suddenly and furnace may stop. Hence the
furnace cannot be opened for firing (or) inspection in both
systems. Balanced draught which is a combination of
induced and forced draught is used to overcome the above
stated difficulties.
1.58 What is the difference between stocker firing and
pulverised fuel firing?
The stocker firing method is used for firing solid coal
where as pulverised firing method is used for firing
pulverised coal.
1.59 What is the use of stocker?
Stockers are generally used for firing solid fuels in
the furnace.
1.60 What are the different types of stockers?
1. Over feed stockers
- Travelling grate stockers
- Spread stockers
2. Under feed stockers
- Single retort stocker
- Multi retort stocker
1.61 What is the use of pulveriser and name different

types of pulverising mills?
The pulveriser is used to pulverise the coal in order
to increase the surface exposure. Pulverised coal enables
rapid combustion.
The different types of pulverising mills are
1. Ball mill
2. Hammer mill
3. Ball and race mill.
1.62 Name the two methods of pulverised fuel firing

system?
1. Unit (or) direct system
2. Bin (or) central system.
1.63 What is the need for treating water before

feeding it to the boiler?
1. Scaling on the inside wall of different
heat-exchangers due the deposition of dissolved salts
and suspended impurities will form and thus these
will create excessive pressure and thermal stress
inside the heat-exchangers, which may lead to the
explosion and serious hazards for boilers.
2. The dissolved salts may react with various parts of
boiler through which it flows, thereby corrode the
surfaces.
3. Corrosion damage may occur to turbine blades.
Hence, feed water treatment is very much required to
remove such dissolved and suspended impurities from water
before feeding it to boiler.
1.64 What is the function of the degasser in a Did

plant?
The function of degasser tower is to remove carbonate
ions by forming cabon-di-oxide. In degasser tower, stream
of water is poured from top & air is blown from bottom to
top. In the pressure of air, the carbonic acid H 2CO 3
present in the water dissociates into H 2O and CO 2.
H 2CO 3 H2O CO 2
This CO 2 is free to mix with air.
1.65 Explain Reverse Osmosis?

Reverse Osmosis: On the higher density solution (lower
density solvent) if a pressure (P), greater than osmotic
pressure is applied, then the solvent molecules pass
through the semi-permeable membrane from higher density
solution to lower density solution. This phenomenon is
called reverse osmosis. This one is the important stage for
boiler feed water treatment process.
1.66 Why is a binary vapour cycle used in a power

plant?
Mercury, Diphenyl C 6 H 52 O , Aluminium
ether
bromide and Ammonium chloride are the working fluids
having desirable thermodynamic properties like high critical
temperature and low critical pressure. Among the above
fluids, mercury is having desirable high critical temperature
588.4 C and low critical pressure (21 bar).
But we can not use mercury alone since its saturation

temperature at atmospheric pressure is high 357C. So
binary vapour cycle using two fluids - mercury and water

are used to increase the thermal efficiency.
1.67 Define the term waste heat recovery?
Waste heat is the heat which is not at all used and
exhausted out as a waste product. Waste heat is normally
available from the industry in the form of process steam
and water at high temperature. Also, the waste heat is
discharged with the exhaust gases in so many industries.
This heat can be recovered for useful purpose. This process
is known as waste heat recovery.
1.68 What are the waste materials which can be used
for fuel for power generation?
1. Municipal waste
2. Industrial waste
3. Paper waste
4. Rubber waste.
1.69 Write about waste heat boilers?
The waste heat boilers use the waste heat in gases
coming out of diesel engines and gas turbines at high
temperature (or) use the waste as a fuel in the incineration.
Some boilers use the industrial dirty gases for power
generation.
Chapter 2
Diesel, Gas Turbine and Combined Cycle
Power Plants
2.1 What is Otto cycle?
It is an idealized cycle for the spark ignition internal
combustion engines. It is the thermodynamic cycle most
commonly found in automobile engine. This cycle was
conceived by Nikolaws Otto.
P T
3 3
PV = C
C
V=
2 4 2
4
V=C
1 1
V S
V 2 =V 3 V 1=V 4 S 1 =S 2 S 3 =S 4
(b) T.S Diagram
C lea rance Volum e
Sw ept Vo lum e
Total Volu me
(a) P.V Diagram Fig 2.1 Otto Cycle
Fig shows the theoretical P-V diagram and T-s

diagrams of this cycle.
The otto cycle consist of four processes 1 - 2 - 3 - 4
2.2 What is Diesel cycle?
This cycle was introduced by Rudolph Diesel in 1897.
It is the cycle used in the Diesel (compression-ignition)
engine. The heat is transferred to the working fluid at

constant pressure. The Fig. 2.3 below shows the PV and
T-s diagram of a Diesel cycle.
P T
2 PV = C
P 2= P 3 3 3
nt
n s ta
Co
P= 4
4 2 nt
n s ta
Co
V=
1 1
V S
(a ) P -V D ia gram V 1= V 2 S 1= S 2 S 3= S 4
(b ) T-S D iag ram
Fig:2.3 D iesel C ycle
2.3 Define Air standard efficiency?

Work done
Air stand efficiency
Heat supplied
2.4 What is dual cycle?

Mixed/Dual cycle is a combination of Otto cycle and
Diesel cycle, where heat addition takes place partly at
T
P
P 3 =P 4 3 4 4
3
2 2
5 5
1 1
S
V 2 =V 3 V 1 =V 5 V T 1=T 2 T 4 =T 5
P -V D ia gram T-s D iag ra m
Fig;2.5 D ual Cycle
constant volume and partly at constant pressure. In fact

Otto cycle and Diesel cycle are special cases of Dual cycle.
Both Otto cycle (constant volume heat addition) and Diesel
cycle (constant pressure heat addition) are over simplistic
and unrealistic. In actual case, combustion takes place
neither at constant volume (time required for chemical
reaction), nor at constant pressure (rapid uncontrolled
combustion).
2.5 What is the order of efficiencies of otto, diesel,
dual cycles?
The air standard efficiency is clearly increases with
the increase in compression ratio. The order of efficiencies
of the three cycles are
otto Dual Diesel
2.6 Write the applications of diesel power plant?

Suitable for small or medium capacity range of 2
to 50 MW.
Used in industries where power equipments is up
to 500 kW.
Used as standby plants to hydro and steam power
plant.
Used as mobile power generation system such as
automobile, ship, aeroplane, railways and road
transport.
Used as peak load plants in combination with
thermal or hydro-plants to meet the power
demands during peak hours.
2.7 What are the types of diesel power plants?

Diesel power plants are mainly classified as
stationary diesel power plants and mobile diesel
power plants.
The diesel electric power-plants are classified based
on their applications as follows:
1. Peak load plant
2. Mobile plants
3. Stand-by Units
4. Emergency plant
5. Nursery station
6. Starting stations
7. Central stations
2.8 What are the uses of air filter and superchargers
in diesel engine power plant?
The purpose of air filter is to filter the air from dust
and other suspended particles.
The purpose of super charger is to increase the
pressure of the engine to increase power of the engine.
2.9 What is the function of cooling system in Diesel
power plant?
The function of cooling system is to remove heat from
the engine cylinder to keep the temperature of the cylinder
in low range and extend engine life.
2.10 What consists of lubrication system in diesel

engine power plant?
The lubrication system consists of oil pumps, oil
tanks, filters, coolers and connecting pipes. The purpose of
the lubrication is to reduce the friction of moving parts and
also to reduce the wear and tear of moving parts.
2.11 What are the types of engine cooling systems?

