Prelims 2017

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Day 51

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 Environment www.iasscore.in

ECOLOGY AND ITS PRINCIPLES

Ecology is defined as a scientific study of the interaction of living organisms with each other and with their
environment. It deals with the ways in which organism are surrounded by their environment, how they make
use of environmental resources including energy flow and mineral cycling.
The study of ecology has presently contributed a lot to the socio-economic and political issues of the world
as it plays an important role in agriculture, fishery, pest control, conservation of soil, forests and water
resources. All the international issues of environment such as pollution and resource management need a sound
knowledge of ecology. Ecology is a human science as well. There are many practical applications of ecology
inconser vation biology, wetland management,natural resource management (agro-ecology,

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agriculture,forestry,agro-forestry,fisheries), city planning (urban ecology),community health,economics,
basicandapplied science, and human social interaction (human ecology).
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

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Ecologists study nature on different levels, from a local to a global scale. These levels reveal the complex
relationships found in nature.
Organism: An organism is an individual living thing, such as an alligator.
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Population: A population is a group of the same species that lives in one area, such as all the alligators
that live in a swamp.
Community: A community is a group of different species that live together in one area, such as groups
of alligators, turtles, birds, fish, and plants that live together in the Florida Everglades.
Ecosystem: An ecosystem includes all of the organisms as well as the climate, soil, water, rocks, and other
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nonliving things in a given area. Ecosystems can vary in size. An entire ecosystem may live within a
decaying log, which in turn may be part of a larger wetland ecosystem.
Biome: A biome (BY-ohm) is a major regional or global community of organisms. Biomes are usually
characterized by the climate conditions and plant communities that thrive there. Ecologists study relationships
within each level of organization and also between levels. For example, researchers may study the
relationships within a population of alligators, as well as the relationships between alligators and turtles
in a community.
ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
Principle 1: Protection of species and species subdivisions will conserve genetic diversity.
At the population level, the important processes are ultimately genetic and evolutionary because these maintain
the potential for continued existence of species and their adaptation to changing conditions. In most instances
managing for genetic diversity directly is impractical and difficult to implement. The most credible surrogate
for sustaining genetic variability is maintaining not only species but also the spatial structure of genetic
variation within species (such as sub-species and populations). Maintenance of populations distributed across
a species natural range will assist in conserving genetic variability. This ensures the continuation of locally
adapted genetic variants. Retaining a variety of individuals and species permits the adaptability needed to
sustain ecosystem productivity in changing environments and can also beget further diversity (future adaptability).
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Principle 2: Maintaining habitat is fundamental to conserving species.

A species habitat is the ecosystem conditions that support its life requirements. Habitat can be considered at
a range of spatial and temporal scales that include specific microsites (e.g., occupied by certain invertebrates,
bryophytes, some lichens), large heterogeneous habitats, or occupancy of habitat during certain time periods
(e.g., breeding sites, winter range areas). Therefore conserving habitat requires a multi-scale approach from
regions to landscapes to ecosystems to critical habitat elements, features and structures
Principle 3: Large areas usually contain more species than smaller areas with similar habitat.
The theory of island biogeography illustrates a basic principle that large areas usually contain more species than
smaller areas with similar habitat because they can support larger and more viable populations. The theory
holds that the number of species on an island is determined by two factors: the distance from the mainland
and island size. These would affect the rate of extinction on the islands and the level of immigration. Other
factors being similar (including distance to the mainland), on smaller islands the chance of extinction is greater
than on larger ones. This is one reason why larger islands can hold more species than smaller ones.
Principle 4: All things are connected but the nature and strength of those connections vary

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Species play many different roles in communities and ecosystems and are connected by those roles to other
species in different ways and with varying degrees of strength. It is important to understand key interactions.
Some species (e.g., keystone species) have a more profound effect on ecosystems than others. Particular species
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and networks of interacting species have key, broad-scale ecosystem-level effects while others do not. The ways
in which species interact vary in addition to the strengths of those interactions. Species can be predator and/
or prey, mutualist or synergist. Mutualist species provide a mutually beneficial association for each other such
as fungi that colonize plant roots and aid in the uptake of soil mineral nutrients. Synergistic species create an
effect greater than that predicted by the sum of effects each is able to create independently.
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Principle 5: Disturbances shape the characteristics of populations, communities, and ecosystems.

Natural disturbances have played a key role in forming and maintaining natural ecosystems by influencing their
structure including the size, shape and distribution of patches. The more regions, landscapes, ecosystems and
local habitat elements resemble those that were established from natural disturbances, the greater the probability
that native species and ecological processes will be maintained. For example, high frequency, low intensity fires
have shaped ponderosa pine ecosystems while low frequency, high intensity fires have shaped lodgepole pine
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ecosystems. Maintaining these ecosystems means restoring fire and/or designing management practices such
as harvesting to reduce the differences between a managed landscape and a landscape pattern created by natural
disturbance.
Principle 6: Climate influences terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems.
Climate is usually defined as all of the states of the atmosphere seen at a place over many years. Climate has
a dominant effect on biodiversity as it influences meteorological variables like temperature, precipitation and
wind with consequences for many ecological and physical processes, such as photosynthesis and fire behaviour.
Because of the key role of climate, rapid climate change profoundly changes ecosystems.
OTHER TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH ECOLOGY
a) Habitat: Habitat is the physical environment in which an organism lives. Each organism has particular
requirements for its survival and lives where the environment provides for those needs. The features of
the habitat can be represented by its structural components namely (1) space (2) food (3) water (4) and
cover or shelter.
b) Niche: The term niche means the sum of all the activities and relationships of a species by which it uses
the resources in its habitat for its survival and reproduction.
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c) Species: A species is defined as; a group of similar populations of organisms whose members are capable
of interbreeding, and to produce fertile offspring (children). A tiger, a lion, a lotus and a rose are examples
of different species.
d) Speciation: Speciation is the process by which new species are formed and evolution is the mechanism
by which speciation is brought about.