Engine cooling systems are classified into three types.
1. Air cooling system
2. Water cooling system
3. Oil cooling system
2.12 What is super charging?

In compression ignition engines, more amount of air
in the cylinder at the start of the compression stroke,
allows more quantity of fuel to be burnt, thereby increasing
the power output of the engine. Hence, it is desirable that
the engine should take in the greatest possible mass of air.
The process of increasing the suction pressure of the engine
above the atmospheric pressure is called supercharging
and the device used for this purpose is called as
supercharger.
2.13 What are the factors to be considered while
selecting a site for a gas turbine power plant?
Site selection of gas turbine power plant
(i) Availability of fuel

The fuel should be easily available and at reasonable
cost.
(ii) Availability of transportation facilities

The transportation facilities should be available.
(iii) Distance from the load centre

The site for the gas turbine power plant should be
near to the source of fuel supply, to decrease the
transportation cost.
(iv) Distance from the populated area

It should be far away from the town, thus smoke and
flue gases exhausted from the plant will not affect human
beings.
2.14 How do you classify gas turbine power plants?

CLASSIFICATION OF GAS TURBINE POWER PLANTS
(a) According to the type of load

(i) Peak load plants
(ii) Base load plants
(iii) Standby plants
(b) According to the cycle of operation
(i) Open cycle plants
(ii) Closed cycle plants
(iii) Semi-closed cycle plants
(c) According to fuel
(a) Liquid fuel
(b) Solid fuel
(c) Gaseous fuel
(d) According to number of shafts
(a) Single shafts
(b) Multi shaft
2.15 What are the commonly used gas turbine fuels?

Commonly used gas turbine fuels include:
(a) Gaseous fuels

Natural gas
LPG
Refinery gas
Coke oven gas
Coal gas
Hydrogen
(b) Liquid fuels

Diesel
Kerosene
Naphtha
Ethanol and methanol
Condensates
Heavy residual grade oils and crude oils
2.16 What are the important properties to be
considered while selecting a fuel for gas turbines?
While selecting a fuel for gas turbines, some
important properties considered are.
Volatility
Combustion products
Energy contents
Lubricating properties
Availability
2.17 What are the materials used in the construction

of gas turbines?
Various high performance materials used in the
construction of gas turbines are
Special steels
Titanium alloys (Ti - 6 Al - 4V, Alloy 685, Alloy
829)
Super alloys (A 286, IN - 100, Rene 95, Superalloy
718)
Ti - 6 Al - 4 V is used for making static and rotating
components in gas turbines. Alloy 685 and 829 are used
in many aircraft engines. Super alloys are mainly used for
the manufacture of discs in aircraft engines.
Other materials like ceramics, composites and

intermetallics are being researched and developed with the
aim to exploit the superior features of the materials for
improving the performance of gas turbine engines.
2.18 What is the purpose of intercooler in gas turbine

power plant?
Since the power required to compress the air is less
in isothermal process, it is required to maintain the
temperature of air constant as far as possible. Hence,. the
air leaving the L.P. compressor is cooled by intercooler and
then passed to the H.P. compressor.
2.19 What is the use of Regenerator in gas turbine

power plant?
The regenerator is used to heat the air leaving the
HP compressor which is to be passed to the combustion
chamber.
2.20 What is the difference between open cycle and

closed cycle gas turbine?
In closed cycle, the exhaust gas is cooled and recycled
while in open cycle the exhaust gas is sent to the
atmosphere.
2.21 Why are combined power cycles used?

To increase the overall efficiency of electric power
plants, multiple processes can be combined to recover and
utilize the residual heat energy in hot exhaust gases. In
combined cycle mode, power plants can achieve electrical
efficiencies up to 60 percent. The term combined cycle
refers to the combining of multiple thermodynamic cycles
to generate power. Combined cycle operation employs a
heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) that captures
heat from high temperature exhaust gases to produce
steam, which is then supplied to a steam turbine to
generate additional electric power. The process for creating
steam to produce work using a steam turbine is based on
the Rankine cycle.
2.22 Name two combined power cycles?

1. Combined cycle of gas turbine and steam power
plant.
2. Combined cycle of gas turbine and diesel power
plant.
2.23 Define turbo charging in combined gas turbine
and diesel cycles?
In the combined cycle, the exhaust gas from the diesel
engine is expanded in the turbine which is coupled with
compressor which supplies pressurized air to the diesel
engine. This increases diesel engine output. This

arrangement is known as turbo charging.
2.24 What is an IGCC system?
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle IGCC is a
combination of two leading technologies. The first
technology is called coal gasification, which uses coal to
create a clean-burning gas (syngas). The second technology
is called combined-cycle, which is the most efficient method
of producing electricity commercially available today.
2.25 What are the advantages of an IGCC system?
Advantages of IGCC over current conventional
coal-based power generation systems include: Higher
efficiencies and lower emissions:
Higher output: Using syngas in a gas turbine
increases its output, especially when nitrogen from an
oxygen blow unit is fed to the turbine.
Product flexibility including carbon capture and
hydrogen production.
In addition to electricity generation, hydrogen
produced from the process can potentially be used as a
transport fuel, in fuel cells.
Chapter - 3
Nuclear Power Plant
3.1 Write about atomic number?

The nucleus contains protons and neutrons. The
number of protons in a given atom is an atomic number
(Z). The atomic number for H is 1 and He is 2.
3.2 Write about isotopes of an element?

Some elements have the same number of protons in
the nucleus but different number of neutrons. As a result,
these elements have the same atomic number but different
mass number. Such type of elements which have the same
atomic number - same number of protons - the same
chemical properties but different mass numbers due to
different number of neutrons, are known as the isotopes
of an element.
3.3 What is meant by Nuclear fission?

Uranium exist in different isotopes of
U 238 , U 234 and U 235 . Out of these, U 235 is most unstable.
When unstable heavy nucleus is bombarded with high
energy neutrons, it splits up roughly into two equal
fragments and about 2.5 neutrons are released and a large
amount of energy is produced. This process is called
Nuclear fission.
3.4 What is Radio activity?

The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of powerful
radiation exhibited by heavy elements is called
radioactivity. It is an irreversible self-disintegrating activity
as the elements breaks itself up (fission reaction). The
elements that exhibit this activity are called radioactive
elements. Example of radioactive elements are uranium,

radium, thorium, pulutonium, radon, ionium, actinium and
mesothorium.
The radioactivity may be natural or artificial.
3.5 Name the different components of nuclear
reactor?
1. Nuclear fuel 2. Moderator 3. Control rods
4. Reflectors 5. Reactor vessel 6. Biological shielding
7. Coolant
3.6 What is the use of Moderator?
Moderator is used to slow down the velocity of
neutron. It reduces the kinetic energy of fast neutron to
slow neutron.
3.7 Explain the function of reflectors in a nuclear
power plant.
The reflector is made up of graphite and beryllium.
The reflector is used to send back the neutrons into the
core resulting in minimization of neutron losses. The
neutrons released during the fission process will be partly
absorbed by the fuel rods, moderator, coolant (or) structural
material. Some neutrons which are unabsorbed will try to
escape from the reactor core and they will be lost for ever.
In order to reduce these losses, the reactor inner surface
is coated with reflector which reflects the escaping neutrons
backs to the core. Thus the reflector is used to conserve
the neutrons as much as possible in order to reduce the
consumption of fissionable material and to keep the size of
the reactor small.
3.8 What is biological Shielding?

The radiations like rays, rays and rays from
the reactor are very harmful to human life. It is very much
important to absorb these radiations to prevent the danger
resulting from these. The radiations are absorbed by the
lining of steel plate and gets heated. Thick layers of lead
(or) concrete are provided all round the reactor for stopping
the gamma rays. Thick layers of metals (or) plastics are
sufficient to stop the alpha and beta particles.
3.9 What are the disadvantages of BWR?

Disadvantages
1. The BWR has negative power demand coefficient.

i.e., when more power is demanded from the reactor,
it may produce less.
2. The steam leaving the reactor is slightly radioactive
and hence the turbine and the pipings should be
properly shielded.
3. Since the boiling of water on the surface of the fuel
is allowed, the burn out of fuel is more.
3.10 What is a pressurizer and why is it used?
In order that water may not boil and remain in liquid
state, it is kept under a light pressure of about 150 atm.
Pressurizer is a simple pressure vessel with a heater

at the bottom and a water spray at the top. The top of the
pressurizer is filled with steam at primary circuit pressure.
If the primary circuit pressure drops, the heater is operated
which generates steam and increases the steam content in
the vessel. This results in the increase of pressure in the
primary circuit.
C o ld Water Sp ray
Pre ssurizer
C o ncre te Shie l d H e ater

.. . .. . .. . .. ... . .. . .. . .. .
.. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . Tu rbine
. Steam
.... . .. . .. . .. .
.. . ..
.. . .. . ... . .. .
W ater
.. . .. .
.. . .. . .. . .. . Fu el &
. . G ene rator
.. . . .. .
. .... . .. . M oderato r H e at
.. . .. .
.. . .. . .. . .. . Exchanger
.. . .. . O r B oiler
.. . .. . .. . .. . Th erma l
. .
.... . .. . .... . .. . Sh ield
.. . .. .
.. . .. . .. . .. .
.. . . . . R e actor
.. . .. . .. . .. . C o re C o nd en ser
. .
.... . .. . .. . . ... .
Wa te r
Wa te r
.. . . . . . . ... . .
.. . . .. .. . . . .. . . ... . . ... . . .
.. . .. . .. . .. .
Fe ed P um p
C ircu lating Pu m p
Prim ary C ircuit Se co ndary C ircu it
Fig:3.7 Pressurized Water Reactor Nuclear Power Plant
And if the primary circuit pressure becomes too high,

the cold water is sprayed in the pressurizer. This condenses
the steam and reduces the primary circuit pressure.
3.11 State some advantages of Pressurized Water

Reactor?
1. The pressurized water reactor is compact
2. In this type, water is used as coolant, moderator

. .
and reflector ( . water is cheap and available in plenty)
3. It requires less number of control rods.
3.12 Mention the advantages CANDU reactor?

1. Heavy water is used as moderator, which results in
low fuel consumption.
2. Enriched fuel is not required.

3. The cost of vessel is less as it need not withstand
a high pressure.
4. Time needed to construct the reactor is less.
5. Slowing the neutrons is easy as the moderator can
be kept at low temperature.
3.13 What are the advantages of gas cooled reactor
nuclear power plant?
1. Fuel processing is simple
2. The use of CO 2 as coolant completely eliminates

the possibility of explosion in reactor.
3. No corrosion problem
3.14 What is meant by breeding?
The process of producing fissionable material from a
fertile material such as Uranium 238 U 238 and thorium
232 Th 232 by neutron absorption is known an breeding.
3.15 Name the coolants commonly used for fast

breeder reactors?
1. Liquid metal Na or Na K
2. Helium (He)
3. Carbon dioxide.
3.16 What are the advantages of Sodium as primary

coolant?
1. Sodium has very low absorption cross sectional
area
2. Sodium possesses good heat transfer properties at

high temperature and low pressure.
3. Sodium does not react with any of the structural

materials used in primary circuits.
3.17 What is the purpose of control rods?

The control rods are used to start the chain reaction,
maintain the chain reaction at required level and to shut
down during emergency.
3.18 What is the use of coolant and name some

coolants used in Nuclear power plant?
Coolant is used to transfer the heat produced in the
reactor to steam generator for raising the steam. The
generally used coolants are ordinary and heavy water, air,
carbon dioxide, helium, hydrogen and liquid metals like
sodium and potassium.
3.19 Mention some important safety measures

practiced in Nuclear power plants?
1. Nuclear power plant should be constructed far away
from the human populated areas.
2. Quality materials should be used for construction in
order to meet the required standards.
3. Waste water from the nuclear power plant should
be treated.
4. Periodic checks to ensure that radioactivity in the
environment does not exceed the permissible value.
5. The nuclear power plant must be provided with such
a safety which could safely shut down the plant
during emergency.
3.20 What is dosimetry?
Dosimetry is the calculation and assessment of the
radiation dose received by the human body.
Chapter 4
4.1 Explain the principle of hydro power plants?
The basic principle of hydropower is that when water
is piped from a higher level to a lower level, the resulting
water pressure is used to do work. If the water pressure
is allowed to move a mechanical component, then that
movement involves the conversion of potential energy of
water into mechanical energy. Hydro turbines converts
water power into mechanical shaft power, which can be
used to drive an electric generator.
4.2 Name the essential elements of hydro power
plant?
Hydro electric power plant (or) Hydel power plant
consists of following essential elements
(i) Reservoir
(ii) Dam
(iii) Trash rack
(iv) Surge tank
(v) Fore bay
(vi) Pen stock
(vii) Spill way
(viii) Power house
(ix) Draft tube
4.3 What is the main purpose of the reservoir?

The main purpose of reservoir is to store water
received from catchment areas during the rainy seasons and
supply the same during the dry season.
4.4 What is the main purpose of the dam?

The main purpose of the dam is to increase the height
of water level and also to increase the working head of the
hydraulic power plant.
4.5 Why trash rack is used?

The trash rack is used to prevent the entry of debris
which might damage the turbine runners and chock up the
nozzle of impulse turbine.
4.6 What is the use of surge tank?

The surge tank is used to provide better regulation
of water pressure in the system. The surge tank controls
the water when the load on the turbine decreases and
supplies water when the load on the turbine increases.
Thus, surge tank controls the pressure variations

resulting from the rapid changes in water flow in penstock
and hence prevents water hammer.
4.7 What is the function of Fore bay?

Fore bay is considered as naturally provided surge
tank. It is a temporary water storage when the load on the
plant is reduced and provides water for initial increment
of an increasing load.
4.8 Explain about penstock?

The pipe between surge tank and prime mover is
known as penstock. It is designed to withstand high
pressure. It is made up of reinforced concrete. In very cold

areas, the penstock is buried to prevent ice formation and
to reduce the expansion joints.
4.9 What is the use of spill ways?
Spillway is like a safety valve of the dam. It
discharges major flood without damaging the dam. It keeps
the reservoir level below the maximum level allowed.
4.10 Write about prime movers?