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 Environment www.iasscore.in

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological succession is a fundamental concept in ecology. It is the process by which a natural community
moves, through a sequential change in the structure and composition, from a simpler level of organization to
a more complex community. It is a long-term cumulative, directional and largely predictable process of natural
development of different communities at the same site, in a definite sequence, over a period of time.
Such changes occur either in response to an environmental change or induced by the intrinsic properties of the
community itself. Succession continues till a community develops maximum equilibrium to the environment.
It is called climax community.
Reasons for ecological succession

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The original environment may have been optimal for the first species of plant or animal, but the newly
altered environment is often optimal for some other species of plant or animal. Under the changed
conditions of the environment, the previously dominant species may fail and another species may become
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ascendant.
A forest fire, wind storms, and human activities like agriculture all greatly alter the conditions of an
environment. These massive forces may also destroy species and thus alter the dynamics of the ecological
community triggering a scramble for dominance among the species still present.
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Features of Succession
The four characteristics of succession are as follows:
1. Succession is an orderly sequence of changes in the vegetation of a previously bare area. It is directional
and is hence predictable.
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2. The rate of change, the pattern of change and the limit of development are determined by the alteration
brought about in the physical environment by the existing community. Succession is therefore, a
fundamentally biological process.
3. It produces a relatively stable or climax community which is in dynamic equilibrium with the climate. It
has the maximum heterogeneity, community relationship and biomass while the net productivity is
minimum.
4. The final or climax community is controlled by climate and not the habitat. Thus succession beginning
water or a rock ends up in similar communities under similar climates. The phenomenon is called convergence.
Types of Succession
Ecological Successions have been described using several criteria. Accordingly, there are several types of
succession.
1. Autogenic Succession: It is a series of developmental changes in the structure of vegetation caused by the plants
themselve. Plants of a developmental state produce changes in the habitat initially to favour their growth
but the changes go on beyond the optimum to that the habitat becomes unsuitable for them. It paves the
way for the growth of another type of plant community.
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2. Allogenic Succession: Here the habitat is changed by action of outside factors like change in climate, leaching
of soil nutrients, increase in salt content of the soil and deposition of salt on sand. The habitat then
becomes unsuitable for the colonizers. It favours the growth of a different set of plants.
3. Induced Succession: Man has controlled succession in such a way as to obtain a managed steady state
in which good amount of organic matter can be harvested. It is called induced succession. In induced
succession, like agriculture, a young state is maintained by various types of inputs and protective measures.
4. Deflected Succession: It is a succession in which the vegetation does not pass through the normal stages
of development but either adds or replaces a successional type, e.g., ABBCDE or ABCDE instead of
the normal ABCDE.
5. Primary Succession: It is the succession that takes on a primary bare area or an area which was not previously
inhabited by plants. Such an area is biologically sterile and is, therefore, quite hostile in strating. Succession
is also slow.
6. Secondary Succession: It occurs on a site which has become bare secondarily due to destruction of previous
vegetation. The area is biologically fertile and hence favourable for reappearance of plant life. Succession

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is quite rapid.
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Autotrophic Succession: The succession involves in appearance and continued dominance of green or autotrophic
plants. Autotrophic succession begins on a medium having little organic matter but quite rich in inorganic
substances. Slowly the organic content of the substratum increases.
Heterotrophic Succession: The succession occurs in an area rich in organic matter, e.g., water bodies
receiving sewage, litter, etc. and there is a progressive decrease in the energy content. It is dominated by
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microbes, actinomycetes, fungi, detrivores and other animals. It usually occurs in a microhabitat like dead
plant matter, dead animal, dung, etc.
9. Cyclic Succession: A pattern of succession where the climax community is destroyed again and again and
a similar pattern of secondary succession repeats itself every time.
The Process of Succession
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Succession is a long-term cumulative, directional and largely predictable process of natural development of
different communities at the same site in a definite sequence over a period of time. Such changes occur either
in response to an environmental change or induced by the intrinsic properties of the community itself. Succession
continues till a community develops maximum equilibrium to the environment. It is called Climax Community.
The characteristic sequence of the successional stages includes 8 elementary processes, namely:
Nudation: It is the creation of bare area. Nudation can occur due to physiographic, climatic or biotic
agents.
Migration: This is the leaving of the parent area by a gemmule and its arrival in a new area. A gemmule
consists of reproductive structure like seed, spore or propagule. Propagule is commonly a vegetative
structure. It does not help immigration over an appreciable distance except in case of lichen soredia. The
gemmules which take part in migration are also called Migrules or Disseminules. Migration is influenced
by four factorsmobility, agent, distance and topography.
Colonization: The nature of topography of the bare area also determines the type of the initial vegetation.
For example, on bare rock only the spores of some cyanophytes or the soredia of lichens can stick and
germinate while in a saline area only the seeds of some halophytes can grow. The first arrivals in a bare
area are called Pioneers or pioneer colonizers. The occupation of a bare area by the pioneers and other
invaders is called colonization.
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Ecesis: The establishment of plants in a new place is called ecesis. It consists of three processes-
germination, growth and reproduction. Germination depends upon dormancy, and viability of seeds or
spores. The most critical stage of life cycle is the seedling stage. It may face predation from animals and
adverse environment in the form of lack or defieincy of water, light, temperature and soil depth. Maximum
mortality occurs in the seedling stage. If the seedling gets established, it grows in size. During its growth
the plants may have to pass thorugh adverse conditions and die or remain vegetative. Reproduction is the
final stage of ecesis.
Aggregation: It is the increase in number of the colonizing individuals. In the beginning the pioneers are
few in number and grow far from one another. They produce a large number of disseminules which spread
in the open areas and increase the number of pioneers. If invasion continues and the invaders are also able
to multiply, the phenomenon is called Mixed Aggregation.
Competition: It may be intraspecific (among individuals of the same species) or interspecific (among
individuas of the different species). Competition occurs when the availability of a necessity becomes
inadequate to meet the optimum requirement of all the individuals growing in that area. The competition
can be for space, light and heat among the epiterannean parts and for space, water and minerals among
the subterranean parts of different individuals. Intraspecific competition is generally more acute because