Prime mover converts the kinetic energy of water into
mechanical energy to produce electrical energy. Pelton
wheel turbine, Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine and
propeller turbine are prime movers used in hydraulic power
plants.
4.11 What is the use of draft tube?

The draft tube is used to regain the kinetic energy of
water coming out of reaction turbine. It enables the
reaction turbine to be placed over tail race level.
4.12 Name some major hydro electric power plants in

INDIA?
1. Mettur Hydro-electric project, Mettur, Tamil Nadu
360 MW capacity.
2. Kundah Basin Development project, kundah Basin,
Tamil Nadu 130 MW.
3. Periyar Hydro-electric project, Periyar, Tamil Nadu
145 MW.
4. Koyna Hydro-electric project, Koyna, Maharashtra
960 MW.
5. Bhakra and Nangal Dam, Sutlej, Punjab 1150
MW.
6. Yamuna Hydro-electric project, Yamuna, U.P 860

MW.
7. Srisailam Hydel project, Godavari, A.P 710 MW.
8. Iddiki Hydel project, Iddiki, Kerala 800 MW.
9. Sharasvathi Hydro-electric project, Sharasvathi,
Karnataka 890 MW.
10. Chamba valley project, chambal river, M.P 375
MW.
4.13. What are Impulse Turbines? Give an examples.
Impulse Turbines are those turbines in which the
pressure at the exit of nozzles is atmospheric and except
for losses, the pressure does not vary along the moving
vanes. The thrust experienced by a moving vane of an
impulse turbine is solely due to the change in direction of
momentum. Pelton wheel is most common hydraulic
impulse turbine which works at heads of 150 - 1500
meters.
4.14 What is the use of a hydraulic brake?

When the turbine has to be brought to rest by closing
the inlet valve of the turbine, the runner generally takes
a very long time to come to rest due to its inertia. To bring
it to rest quickly, a small brake nozzle is provided. This
nozzle is opened and it directs a jet of water at the back
of the buckets. This acts as a brake to bring the revolving
runner quickly to rest.
4.15 What are reaction turbines? Give examples?

Reaction Turbines are impulse - reaction prime movers.
A stator of guide vanes is used to surround the rotor of
moving vanes. The guide vanes act as nozzles, allowing only
partial expansion of pressure to kinetic energy. Further

expansion of pressure head takes place during the motion
of fluid over the moving vanes. Hence, the thrust exerted
on the blade is partially due to momentum change
(impulse) and partly due to pressure action (reaction).
A commonly used reaction turbine for medium head
(20-200 m) is Francis Turbine, for low head (2-3 m) is
Kaplan Turbine.
4.16 What do you understand by an axial flow

turbine?
If water flows parallel to the axis of the rotation of
the shaft and the shaft of the turbine is vertical, the
turbine is known as axial flow turbine.
4.17 What is the purpose of a governor in a hydro
electric unit?
The primary purpose of a governor for a hydro electric
unit is to control the speed and loading of the unit. It is
accomplished by controlling the flow of water through
turbine. In Normal conditions the turbine should run at
constant speed irrespective to changes in load.
4.18 Name the components used in an oil pressure

governor?
The oil pressure governor consisting of following parts
namely
(iv) Oil pump

(v) Pipes connecting oil pump
4.19 What is full load, overload and part load?

Full load is defined as maximum efficiency of the
turbine. If the load increases above full load, then it is
called over load. If the load decreases below full load, then
it is called part load.
The part load efficiency for all type of turbine depends
upon type of turbine and specific speed.
4.20 What is micro hydro power plant?
Micro hydro is a type of small scale hydroelectric
power plant that makes advantage of naturally-flowing
streams to produce 5 kW - 100 kW of electricity. This
process produces no direct emission. Micro hydro can bring
electricity to remote communities, ranging from a single
home, to few hundred kilometer for selling into national
grid.
4.21 What are the site characteristics for the selection

of a turbines?
The selection of the most suitable turbine for any
particular hydro site depends mainly on two of the site
characteristics - head and flow available. All turbines have
a power-speed characteristic. This means that they will
operate most efficiently at a particular speed, head and flow
combination. Thus the desired running speed of the
generator or the devices being connected/loading on to the
turbine also influence selection.
4.22 What is a Turgo Turbine?

The Turgo turbine is an impulse water turbine
designed for medium head applications. Operational Turgo
Turbines achieve efficiencies of about 87%. It works with

net heads between 15 and 300 m.
4.23 Explain load factor for hydro power plants?
The load factor is the amount of power used divided
by the amount of power that is available if the turbine
were to be used continuously. Unlike technologies relying
on costly fuel sources, the fuel for hydropower generation
is free and therefore the plant becomes more cost effective
if run for a high percentage of the time.
4.24 What is an electronic load controller (ELC)?

Traditionally, complex hydraulic or mechanical speed
governors altered flow as the load varied, but recently an
electronic load controller (ELC) has been developed to
increase the simplicity and reliability of modern
micro-hydro sets. The ELC prevents speed variations by
continuously adding or subtracting an artificial load, so that
the turbine is working permanently under full load. A
further benefit is that the ELC has no moving parts, and
hence virtually maintenance free.
4.25 What are load limiters?

Load limiters work by limiting the current supplied
to the consumer to a prescribed value. If the current
exceeds that value, then the device automatically
disconnects the power supply. The consumer is charged a
fixed monthly fee irrespective of the total amount of energy
consumed.
4.26 Mention some advantages of micro hydro plant?

Advantages of Micro hydro plant
It is a long-lasting and robust technology.

High efficiency (80 - 90%).

Output is maximum in winter seasons.
Environment friendly, does not produce any direct
emission.
Produces power from Naturally-flowing streams.
Micro hydro power can bring electricity to remote
communities.
Micro hydro plants are economical.
4.27 What is wind power?
The terms wind energy or wind power describe
the process by which the wind is used to generate
mechanical power or electricity. Wind turbines convert
the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical power. This
flow, or kinetic energy of the wind, can be harvested with
the help of modern wind turbines, and can be used to for
various applications including generation of electricity by
coupling the turbine to a generator. This mechanical power
can be used for specific tasks like grinding grain, saw
milling, pumping water or electricity to power homes,
businesses, schools, etc.
4.28 What are the types of wind turbines?

Modern wind turbines fall into two basic groups;
The horizontal-axis variety, like the traditional

farm windmills used for pumping water, and
The vertical-axis design, like the eggbeater-style
Darrieus model, named after its French inventor.
Most large modern wind turbines are
horizontal-axis turbines.
4.29 Name the types of wind mills?

Wind mill comes in various shape and size and can
be categorised into different types
1. Multiple blade type
2. Propeller type
3. Sail type
4. Darrieus type
5. Savonius type
The multiple blade type is the widely used wind mill,
it may have 10 to 20 numbers of blades made up of metal
sheets.
4.30 What are the component of a tidal power plant?

The following are the components of a tidal power
plant.
1. The dam or dyke (low wall) to form the pool or

basin.
2. Sluice ways from the basins to the sea and vice
versa.
3. The power house.
4.31 What are the advantages of Tidal power plants?
Advantages:
1. Tidal power is completely independent of the
precipitation (rain).
2. Large area of valuable land is not required.
3. When a tidal power plant works in combination with
thermal or hydroelectric system peak power demand
can be effectively met with.
4. Tidal power generation is free from pollution.
4.32 What are the disadvantage of tidal power

plants?
1. Due to variation in tidal range the output is not
uniform.
2. Since the turbines has to work on a wide range of
head variation (due to variable tidal range) the plant
efficiency is affected.
3. Machineries are corroded due to corrosive sea water.
4. It is difficult to carry out construction in sea.
5. As compared to other sources of energy, the tidal
power plant is costly.
6. Sedimentation and silteration of basins.
7. The power transmission cost is high because the
tidal power plants are located away from load
centres.
4.33 What are the limitation to harness solar energy?
There are two obstacles to harness solar energy, one
is the energy is not constantly available on earth so storage
is needed to sustain a solar power system through the night
and during bad weather conditions. Second the solar energy
is diffused (i.e.,) scattered all over. Since the total amount
of energy available is enormous, the collection and
conservation of solar energy should be carried out over a
large area, which requires large capital investment for the
conversion apparatus.
4.34 What are the types of solar power plants?
Types of solar power plant
(ii) Low temperature solar power plant
(iii) Medium temperature systems using focusing -
collector
(iv) High temperature systems - [solar farm and solar

power plant]
4.35 What is a Heliostat?
A heliostate is a device, which includes a mirror to
reflect sunlight, constantly on to a target as the run moves
across the sky.
4.36 Write about solar photovoltaic?
Solar Photovoltaic (PV) converts sunlight directly into
electricity. PV gets its name from the process of converting
light (Photons) into electricity (Voltage), which is called the
PV effect.
Solar PV is used primarily for grid-connected
electricity to operate residential appliances, commercial
equipment, lighting and air conditioning for all types of
buildings. Through stand-alone systems and the use of
batteries, it is also well suited for remote regions where
there is no electricity source.
4.37 What are the disadvantages of SPV cells?
Disadvantage of solar photovoltaic cell
1. Cost of solar cell is very high.

2. Voltage output is not constant, it varies with time
of the day and weather.
3. Amount of power generated is small.
4.38 What is Geo Thermal Power?
The temperature at the centre of the earth (core) is
around 3100 C and the temperature at the junction
between the magma body and crust is around 1200 C. (i.e.,)
the temperature at which most rocks melts. The crust of
the earth is an excellent insulator, allows only little amount
of heat to reach earth surface. When the heat escapes from
the crust reaches water source it evaporate the water and
converts it into steam. This steam is converted into useful

work (or) power called geothermal power.
4.39 What are the sources of geothermal power?
These are the five categories of geothermal sources
that have been identified
1. Hydrothermal corrective system
(i) Dry steam fields
(ii) Wet steam fields
(iii) Hot water fields
2. Geopressure resources
3. Petro-thermal (or) hot dry rocks (HDR) thermal
4. Magma resources
5. Volcanoes
From the above mentioned geothermal sources the
best resources for geothermal energy are Hydrothermal
convective sources and dry rock is also being considered.
4.40 What is OTEC?
OTEC or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion is an
energy technology, which uses the oceans natural
temperature gradient to drive a turbine, which is connected
to a generator. It is desirable that the temperature
difference between the warm surface water and the cold
deep water in sea should be at least 20C 68F.
4.41 What are the types of OTEC?
There are basically three types of OTEC systems
developed that can utilise sea water temperature
differentials.
(i) Closed cycle
(ii) Open cycle
(iii) Hybrid cycle
4.42 What is Biogas?

Biogas is a combustible gas mixture of methane,
carbon dioxide, water and hydrogen sulphide produced
during the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter.
During anaerobic digestion, wastes are treated and
degraded and biogas is produced.
4.43 What are the applications of Biogas?
The main applications of biogas are:
Cooking
Domestic lighting and heating
Fuel for I.C Engines
Used to make fuel cell (the electrolyte used in
Potassium Hydroxide KOH)
The gas needs to be upgraded by removing CO 2 with
the help of water scrubbing.
4.44 What is a fuel cell?
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts
chemical energy of a conventional fuel directly into low
voltage D.C electrical energy. It is then described as a
primary battery in which fuel and oxidizer are stored
external to the battery and fed to it when needed.
4.45 What are the advantage of fuel cells?
Advantages of fuel cells
1. Conversion efficiency is high.

2. Easy and simple construction.
3. Require very little attention and maintenance.
4. High power to weight ratio.
5. Fuel cell does not make any noise.
6. Less space required.
7. Quick operation.
8. Can be installed at the use point.
4.46 What are the disadvantage of fuel cells?
Disadvantage of fuel cell
1. It is very costly.
2. Short service life.
3. Low voltage output.
4. Proper attention is needed while selection of
materials.
4.47 What is the working principle of Magneto Hydro
Dynamic power plant?
Magneto Hydro Dynamic is concerned with the flow
of a conducting fluid in the presence of magnetic and
electric field.
The working principle of MHD is as like that of
dynamo. Instead of solid conductor, a high temperature
plasma is passed through magnetic field at sonic speed.
When the gas is passed through magnetic field, current is
induced. This induced current is collected by electrodes.
4.48 Name different types of MHD generators.
1. Open cycle MHD
2. Closed cycle MHD
3. Closed cycle MHD with liquid metal.
Chapter 5
Energy, Economic and Environmental Issues

of Power Plants
5.1 What is connected load?

Connected load: It is the sum of ratings in kW of
equipment installed in the consumers premises. If a
consumer has connections for 5 lamps of 60 watts each, a
TV consuming 100 W and a grinder consuming 1000 W,
then the total connected load of the consumer is
5 60 100 1000 1440 W
5.2 Define demand factor.

Demand factor is defined as the ratio of maximum
demand to connected load.
Connected load is the sum of ratings in kW of

equipment installed in the consumers premises.
Maximum demand is the maximum load which a

consumer uses at any time.
5.3 Define load curve.

Load curve is a graphical representation between load
in kW and time in hours. It shows variation of load at the
power station. The area under the load curve represents
the energy generated in a particular period.
5.4 What is meant by average load?

Average load can be calculated by dividing the area
under the load curve (energy in kW hr ) by the time period
(24 hours).
A rea under load curve

Average load
24
Energy cons umed in 24 hours

24
5.5 Define load factor.

Load factor is defined as the ratio of average load to
the peak load (or) maximum demand.
5.6 What are base load and peak load power plants?
If the power plant is used to supply the load of the
base portion of load curve, then it is called base load power
plant. Base load power plants run through out the year.
They are of the large capacity and run at high load factors.
If the power plant is used to supply the load on the

top portion of the load curve, then it is known as peak load
plant. This type of power plants are of smaller capacity,
run for a short period in a year and work at low load
factors. Peak load power plants should be able to start
quickly.
5.7 Define plant capacity factor.

Plant capacity factor is defined as the ratio of actual
energy produced in kWh to the maximum possible energy
that could have been produced during the same period.
E
Plant capacity factor
Ct
where E Energy produced kWh in a given period
C Capacity of the plant in kW
t Total no. of hours in the given period.

5.8 Define plant use factor.

Plant Use factor: Plant use factor is defined as the
ratio of energy produced in given time to the maximum
possible energy that could have been produced during the
actual number of hours the plant was in operation.
E
Plant use factor
C t1
where
t1 actual number of hours the plant has been in opera tion.
If the plant use factor approaches 1, then it indicates

the need for additional capacity of the plant. The high value
of plant use factor indicates that the plant is used most
efficiently.
5.9 Define diversity factor.