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of the similar requirements and similar adaptations of the individuals of the same species.
Reaction: It is the change brought about by colonizers in the habitats. The first reaction is localized. It
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consists of such changes as bindings of soil particles, assisting in weathering or building soil at the bottom
of a water reservoir. Later on, besides the soil the climate of the habitat is also changed. Vegetation has
retarding effect on wind. It protects the ground from the direct action of ration fall and insulation. Death
of roots produces channels in the soil for quick absorption of rain water. Humus produced by the death
of older or weak plants increases water retention, aeration and nutrition of the soil. The reaction of the
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early colonizers is such as to make the habitat less favourable to themselves and more favourable to
invaders. The reaction of the latter invites new invaders and so on.
Stabilization: Continuous competition invasion and reaction give rise to continuous changes in the
environment and structure of vegetation. After a long interval some individuals arise which are in complete
harmony with the climate of the area. This is termed as stabilization.
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The sequence of the above stages is termed as sere. The traditional view, most notably expressed by
Frederic Clements, holds that there is an orderly, predictable sequence of seres, or plant communities
resulting from a single stage of succession, culminating in a stable climax. The presence of one set of
colonizers changes the environment in such a way that the next set of colonizers can join or replace it.
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INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

The earliest excavations in the Indus valley were done at Harappa in the West Punjab and Mohenjodaro
in Sind.
Both places are now in Pakistan.
The findings in these two cities brought to light a civilization which was first called the The Indus Valley
Civilization.
But this civilization was later named as the Indus Civilization due to the discovery of more and more
sites far away from the Indus valley.

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Also, it has come to be called the Harappan Civilization after the name of its first discovered site.
An alternative term for the culture is Saraswati-Sindhu Civilization, based on the fact that most of the

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Indus Valley sites have been found at the Halkra-Ghaggar River.
R.B. Dayaram Sahni first discovered Harappa (on Ravi) in 1921 and R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro
or Mound of the Dead (on Indus) in 1922. Sir John Marshal had played a crucial role in both these.
Harappan Civilization forms part of the proto history of India and belongs to the Bronze Age.
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Mediterranean, Proto-Australoid, Mongoloids and Alpines formed the bulk of the population, though the
first two were more numerous.
According to radio-carbon dating, it spread from the year 2500 - 1750 BC. Copper, bronze, silver, gold
were known but not iron.
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ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION

The archaeological findings excavated near the Indus Valley revealed the gradual development and four
important stages or phases of evolution and they are named as pre-Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-
Harappan and late Harappan.
The pre-Harappan stage is located in eastern Baluchistan. The excavations at Mehrgarh 150 miles to the
northwest of Mohenjodaro reveal the existence of pre-Harappan culture. In this stage, the nomadic people
began to lead a settled agricultural life.
In the early-Harappan stage, the people lived in large villages in the plains. There was a gradual growth
of towns in the Indus valley. Also, the transition from rural to urban life took place during this period.
The sites of Amri and Kot Diji remain the evidence for early-Harappan stage.
In the mature-Harappan stage, great cities emerged. The excavations at Kalibangan with its elaborate
town planning and urban features prove this phase of evolution.
In the late-Harappan stage, the decline of the Indus culture started. The excavations at Lothal revealed
this stage of evolution. Lothal with its port was founded much later. It was surrounded by a massive brick
wall for flood protection. Lothal remained an emporium of trade between the Harappan civilization and
the remaining part of India as well as Mesopotamia.
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GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT
Indus Valley Civilisation was the biggest of the contemporary ancient civilizations of the Nile or Tigris-
Euphratus valleys in the west or the Yellow River Valley in the east.
It formed a triangle and accounted for about 12,99,600 km with Sutkagendor in Makran coast, Alamgirpur
in Meerut district of U.P., Manda in Jammu and Daimabad forming its western, eastern and northern and
southernmost points, respectively.
From east to west it is a distance of 1,550 km and from north to south it extends over 1,100 km.
Major sites in Pakistan of Harappan civilization are Harappa (on Ravi in W Punjab), Mohenjodaro (on
Indus), Chanhu-Daro (on Sindh), etc. In India, major sites are Lothal, Rangpur and Surkotda (Gujarat),
Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Banwali (Hissar), and Alamgirpur (Western UP). Largest and the latest site
discovered in India is Dholavira in Gujarat.

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INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION SITES

So far nearly 1000 sites of nearly, mature and late phases of the Indus Civilization are known in the sub-
continent. But the number of the sites belonging to the mature phase is limited, and of them only half a dozen
like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal, Chanhu-daro and Banwali can be regarded as cities.
Of these, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa situated at a distance of 483 km and linked together by the river Indus are
most important, both on account of their size and the diversity of the finds, which excavations have revealed.
Mohenjo-daro
Literally, the mound of the dead is situated in Larkana district of Sind on the right bank of the River
Indus. Mohenjo-Daro was first excavated by R.D. Banerjee in 1922.
This city is also an extreme example of conservatism, as despite having been fl ooded almost nine times,they
never tried to shift to a safer place. Rather, they came back to the original site whenever the water table
receded. Nor did they ever try to build strong embankments to protect themselves from fl oods.

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The major findings here include a citadel, a college, a multi-pillared Assembly Hall, a public bath (the
Great Bath) and a large granary (inside the citadel) consisting of a podium of square blocks and burnt with
a wooden superstructure.