The diversity factor is defined as the ratio of sum of
individual maximum demand to the simultaneous
maximum demand of a system.
5.10 What includes fixed cost?

Fixed cost includes the following cost.
1. Cost of land
2. Cost of building
3. Cost of equipment
4. Cost of installation
5. Interest
6. Depreciation cost
7. Insurance
8. Management cost
5.11 What includes operating cost?

Operating cost includes the following cost.
1. Cost of fuel
2. Cost of operating labour
3. Cost of maintenance labours and materials.
4. Cost of supplier like
(a) Water for feeding boilers, for condenser and for

general use.
(b) Lubrication oil and grease.
(c) Water treatment chemicals.
5.12 What is the need of depreciation cost?

Depreciation cost is the amount to be set aside per
year from the income of the plant to meet the depreciation
caused by the age of service, wear and tear of the
machinery and equipments. Depreciation amount collected
every year helps in replacing and repairing the equipment.
5.13 Name different methods used to calculate the

annual depreciation cost.
1. Straight line method
2. Sinking fund method
3. Diminishing value method
5.14 Write about power tariffs.

Power tariffs or Energy tariff / rate are the different
methods of charging the consumers for the amount of power
consumed by them. Cost of electrical energy generation
consists of fixed cost and operating cost and since the

generated energy is to be supplied to the consumers, the
total cost of generation of energy is recovered from the
consumers with the help of power tariffs. Consumers are
charged according to the maximum demand (kW) and
energy consumed (kWh). The power tariff chosen must be
able to recover the total cost, profit, operating cost, etc.
involved in the generation of electricity.
5.15 What are the types of power tariffs?
The various types of tariffs are:
1. Flat demand rate.
2. Straight line meter rate.

3. Step meter rate.
4. Block meter rate.
5. Two-part tariff (or) Hopkinson demand rate.

6. Three-part tariff (or) Doherty rate.
7. Wright demand rate.

5.16 What is the general equation for power tariffs?
All the various types of tariff are derived from a
general equation T RX SY C
T Total amount of bill for the period considered
R Rate per kW of maximum demand
X Maximum demand
S Energy rate per kW
Y Energy consumed in kW during the period

considered
C Constant amount such as meter charges which

is to be added to the bill even if the consumers does not
use any energy for the period considered
5.17 What are the factors to be considered while

choosing the type of power plants?
The various factors to be considered while choosing
the type of power plant are as follows.
a. Power plant site
b. Type of fuel available
c. Type of load.
d. Generating unit
e. Cost
5.18 What are the types of distribution networks?

Distribution networks are divided into two types,
radial and network. A radial system is arranged like a tree
where each customer has one source of supply. A network
system has multiple sources of supply operating in parallel.
The secondary network is commonly found in big cities and
is the most reliable system. Spot networks are used for
concentrated loads. Radial systems are commonly used in
rural or suburban areas.
5.19 What are the parameter of load distribution?

AC or DC - Virtually all public electricity supplies
are AC today. Users of large amounts of DC power
such as some electric railways, telephone
exchanges, etc. usually either operate their own or
have adjacent dedicated generating equipment, or
use rectifiers to derive DC from the public AC

supply.
Nominal voltage, and tolerance (for example,
or 5 percent)
Frequency, commonly 50 or 60 Hz, 16.7 Hz and
25 Hz for some railways and, in a few older
industrial and mining locations, 25 Hz.
Phase configuration (single-phase, polyphase
including two-phase and three-phase).
Maximum demand (some energy providers
measure as the largest mean power delivered
within a 15 or 30 minute period during a billing
period).
Load factor, expressed as a ratio of average load
to peak load over a period of time. Load factor
indicates the degree of effective utilization of
equipment (and capital investment) of distribution
line of system.
Power factor or connected load.
Earthing systems - TT, TN-S, TN-C-S or TN-C.
Prospective short circuit current.
Maximum level and frequency of occurrence of
transients.
5.20 What is a load duration curve?
The rearrangement of daily load curve with loads set
up in descending order of magnitude (or) power consumed
is called as Load duration curve.
The area under the load duration curve and the

area under the corresponding load curve are equal
and represent the energy consumed by the system

for that period.
5.21 What are the major pollution from a thermal
power plant?
The major pollutants from the thermal power plant
are sulphur dioxide SO 2, carbon monoxide CO, minute
particles such as fly ash, carbon particles, silica, aluminum
and ion oxides.
5.22 How to control particulate matter?

The following types of mechanical arresters are used
for removal of solid particles from thermal power plant.
1. Fabric filters
2. Electrostatic precipitators.
It is economical to remove particles of 2 to 3 microns.

The particles below 2 microns are difficult and costly to
remove.
5.23 What are the methods for removal of SO 2?
The following methods are adopted for removal of

SO 2.
De Sulphurisation of fuel
Use of low sulphur fuel
Use of tall stacks
Cleaning of flue gases.
5.24 Write about CO 2 recorders?
In thermal power plants, it is necessary to keep the

concentration of CO 2 as low as possible. To achieve this, a
constant recording of concentration of CO 2 is necessary.

These recorders are based on the three different principles,
as given below.
1. Thermal conductivity cell
2. Chemical absorption cell
3. Density balance
5.25 What is the necessity of Automatic controls for

feed water?
The electrical load on power plant varies in an
irregular manner. The automatic control provided at a
steam power plant successfully meets over the variable
load. The automatic control for feed water is necessary sine
the supply of feed water depends upon plant load.
5.26 Name some of the automatic controlling methods

for feed water.
1. Single element pilot operated system
2. Single element self operated system
3. Two element pilot operated system
4. Three element pilot operated system
5.27 What is the purpose of automatic combustion

control?
The main purpose of automatic combustion control
system is to maintain load against demand, to prevent
smoke, to increase boiler house efficiency, to carry out
routine adjustments and to provide interlocking safe
guards.
5.28 What is Indian Boiler Act?

The high pressure boilers are required to be operated
within safe pressure limits with regular maintenance,
because the failure of boiler may prove extremely
disastrous. To ensure full safety, some laws have been
enforced through a legislation which is commonly known as
India Boiler Act 1923 and after amendment Indian Boiler
Act 1953. All boiler owners are required to follow this
legislation in a strict sense.
5.29 What are the main provisions of Indian Boiler

act?
The main provisions of this act are given below.
(i) A boiler cannot be operated unless it has been

registered with the Chief Inspector of Boilers.
(ii) The maximum working pressure of the boiler has to
be determined by the Boiler Inspector. The owner is
not allowed to run his boiler at a pressure higher
than this, under any circumstances whatsoever.
(iii) In case of any accident, the boiler owner has to
report giving full details of the nature and cause of
accident, within twenty four hours of the occurrence
of the accident.
(iv) The rules and regulation and bye-laws governing the
upkeep and maintenance of boilers, the procedure
for their registration, inspection and determination
of maximum pressure and inside safety, conditions
etc. are subject to revision by a Central Board under
the control of Government of India.
(v) Violation of Law is liable to prosecution and
punishment with fine.
5.30 How to express boiler performance?

The performance of a steam boiler can be expressed
in terms of the following.
(i) Heat release per m 3 of furnace volume.

(ii) Thermal efficiency of boiler.
(iii) Heat transferred / m 2 hr.
(iv) Rate of combustion in kJ/m 2 of grate area per hour

for solid fuel.
(v) Amount of steam produced per hour.
5.31 Define thermal efficiency of the boiler.
Thermal efficiency of the boiler is defined as the ratio
of heat actually utilized by water in generation of steam to
the heat supplied during combustion of fuel.
W H2 H 1
boiler
W 1 CV
Where
W weight of stea m produced in kg
H 1 enthalpy of feed water
H 2 To tal heat of steam in kJ/kg at the generation pressure
W 1 weight of fuel burnt in kg
C.V CalorificValue of fuel in kJ/g
5.32 Define equivalent evaporation.

Equivalent evaporation is defined as the amount of
water evaporated from water at 100C to dry and saturated
steam at 100C
5.33 Define factor of evaporation.

Factor of evaporation F e is defined as
H1
Fe
H2
where H 1 Heat received by 1 kg of water under working

conditions.
H 2 Heat received by 1 kg of water evaporated from

and at 100C
5.34 What is meant by boiler trial?

Steam is generated in boilers under certain conditions
of feed water and exist as steam while a certain amount
of fuel is burnt. To study the performance of boiler, some
experiments are conducted by operating the boiler for a
certain length of time and recording the data. This
procedure is known as boiler trial.
5.35 State the objectives of boiler trial?

1. To determine the thermal efficiency of the boiler
when working at a definite pressure.
2. To draw up heat balance sheet for the boiler to
check the performance of the boiler.
5.36 Write about boiler registration.
Without registration, the boiler should not be
installed. The owner of the boiler should apply for
registration of the boiler to the chief inspector of the boiler.
Then the inspector will examine the boiler and submit the
detailed report to chief inspector. If everything is satisfied,
then the chief inspector will issue a certificate as approval
of registration and the certificate will be valid for a period
of 12 months at a given maximum pressure. The boiler

registration number will be mentioned in the certificate.
5.37 Under what conditions should the boiler
certificate be renewed?
The certificate can be renewed under the following
conditions.
1. On the expiry of the period for which it was granted.

2. When any accident occurs to the boilers.
3. When the boiler is transferred to the another state.
4. When any structural modification, alteration (or)
addition is made to the boiler.
5. When the steam piping connections are damaged
(or) in dangerous conditions.
5.38 What are the types of radio active wastes?
Radio active wastes are generally classified into
following types.
1. Low level radio active waste.
2. Intermediate level radio active waste.
3. High level radio active waste.
5.39 Write about collection, storage and disposal of

nuclear wastes.
1. Low activity, solid nuclear wastes are collected in
paper (or) plastic lined containers and disposed by
incineration (or) land disposal method.
2. High activity solid nuclear wastes are collected in
shielded containers.
3. Low activity liquid and gaseous wastes are usually
diluted (or) dispersed before disposal.
4. Special glass containers are used to store high

activity liquid and solid wastes and are maintained
at 100 150C so that these wastes will become
glassy materials.
5.40 What are the method of liquid waste disposal?
The disposal of liquid wastes is done in two methods.
(i) Dilute and disperse method
(ii) Concentrate and contain method
5.41 What are the approaches to radio - active waste
disposal?
The following methods are carried out to dispose
radio-active waste.
Deep geological repositories.
Ocean dumping.
Sea bed burial.
Sub-sea bed disposal.
Subductive waste disposal method.
Transforming radio active waste to non-radioactive
stable waste.
Dispatching to the sun.
i
INDEX
A Brayton Cycle, 2.29
Actuator, 4.36 Bucket elevators, 1.121
Air preheater, 1.88 C
Air Pollution, 5.40 CANada Deuterium Uranium
Air standard efficiency, 2.19 (CANDU) reactor, 3.21
Air circuit, 1.45 Cascade System, 1.43
An Electric Load, 5.30 Catalytic oxidation, 5.48
Anion Exchange Resin, 1.156 Cavitation, 4.48
Artificial draught, 1.137 Chain Reaction, 3.8
Ash handling and dust Chimney, 1.95
collecting system, 1.124 Chlorination, 1.154
Ash Circuit, 1.45 CO2 recorders, 5.50
Axial Flow Reaction Turbines, Coal Circuit, 1.45
4.32 Coal mills, 1.92
B Cogeneration System, 1.168
Bag house dust collector, 1.130 Combined Power Cycles, 2.66
Balanced draught, 1.140 Combustion Chamber (CC), 2.53
Belt conveyors, 1.119 Commercial load, 5.35
Benson Boiler, 1.53 Commercial load curve, 5.38
BIN (or) Central System, 1.152 Control rods, 3.16
Binary Vapour Cycle, 1.160 Control of NOx, 5.48
Biogas plant, 4.111 Cooling Water Circuit, 1.47
Biogas Power Plant, 4.109 Cooling tower, 1.104
Biological shielding, 3.17 Cost of power generation, 5.17
Block meter rate, 5.22 Cost, 5.29
Boiler Accessories, 1.85 Customer charges, 5.17
Boiler Testing, 5.61 Cyclone Separators, 1.133
Boiler Performance, 5.59 Cyclone dust collector, 1.133
Boiler Inspection, 5.57 D
Boiler furnance, 1.92 Dam, 4.4
Boiler Mountings, 1.112
Deaerator, 1.112
Boiler Trial, 5.62
Degasser, 1.157
Boiler Drum, 1.92
Degree of reaction, 1.79
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR),
Demand factor, 5.26
3.18
Demineralization Plant, 1.155
ii
Depreciation cost, 5.12 G

Diesel Engine Power Plant, 2.33 Gas Cooled Reactor, 3.24
Diesel Cycle, 2.9 Gas turbine, 2.49
Diminishing value method, 5.15 Gas Turbine Power Plant, 2.49
Diversity factor, 5.26 Gaseous wastes disposal, 5.72
Doherty rate, 5.23 Generation capacity, 5.27
Double basin arrangement, 4.73 Generator, 3.12
Draft tube, 4.20 Geo Thermal Power Plant, 4.94
Draught, 1.134 Geothermal sources, 4.96
Dual Cycle, 2.17 Governing system, 2.43
Dust collector, 1.129 Grab Bucket Conveyor, 1.122
E Gravitational separators, 1.129
Earth dams, 4.14 H
Economiser, 1.87 Handling of coal, 1.114
Electrical generator, 4.65 Heliostats (Mirrors), 4.88
Electro Static Precipitator Hopkinson demand rate, 5.23
(ESP), 1.92 Hybrid OTEC System, 4.106
Environment Aspects, 4.23 Hydel Power Plants, 4.1
F Hydraulic Brake, 4.29
Fast Breeder Reactor, 3.26 Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell, 4.116
Feed water circuit, 1.46 Hydrothermal convective
Feed Water Treatment, 1.153 system, 4.97
Feed pumps, 1.85 Hyperbolic Cooling Tower, 1.107
Flat demand rate, 5.19 I
Flight conveyor, 1.123 IGCC System, 2.72
Flue gas circuit, 1.45 Important terms and definition,
Fluidized Bed Combustion 5.34
(FBC) Boilers, 1.59 Impulse Turbine, 1.73, 4.27
Forced draught, 1.138 Indian Boiler Act, 5.56
Forced Draft Tower, 1.108 Induced draught, 1.139
Fore bay, 4.18 Industrial load, 5.35
Francis Turbine, 4.31 Industrial load curve for one
Fuel and Ash Handling, 1.114 shift, 5.36
Fuel qualities, 2.55 Injector, 1.91
Fuel Cell, 4.115 Insurance, 5.16
iii
Integrated Gasifier Based Nuclear Fission, 3.8