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The Great Bath was excavated by Sir John Marshal and regarded as the most important public place
measuring 11.88 metres, 7.01 metres and 2.43 metres deep approachable by two staircases from north and
south; around it was a pillared verandah with dressing rooms. It is an example of beautiful brickwork,
bitumen coated with gypsum in mortar made it water proof. Perhaps it was used for ritual bathing.
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A piece of woven cotton; bronze dancing girl; seals of three-headed Pashupati Mahadeo; steatite-statuette
of a bearded man supposed to be a priest-king; terracotta figurines of a horse from a superficial level; a
seal and two potshed depicting ships; bronze buffalo and ram, etc. are the major findings here.
Three cylindrical seals of Mesopotamina type have also been found here.
Harappa
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It is situated in the Montgomery district of Punjab, now in Pakistan on the left bank of the River Ravi.
It is perhaps the largest Indus site in magnitude and dimension. The structures of Harappa cover 5 km
in circuit and in the way is one of the largest of its type in the Bronze Age.
The vast mounds at Harappa were first reported by Charles Masson in 1826, and preliminary excavation
was done by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921.
Major findings include - a granary (outside the citadel) consisting of twelve oblong blocks in an area 800
sq. metres; between the granary and the citadel have also been found a series of circular platforms
probably for the pounding of grain, because wheat and barley have been found in the crevices.
Little bullock carts and Ekkas besides copper or bronze models of carts with seated drivers have also
been found.
It is the only site, which yields the evidence of coffin burial probably of a foreigner from the west. Rigveda
(Mandal VI) mentions it as Harupiya - a battle site ruins.
Kalibangan (Sothi culture)
It is situated in Ganga Nagar district of northern Rajasthan on the banks of the now dry course of the
Ghaggar River and was first excavated by A. Ghoshin 1953.
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Here, the massive mud-brick wall around citadel and lower town was supported by corner tower and
bastions.
Evidence of furrows land (pre-Harappan) and wooden furrow comes from this site only.
Evidence of fire-altar in houses suggests the practice of fire-cult.
Copper was known, as is attested by copper bead as well as a cell and few other objectives.
The existence of wheel conveyance is proved by a cartwheel having a single hub.
The pottery has six fabrics, all wheel made, as at Kot-Diji, but unlike Amri, where in the lowest levels,
the majority was hand-made.
The predominant pottery is red or pink with black, or bichrome black white painting.
Animal sacrifice is suggested by a big public fire-pit altar made of burnt bricks on a platform situated in
the outer city containing bones of cattle. At this site evidence of restricted use of bunt bricks confined
largely to bathrooms, wells and latrines.
There is no clear-cut evidence of drainage system here.
Bones of a camel.

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Lothal
It is situated in Gujarat on Bhogavar River near Gulf of Cambay.
It was excavated by Prof. S.R. Rao in 1957. It is a small but interesting site.
It differs from the other sites so far as the houses open on to the main street and there is no citadel
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complex.
An interesting finding here is an artificial brick dockyard (21937 meters) connected through the Bhogavar
River with the Gulf of Cambay.
It is the only place along with Rangpur where rice husk has been found. Terracotta figurines of a horse
are also found here.
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Terracotta model of a ship with a stick-impressed socket for the mast and eyeholes for fixing rigging,
which is found here, may suggest sea trade.
Fire attars have also been found.
It is the only Indus site, which bears the evidence of joint burial of male and female suggesting the practice
of Sati.
A Persian Gulf type of seal has been found here.
The site is also known for bead-makers factory.
Chaunhudaro
It is situated in Sind on the lefts plains of the Indus about 130 km south of Mohenjo-daro.
It has no citadel.
The site is most famous for bead-makers factory.
The site was a major centre for craft production - seal, shell bead and bangle manufacturing shops.
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Other findings include a small pot, probably an inkpot; evidence of mustard; foot prints of a dog chasing
those of a cat across one wet surface of some brickwork; copper or bronze models of carts with seated
drivers etc.
Kot-Diji
It is situated at a distance of 100 miles north-east of Amri on the left bank of the Indus and was
excavated in and after 1955 by the Pakistan Archaeological department.
There are indications at various points that the early settlement was subject to floods and that stones were
piled up as a protection against their action.
The material culture included a chart-blade industry with some serrated blades, and other blades reportedly
bearing sickle glass.
It is not clear whether there were any objects of copper but a fragment of a bronze bangle is reported.
The pottery was of a distinctive character, which was decorated to have developed from bands of

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brownish paint.
An interesting motif appears to have developed from bands of loops and wavy lines into the well-known

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fish-scale pattern, which later appears on Harappan pottery.
With the exception of writing and long stone blades, the Kot-Dijians had everything that Harappans were
known for.
At Kot-Diji the foundations of the fortification wall and houses are of stone.
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There is plenty of evidence to show that Kot-Diji was destroyed of fire.
Amri
It is situated in Sind west of the River Indus and was excavated under the direction of N.G. Majumdar
in 1929 and later by a French team directed by J.M. Casal.
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Here, fragments of copper and bronze, a chart blade industry, wheel thrown pottery showing a wide variety
of painted motifs, mainly geometric, in both plain and polychrome styles have been found.
From this site, comes a beautiful painted humped Indian bull.
Surkotada
It is a coastal site and is situated at the head of Rann of Kutch in Gujarat.
It was first excavated by J. Joshi in 1964.
Here, both citadel and lower town is fortified - the two being connected by an intercommunicating gate.
The most important finding here are the bones of horse (2000 BC).
Sulkagendor
It is on the Makran coast where Sir Aurel Stein dug some trial trenches.
There is existence of a great fortification around the Harappan outpost here.
The citadel here was fortified in rubble stone instead of bricks.
Perhaps the site was a trading port.
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Banwali
It is situated in Hissar district of Haryana on the bank of the now dry course of river Sarasvati.
It was first excavated in 1974 by R.S. Bisht.
A good quantity of barley has been found here.
The sites like Kalibangan also show pre-Harappan and Harappan phases.
Ropar
It is situated in the district of the same name in Punjab on the bank of river Sutlej and was first excavated
by Y.D. Sharma in 1953.
Both Harappan and post-Harappan phase have been noticed here.
Rangpur
It is situated in Jhalwar district of Gujarat near Ahmedabad and was excavated by M.S. Vats in 1931.