Combined Cycle System, 2.72
Intercooler, 2.52 O
Intercooling, 2.63 Ocean Energy Conversion
Irrigation load, 5.35 (OTEC) Plant, 4.102
Oil pump, 4.36
J Operating cost, 5.16
Jet condensers, 1.80 Otto Cycle, 2.1
L Overfeed stokers, 1.142
Layout of Open Cycle Gas P

Turbine Power Plant, 2.52
Pendulum, 4.36
Layout of Diesel Power Plant,
Penstock, 4.19
2.37
Photovoltaic cell, 4.91
Liquid Metal Cooled Reactor,
Pneumatic ash handling system,
3.27
1.127
Liquid wastes disposal, 5.72
Pollution and its Control, 5.40
Load duration curve, 5.38
Power Tariffs, 5.18
Load curve, 5.34
Power Distribution System, 5.30
Load centre, 1.49
Power house, 4.20
Load factor, 4.56
Pressurized Water Reactor
Load Duration Curves, 5.34
(PWR), 3.19
Loefler Boiler, 1.56
Pulveriser, 1.148
M Pump circulation system, 2.41
Magnesium oxide scrubbing, 5.48 Pumped Storage, 4.76
Magnetic separation, 5.45
R
Management cost, 5.16
MHD Power Plant, 4.118 Radioactivity, 3.2
Micro Hydel Development, 4.50 Reaction turbine, 1.77, 4.30
Mixed Cycle, 2.17 Reactor vessel, 3.17
Mixed Bed Resins, 1.157 Reflectors, 3.16
Municipal load curve, 5.36 Regeneration, 2.65
Municipal load, 5.35 Regenerative Cycle (Bleeding
Cycle), 1.29
N Reheat Cycle, 1.12
Natural draught, 1.135 Reheating, 2.64
Non-rigid dams, 4.14 Relay cylinder, 4.35
Nuclear Reactor, 3.10, 3.14 Reservoir, 4.4
Nuclear Reactions, 3.7 Residential load curve, 5.35
iv
Residential load, 5.34 Traction load, 5.35

Reverse Osmosis Plant (RO Traction load curve, 5.37
Plant), 1.157, 1.158 Trash rack, 4.16
Rigid Dams, 4.9 Turbine, 3.12
Rock fill Dams, 4.15 Turbine Governing, 4.35
Turgo Turbine, 4.55
S Two-part tariff, 5.23
Scraper, 1.123 Type of Cooling towers, 1.105
Screw conveyor, 1.120 Types of tariffs, 5.19
Selection of Turbine, 4.38
U
Servomotor, 4.35
Single basin arrangement, 4.72 Under feed stokers, 1.146
Sinking fund method, 5.13 Unit (or) direct system, 1.150
Solar Photovoltaics (SPV), 4.90 V
Solar Central Receiver system, Velox boilers, 1.57
4.87 Volatility, 2.55
Solar Power Plants, 4.81
Solid wastes disposal, 5.72 W
Spillway, 4.19 Wagon tippler, 1.92
Steam Condensers, 1.80 Waste disposal, 3.13
Steam separator, 1.90 Waste Heat Recovery System,
Steam Turbines, 1.72 1.168
Steam jet system, 1.129 Waste Heat Boilers, 1.169
Steam flow circuit, 1.46 Water head, 4.23
Step meter rate, 5.21 Water Pollution, 5.49
Stockers, 1.141 Wet scrubber, 5.46
Straight line meter rate, 5.20 Wind mill head, 4.65
Straight line method, 5.12 Working Principle of A Kaplan
Super Critical Boilers, 1.50 Turbine, 4.33
Super charging, 2.47 Working of a Pelton Wheel, 4.30
Super heater, 1.89 Wright demand rate, 5.24
Surface condenser, 1.81
Surge tank, 4.17
T
Thermo Siphon system, 2.41
Three-part tariff, 5.23
Tidel Power Plant, 4.70, 4.71
Total cost, 5.16

Power Plant Engineering by DR Ramachandran-P2P

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(For B.E.

Mechanical Engineering Students)

(As per New Syllabus of Leading Universities)

Dr. S.Ramachandran, M.E., Ph.D.,

AIR WALK PUBLICATIONS

Unit 1: Coal Based Thermal Power Plants

Unit 2: Diesel, Gas Turbine and Combined Cycle

Unit 3: Nuclear Power Plant

Unit 4: Power from Renewable Energy

Unit 5: Energy, Economic and Environmental issues

I. Coal Based Thermal Power Plants

1.8.1 Conversion of Oil fired boilers to fluidized

1.8.2 Types of Fluidised Bed Combustion system. 1.63

(ii) Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion

(iii) Pressurised Fluidised Bed

1.9 Steam Turbines ............................................................... 1.72

1.9.3.2 Degree of reaction ......................................... 1.79

1.11.13.3 Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers1.107

1.11.13.4 Air Cooled or Dry-type Cooling

2. Diesel, Gas Turbine and Combined Cycle Power

2.16.3 Regeneration.................................................... 2.65

3. Nuclear Power Plant

4. Power From Renewable Energy

4.5 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines............................. 4.26

4.11.3 Characteristic of a good wind power

2. Closed cycle MHD .................................................4.122

5. Energy, Economic and Environmental Issues of

4. Block meter rate ......................................... 5.22

5.8.3 Water Pollution By Thermal Power Plant

5.8.4.2 Automatic controls for feed water.... 5.52

COAL BASED THERMAL

1.1 RANKINE CYCLE (Simple Steam Power Cycle)

Rankine cycle is the theoretical cycle on which the

H ig h Pre ssure S team

pumped to the boiler

h1 and h2 can be taken from steam table for

(p1 high pressure (or) boiler pressure (or) inlet to

2 - 3 Constant pressure condensation

h3 hf at low pressure p2.

where vf for p2 from steam table

Thermal Efficiency: It is the ratio of net work done to

4 - 1 Heat Supplied in Boiler: Q supply

From Mollier diagram,

Problem 1.2: In a rankine cycle, the steam flows to turbine

Isentropic expansion. So, s1 s2

So, s2 6.123 kJ/kg K T

But at 0.2 bar,

it is wet steam at exit p 2 = p 3 =0.2ba r

6.123 0.832 x27.077

Dryness fraction at the exit of turbine x2 0.748

h2 hf x2hfg for 0.2 bar 251.5 0.748 2358.4

vf3 0.001017 m 3/kg for 0.2 bar.

W p vf3p1 p2 0.001017 35 0.2 10 2 3.54 kJ/kg

h4 251.5 3.54 255.04 kJ/kg

To Find Pump Work

To Find Turbine Work

To Find Rankine Efficiency

Q s h1 h4 2802 255.04 2546.96 kJ/kg

W net W T W p 787.28 3.54 783.74 kJ/kg

To Find Condenser Heat Flow Q rej

2014.72 251.5 1763.22 kJ/kg

9.5 1763.22 16751 kW

Problem 1.3: Steam at 10 MPa and degree of super heat of