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All three phases of Harappan culture i.e. pre-Harappan, Harappan and post-Harappan have been found here.
The most important finding here are rice husks.
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No seal or image of Mother Goddess has been found here.
Alamgirpur
It is situated in Meerut district of U.P. and represents the last phase i.e. of post-Harappan culture.
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Ali Murad
It is situated in Sind and has yielded a massive stone fort.
Dholavira
It is situated in Gujarat and seems to be a big site but is not much excavated.
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DECLINE OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Traces of general decline in civic standard are noticed towards the last phase of Indus Civilization. Town
planning was abandoned and public buildings fell in ruin. Water supply system fell in disrepair. Kiln entered
city limits. Dilapidated bricks were roused. Script degenerated. Weights and measures and seals disappeared.
External and internal trade declined. Some exotic tools and pottery found in the upper levels indicate foreign
intrusion in the north. Several causes have been given for the decline.
There is no unanimous view pertaining to the cause for the decline of the Harappan culture. Various
theories have been postulated.
Natural calamities like recurring floods, drying up of rivers, decreasing fertility of the soil due to excessive
exploitation and occasional earthquakes might have caused the decline of the Harappan cities.
According to some scholars the final blow was delivered by the invasion of Aryans.
The destruction of forts is mentioned in the Rig Veda. Also, the discovery of human skeletons huddled
together at Mohenjodaro indicates that the city was invaded by foreigners.
The Aryans had superior weapons as well as swift horses which might have enabled them to become
masters of this region.
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HARAPPAN CULTURE
The emergence of Indus valley civilization, also known as harappan civilization marks the first period of
urbanization in ancient India. It is well known for the spectacular planning and specialized craft which are not
available in any of the contemporary civilizations of the world. Although we find trade relation between
Mesopotamian civilization, there is no similarity in the life style and structure of the civilization of Harappa
with the Mesopotamian civilization.
SALIENT FEATURES OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
Town Planning

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The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning on the lines of the grid system
- that is streets and lanes cutting across one another almost at right angles thus dividing the city into
several rectangular blocks.

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Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan each had its own citadel built on a high podium of mud brick.
Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which were inhabited by the
common people.
The large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of constructions and the absence of stone buildings
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are the important characteristics of the Harappan culture.
Another remarkable feature was the underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street
drains which were covered by stone slabs or bricks.
The most important public place of Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath measuring 39 feet length, 23 feet breadth
and 8 feet depth. Flights of steps at either end lead to the surface. There are side rooms for changing clothes.
The floor of the Bath was made of burnt bricks. Water was drawn from a large well in an adjacent room, and
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an outlet from one corner of the Bath led to a drain. It must have served as a ritual bathing site.
The largest building in Mohenjodaro is a granary measuring 150 feet length and 50 feet breadth. But in
the citadel of Harappa there were six granaries.
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Society
An important characteristic of the Indus Civilization was its urban life.
The civic life was highly developed.
The society mainly consisted of middle classes.
Perhaps there existed a fairly stratified social structure.
There was a clear cut division of labour based on specialization of work which is evidenced by the
presence of craftsmen, sculptures, jewelers, scribes, merchants, traders, transporters, carpenters, potters,
herdsmen, priests, slaves, peasants, administrators and the ruling elite.
The presence of warrior caste is uncertain.
Marked Class inequality is testified by two-roomed barracks or workmans quarters found in both Harappa
and Mohenjo-daro.
There were diversions such as dice or hunting with wild animals. But dice playing seems to be most
important with them.

E
The young played with marbles, rattles and toys. The bull with a mobile head, and the monkey going up
and down a string show ingenuity.
OR
On a potsherd from Harappa is found a person wearing a dhoti. Shawl as an upper garment is suggested
by the well-known steatite statuette from Mohenjo-daro, supposed to be of a priest.
The occurrence of needles and buttons prove that at least some items of dresses might have been stitched.
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Polity
Uniformity in material culture visible in such features as town planning, trade and commerce, weights and
measures, etc. suggests a centralized political control.
Again the presence of great granaries on the citadel mounds and the citadels themselves point towards
the presence of a political authority.
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Possibly, Harappa was ruled by a class of Merchants.

Agriculture
The extensive use of burnt-bricks, for the firing of which plenty of wood was needed, and the frequent
depiction of flora and fauna on the seals suggest a good rainfall.
Wheat and barley were the main food-crops besides, rais, peas, sesamum, mustard, rice (in Lothal), palm
date, banana, etc.
The evidence of culivation of rice comes from Lothal and Rangpur only.
No canal or channel irrigation but gabarbands or reservoirs have been found. Furrow marks have been
discovered only at Kalibangan.
It seems seeds were sown on flood plains in November and reaped in April.
Perhaps stone stickles were used for harvesting.
Despite being a pre-field cultivation, it had a surplus production.
Wheat and barley were the staple food and to the dietary were added fish, fowl, mutton, beef and pork.
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Harappans were the first to discover cotton and grew it for textiles - a crop unknown in those times in Egypt.
Because cotton was first produced in this area the Greeks called it Sindon, which is derived from Sindh.
They domesticated animals on large scale.
Besides cats and dogs, oxen, buffaloes, goats, ship, pigs, and probably elephants were also domesticated.
Remains of horse at Surkotda and dogs with men in grave at Ropar have been discovered. The evidence
regarding horse and camel is inconclusive.
Economy, Trade and Commerce
Economy was mainly agrarian but heavily supported by trade and commerce.
Both internal and external trade was much brisk.
There was no metallic money.

E
Medium of exchange was barter system.
The seals seem to be of merchandise importance.



Trade was undertaken both by land and sea route.
OR
Ships and carts with solid wheel were chief means of transportation.
Uniformity in weights and measures and in material culture suggest trade within the Indus empire.
SC
The Indus people did not possess the necessary raw materials for the commodities they produced.
In return for finished goods like ivory, carnelian beads, shell goods, cotton fabrics, and possibly foodgrains
and spices, they procured metals from the neighbouring areas.
The Indus people imported
Copper - from Baluchistan, Rajasthan (Khetri), Afghanistan and Persia.
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Tin - from Bengal and Afghanistan

Silver - from Rajasthan (Ajmer), South India, Persia and Afghanistan
Lapis Lazuli - from Badakshan and Afghanistan
Turquise - from Kashmir and Persia
Gold - from Karnataka (Kolar) and Afghanistan
Amethyst - from Mahrashtra
Jadeite - from Tibet or Central Asia
Conch shell - from Saurashtra and the Deccan
Agate, Chalcedonies & - from Saurashtra and Western India
Charnellian
Lead - from South India
Funchsite - from Karnataka (north Mysore)
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Overseas trade and outside contact is proved by almost two dozen Indus seals found from Mesopotamian
cities of Ur, Umma, Kish, Lagash, Susa, Tell Asmar and three cylindrical seals of Mesopotamian type
from Mohenjo-daro.
This trade was atleast partly sea-borne is proved by the discovery of the dock yard at Lothal.
Imports could have been matched by exports as revealed by bales of cloth from Umma bearing the
imprint of an Indus seal.
Etched beads and bone inlays of the Indus Valley have also been discovered at Tell Asmar.
The Mesopotamian literature records its trade relations from about 2350 B.C. onwards with Meluha
(identified with Indus region) and two intermediate trading stations called Dilmun (Bahrain) and Makan
(Makran).
The Sargon of Akkad (2300 B.C.) had an official interpreter of the Meluhan language, as is recorded some
Mesopotamian literature.
There are material evidence at Tape Yahya and Sahar-i-Sokhta of overland trade route to Mesopotamia
through Iran.

E
A Harappan colony has been discovered at Shertughai (in north-east Afghanistan) not from the Lapis
OR
Lazuli mines of Badakshan.
Dress and ornaments
People used garments of cotton and wool. Cotton fabric was in common use, such as, shawls, dhoti, skirts,
clock, loin cloth, etc. men wore dhoti and shawl.
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Bronze and ivory needles and buttons suggest use of tailored dress.
Women wore knee length skirt, and their headdress had a plait tied with a bow at the end.
The bronze-dancing girl has braided hair.
Womenfolk also used collyrium, face-paint, comb, oval shaped bronze mirrors, perfumes, etc. and bedecked
themselves with ornaments like necklaces, bracelets, finger-rings, armlets, earrings, girdles, bangles, nose-
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studs, anklets made of a variety of metals and precious stones.

Mens hairstyle was marked by hair parted in middle and tied with a fillet and hair gathered in a bun.
Moustache was shaved off within a short period but beard was kept.
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Script
The Harappan script has still to be fully deciphered.
The number of signs is between 400 and 600 of which 40 or 60 are basic and the rest are their variants.
The script was mostly written from right to left. In a few long seals the boustrophedon method - writing
in the reverse direction in alternative lines - was adopted.
The mystery of the Harappan script still exists and there is no doubt that the decipherment of Harappan
script will throw much light on this culture.

E
OR
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Arts
The Harappan sculpture
revealed a high degree of
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workmanship.
Figures of men and women,
animals and birds made of
terracotta and the carvings on
the seals show the degree of
proficiency attained by the
sculptor.
The figure of a dancing girl from
Mohenjodaro made of bronze
is remarkable for its
workmanship. Its right hand
rests on the hip, while the left
arm, covered with bangles,
hangs loosely in a relaxed
posture.
Two stone statues from Harappa, one representing the back view of a man and the other of a dancer are
also specimens of their sculpture.
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The pottery from Harappa is another specimen of the fine arts of the Indus people. The pots and jars were
painted with various designs and colours. Painted pottery is of better quality. The pictorial motifs consisted
of geometrical patterns like horizontal lines, circles, leaves, plants and trees. On some pottery pieces
figures of fish or peacock are also found.
Seals
These were made generally of softstone called steatite and usually of 2-3cm oblong on which carving
was done with burin wind coated with alkali and treated further with heating to obtain lustrous finish.
These seals have been found in large numbers (about 2500).
These show Harappan creativity - excellent calligraphy with realistic human and animal motifs, particularly
that of bull (unicorn); on the reverse side is a perforated knob.
Perhaps these seals acted as token of merchants and also had some cult significance, because seals from
religious legends have been found on them.
Shell-inlaying important centres were Chanhudaro and Balakot and were used for making beads, bracelets

E
and decorative inlays.
Religious Life
OR
From the seals, terracotta figurines and copper tablets we get an idea on the religious life of the Harappans.
The chief male deity was Pasupati, (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture with three
faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each facing a
different direction). Two deer appear on his feet. The animal surrounding proto-Shiva might have been
SC

worshipped.
The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines.
In later times, Linga worship was prevalent.
Many trees (pipal), animals (bull), birds (dove, pigeon) and stones were worshipped. Unicorn was also
worshipped.
GS

However, no temple has been found, though idolatry was practicedNaga-cult (cobra worship) was practiced.
Practice of fire cult evidenced from Lothal and Kalibangan may suggest ritual sacrifice.
Swastika was a sign of good luck. Portrayal of crocodiles on some seals may symbolize river god.
The elaborate bathing arrangement at the city of Mohenjodaro suggest that religious purification by bath
formed a feature of the Indus Valley people.
Primitive animism i.e. worship of spirits and belief in the other world is shown by the fact that with the
dead were entered a large number of pits and toilet objects such as mirror, antimony rod and mother of
pearl shells.
Amulets and charmers found in large number suggest superstition and belief in demons and ghosts. Lastly,
it may be surmised that the Harappan religion was the lineal progenitor of Hinduism.
Weapons
Axes, spears, daggers, bows and arrows and short swords made usually of copper and bronze and almost
offensive in character might have been used either in self-defence against wild animals or in warfare.
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Utensils
Bronze and copper objects for domestic use included knife-blades, saws, sickles, chisels, fishhooks, pines,
tweezers and a variety of pots.
The Indus people lived in full-fledged Bronze Age, although chert blades continued to supplement the tool-
repertoire.
Weights & Measures
The use of weights (in a binary system) and measures (as shown by a scale found at Lothal) proves that
the Indus people knew arithmetic.
Cubical weights of charts were commonly used.
For smaller weights binary system in progression was used like 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 going up to 160 and
decimal ratio in progression was used for larger weights, viz. 320, 640, 1600, 3200, 5400, 8000 and 12800.
A terracotta-graduated scale is found in Kalibangan.

E
A scale of ivory shell have a foot; of 13.0 to 13.2 inches and cubit of 20.3 to 20.8 inches.

gms having a ratio of 16 to standard unit of weight.
Plumb bobs and angle measures of shell were used.
OR
Unit weights value was 0.8750 gm and largest weight was 10970 gms; the most prolific weight was 13.68

Burial Methods
SC
The cemeteries discovered around the cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Rupar
throw light on the burial practices of the Harappans.
Complete burial and post-cremation burial were popular at Mohenjodaro.
The discovery of cinerary urns and jars, goblets or vessels with ashes, bones and charcoal may, however,
suggest that during the flourishing period of the Indus Valley culture the latter method was generally
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practiced.
The dead bodies were placed in the north-south direction.
At Lothal the burial pit was lined with burnt bricks indicating the use of coffins.
Wooden coffins were also found at Harappa.
The practice of pot burials is found at Lothal sometimes with pairs of skeletons.
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WEEDS
Weeds are wild, unwanted plants that compete with normal healthy plants for water, light, soil nutrients and
space. Weeds are competitive, persistent, pernicious, and interfere negatively with human activity. There are
approximately 250,000 species of plants worldwide; of those, about 3% or 8000.species behaves as weeds.
Negative impacts of weeds are:
They reduce crop quality by contaminating the commodity.
They interfere with harvest and reduce the efficiency of farm equipment.
Weeds reduce the carrying capacity of grazing lands and pastures.

E
They serve as hosts for crop diseases or provide shelter for insects during winter. They limit the choice

OR
of crop rotation sequences and, cultural practices.
Weeds produce chemical substances which are toxic to crop plants (allelopathy), animals or humans.
Weedicides prove to be costly and harmful to the environment. Some weeds are parasites, either partially
or totally, on crop plants.
SC
Weeds impair quality and quantity of plant and animal products. Example: thorny weeds.
Seeds of some weeds are similar to crop seeds and it is very difficult to separate them, once mixed.
Example: Argemone mexicana (Prickly poppy) has seeds resembling to mustard seeds. This adulteration
of mustard by poppy has lead to a disease called Dropsy.
Methods of Weed Control
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Chemical controlinvolves the use of herbicides. Herbicides control weed plants either by speeding up,
stopping or changing the plants normal growth patterns; by desiccating (drying out) the leaves or stems;
or by defoliating the plant (making it drop its leaves).
Mechanical controlis the use of powered tools and machinery to manage weeds. It is suitable for larger
infestations because it reduces the weed bulk with less manual effort. Care should be taken to minimize
soil disturbance.
Biological controlinvolves the use of insects or pathogens (diseases) that affect the health of the weed.
Usually, these bio-control agents are from the same country of origin as the weed species.
Manual controlis the use of the hands or handheld tools to deal with weeds. An advantage of manual
control is that it minimizes soil disturbance, and decreases the likelihood of erosion and weed seed
germination.
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ENVIRONMENTAL CRIME IN INDIA

Environmental crimes i.e. the crimes manipulating environment inter-alia involves air pollution, water pollution,
and the illegal transportation, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste, which causes most serious threat to
public health and natural resources. One of such serious crimes is poaching i.e. illegal wildlife trade.
While data is easily available on pollution levels and emissions, statistics on crimes against the environment
are harder to come by. So, in 2014, the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) compiled data on
environment-related offences.
Offences against the environment are registered under the following five laws
a) Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (as amended in 1988)

E
b) Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
c) Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986
OR
d) Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
e) Forest Act, 1927
Wildlife and forest crime has a serious role in threat finance to organized crime, and non-state armed
groups including terrorist groups.
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International enforcement collaboration, such as the International Consortium on Combating Wildlife

Crime (ICCWC), which includes CITES, UNODC, INTERPOL, the World Bank and WCO, together with
increased collaboration amongst agencies, such as with UNEP, and with countries, has created a more
effective structure to provide support to countries in the fields of policing, customs, prosecution and the
judiciary. These initiatives have revealed important and significant early results.
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However, the scale and coordination of the efforts must be substantially increased and a widened effort
implemented. They must be combined with efforts on good governance, management and consumer
awareness to ensure a long-term demand reduction.
In India Wildlife Crime Control Bureau has been formed in 2007, by amending the Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972, a special Act to protect the wildlife in the country. The bureau would complement the efforts
of the state governments, primary enforcers of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and other enforcement
agencies of the country.
It is mandated to collect and collate intelligence related to organized wildlife crime activities and to disseminate
the same to State and other enforcement agencies for immediate action so as to apprehend the criminals; to
establish a centralized wildlife crime data bank; co-ordinate actions by various agencies in connection with
the enforcement of the provisions of the Act; assist foreign authorities and international organization concerned
to facilitate co-ordination and universal action for wildlife crime control; capacity building of the wildlife
crime enforcement agencies for scientific and professional investigation into wildlife crimes and assist State
Governments to ensure success in prosecutions related to wildlife crimes; and advise the Government of
India on issues relating to wildlife crimes having national and international ramifications, relevant policy and
laws. It also assists and advises the Customs authorities in inspection of the consignments of flora & fauna as
per the provisions of Wild Life Protection Act, CITES and EXIM Policy governing such an item.
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USE OF MICROBES
Microorganisms are very tiny living things. Microorganisms are classified into four major groups. These groups
are bacteria, fungi, protozoa and some algae. Microorganisms are used for various purposes.
1. Microbes in sewage treatment
The municipal waste-water known as sewage contains large amounts of organic matter and microbes.
These microorganisms are used for treatment of waste water.
In the primary stage of waste water treatment physical removal of particles from the sewage through
filtration and sedimentation occurs.

E
In the secondary stage of waste water treatment the primary effluent is passed into large aeration tanks,
this allows vigorous growth of aerobic microbes into flocs.

OR
These microbes consume the major part of the organic matter in the effluent. This significantly reduces
the BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) of the effluent. BOD is a measure of the organic matter present
in the water. The greater the BOD of waste water, more is its polluting potential.
Further in the anaerobic sludge digesters bacteria produce a mixture of gases such as methane, hydrogen
sulphide and carbon dioxide. These gases form biogas.
SC
2. Microbes in production of biogas
Certain bacteria, which grow anaerobically on cellulosic material, produce large amount of methane along
with CO2 and H2
These bacteria are collectively called methanogens, and one such common bacterium is Methanobacterium.
These bacteria are commonly found in the anaerobic sludge during sewage treatment and produces biogas.
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*Methogens are also present in the rumen (a part of stomach) of cattle. A lot of cellulosic material
present in the food of cattle is also present in the rumen. In rumen, these bacteria help in the breakdown
of cellulose and play an important role in the nutrition of cattle.*
The technology of biogas production was developed in India mainly due to the efforts of Indian Agricultural
Research Institute (IARI) and Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC).
3. Microbes as biocontrol agents
Biocontrol refers to the use of biological methods for controlling plant diseases and pests.
In agriculture for controlling pests natural predation methods should be used rather than use of chemicals.
An important part of the biological farming approach is to become familiar with the various life forms
that inhabit the field, predators as well as pests, and also their life cycles, patterns of feeding and the
habitats that they prefer. This will help develop appropriate means of biocontrol.
Some examples:
Lady bird to control aphids
Dragon fly to control mosquitoes
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Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt Cotton) to control wide range insects

Trichoderma (fungi) protects root system and control plant pathogens.
Baculoviruses (Nucleopolyhedrovirus) to attack insects and other arthropods.
This is especially desirable when beneficial insects are being conserved to aid in an overall integrated pest
management (IPM) programme, or when an ecologically sensitive area is being treated.
4. Microbes as biofertilisers
Biofertilisers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of the soil. The main sources of biofertilisers
are bacteria, fungi and cyanobacteria.
Bacteria: Symbiosis Rhizobium with root nodules of leguminous plants; Free living (in the soil) Azotobacter
and Azospirillum.
Fungi: Symbiosis Mycorrhiza with root system of genus Glomus and absorb phosphorus and water from the
soil for the plant growth.

E
Cyanobacteria: Symbiosis Anabaena in Azolla; Free living Nostoc, Oscillatoria and Blue green algae.
5. Production of alcohol and wine
OR
Microorganism such as Yeast is used for the large scale production of alcohol, wine and acetic acid (vinegar).
6. Production of antibiotics
Antibiotics are chemical substances, which are produced by some microbes and can kill or retard the
growth of other (disease-causing) microbes such as Penicillin.
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Antibiotics are even mixed with the feed of livestock and poultry to check microbial infection in animals.
They are also used to control many plant diseases.
7. Production of Amino acids
It is used for production of amino acids on a commercial scale. They are used in food industry as flavor
and taste enhances (Eg: Glutamic acid), as artificial sweeteners in soft drink industry (Eg: Glycine,
GS

Aspartame), in pharmaceutical industry (Eg: Ornithine- treatment of liver disease, Histidine and Glutamine-
therapy for ulcers).
8. Production of Chemicals, Enzymes and other Bioactive Molecules
Microbes are being used for commercial and industrial production of certain chemicals like organic acids,
alcohols, enzymes and other bioactive molecules.
The organic acids produced industrially along with the microbes used are listed in the table given below:
Organic acid produced Name of microbe
Citric Acid Aspergillus niger
Lactic Acid Lactobacillus spp.
Ascorbic acid Acetobacter xylinum or Acetobacter suboxydans
Itaconic acid Aspergillus itoconicus and Aspergillus terreus
Acetic acid Acetobacter aceti
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The list of enzymes produced by microbes and their uses are given in the table below:
Enzyme produced Name of Microbe Uses
Amylase Aspergillus oryzae, A.niger, Bacillus subtilis Production of alcohol, removal of
starch, preparation of glucose syrups
Cellulase Aspergillus niger Alcohol and glucose production
Invertase Saccharomyces cerevisiae Sucrose inversion, in confectionaries
Pectinase Aspergillus spp. Clarification of fruit juices, alcohol
production
Glucose oxidase Aspergillus niger Antioxidant in prepared foods

E
OR
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GS
Notes