Fracture Model to Use

It should first be noted that there is really only one model in the
Fracprosystem, which is commonly referred to as a lumped-parameter
model. However, by choosing the correct values for certain parameters
that control function of the lumped model, it can be made to behave (in
terms of pressures, dimensions, etc.) like any other model. In the
Fracprosystem, six sets of parameters have been defined and hardwired
into six of the model options available on this screen -

3D Shear-Decoupled (Default): This is the new default model for

Fracpro version 10.3. In hundreds of hydraulic fracture treatments where
Pinnacle Technologies has utilized direct hydraulic fracture diagnostics
(microseismic hydraulic fracture mapping and tiltmeter hydraulic fracture
mapping), we have seen that hydraulic fracture growth is in general more
confined than we would initially think based on classical assumptions, for
example the presence of closure stress barriers or permeability barriers. In
several cases, we have seen confined hydraulic fracture growth (length-
height aspect ratios of 2 and larger) in areas with a single thick pay zone
and no nearby barriers (refer to Wright_et al_1999_[SPE_56724]). It has
long been postulated that this is due to a Composite Layering Effect
(CLE). This Composite Layering Effect (CLE) causes partial decoupling
of the hydraulic fracture width profile along layer interfaces, and results in
slower hydraulic fracture growth trough layer interfaces (in hydraulic
fracture height).
The 3D Shear-Decoupled model predicts longer, more confined
hydraulic fractures caused by the introduction of an average Composite
Layering Effect (CLE) for the layers outside the Pay Zone. This average
value is based on hundreds of hydraulic fracture treatment that were
monitored using direct hydraulic fracture diagnostics. As a result of
greater confinement, net pressures are typically also slightly higher for
the 3D Shear-Decoupled model than for the 3D Tip-Dominated model.
However, the Composite Layering Effect (CLE) that is needed to match
actual geometries can sometimes vary widely in different regions and
formations, and the default Composite Layering Effect of 25 (resulting
in an estimated incremental height/length growth of about 0.25 outside
the pay) used in the 3D Shear-Decoupled model is only an average. All
other parameters for this model are the same as for the 3D Tip-
Dominated model described below.
When this model is selected, then in the Reservoir Parameters - F9
screen, Layers tab, the Composite Layering Effect column is read-only

3D Tip-Dominated: This is the lumped 3D model developed for

GTI, which is not a so-called pseudo 3D model. In general, the
 model predicts shorter, wider hydraulic fractures due to higher
predicted net pressures that, in general, have been found to match
very closely with observed field data. In the 3D Tip-Dominated
model, the most important parameter that is hardwired is the Tip
Effect Coefficient (see Model Parameters - Shift + F3 screen,
Fracpro 3D Parameters tab), to a value of 0.0001.

3D Conventional (Linear Elastic): This mode should give results

very similar to those from the few other 3D models available. This
also is not a pseudo 3D model, although it may predict similar
results and it has many of the same problems (for example, low net
pressures and great sensitivity to fluid rheology). In the 3D
Conventional model, the most important parameter that is
hardwired is the Tip Effect Coefficient (see Model Parameters -
Shift + F3 screen, Fracpro 3D Parameters tab), to a value of 0.4.

3D Calibrated: To load a calibrated settings file, select this 3D

Calibrated radio button and then select the appropriate file in the
associated combo box on the left. Only engineers from Pinnacle
Technologies can save and generate these calibrated settings files,
which are located in the Fracpro program folder (by default located
at C:\Program Files\Fracpro\Fracpro 2015\Program) as
Calibrated Model Settings (CMS) files. Pinnacle Technologies
has learned from direct hydraulic fracture diagnostic data, such as
tiltmeter hydraulic fracture mapping and micro-seismic hydraulic
fracture mapping, that hydraulic fractures can grow very differently
in different environments. In some areas, the default settings in
hydraulic fracture models accurately predict directly observed
hydraulic fracture growth, but in other areas these default settings
do not accurately reflect actual hydraulic fracture growth. In these
areas, the default model settings do not provide an accurate
description of hydraulic fracture growth, and other physical
mechanisms such composite layering effects should be
introduced by changing the default hydraulic fracture model
parameters to provide a 3D Calibrated model. Pinnacle
Technologies has provided some model settings that have been
released for publication in this category, and the number of released
model settings keeps on growing as we learn more about hydraulic
fracture growth behavior in more regions and formations. CARBO
also distributes confidential calibrated model settings to clients that
have utilized our hydraulic fracture mapping services.
If a 3D Calibrated model is selected, the Fracpro logo on the
Navigation Tree and in hardcopies of plots changes to the
 FracproXACTlogo, indicating that model settings were used that tie
back to direct measurements of hydraulic fracture growth in that
environment. This should provide a better estimate of hydraulic
fracture growth behavior for that specific region of formation that
one of the hardwired model settings.

3D User-Defined: If you routinely change the default model

parameters for your work in one or more areas, you can save those
model parameters and easily recall them at any time.

Saving a User-Defined Model: You first select this 3D

User-Defined option and then go to the Model Parameters
- Shift + F3 screen, Fracpro 3D Parameters tab and
change any of the model parameters. While still on this screen
and after making your changes, press the Save These
Settings As A User-Defined Parameter File, which will
create and save a User-defined Model Settings (UMS) file
in the Fracpro program folder (by default located at
C:\Program Files\Fracpro\Fracpro 2015\Program).

Using a User-Defined Model - Press the Load These

Settings As A User-Defined Parameter File and then
select the desired User-defined Model Settings (UMS) file.
Of course you must have first created or copied a User-
defined Model Settings (UMS) file before you can select
one.

2D: You can choose from among the three common 2D models
using this drop-down list.

PKN 2D: This is one of the classical 2D models with constant

(specified) height and width proportional to height. It is still
often used (with high gel viscosity) to force a pressure match
in the later treatment stages, almost always ignoring early
pressure data that results from water injection.

KGD 2D: This is one of the classical 2D models with constant

(specified) height and with width proportional to length. It can
rarely be used to match measured pressures (except perhaps
with forced use of backstress).

Radial: This is one of the classical 2D models. The model

assumes axisymmetry in radial growth.
 The 2D PKN and 2D KGD models do not, in general, give reasonable
answers, even in reservoirs where there is almost perfect
containment, due to their unrealistically low net hydraulic fracturing
pressure predictions. The same is true of the 2D Radial model, even
in homogeneous reservoirs where radial hydraulic fractures may
indeed be created. The 2D Radial model generally predicts
dramatically lower net hydraulic fracturing pressures than are
observed in the field and, thus, predicts hydraulic fractures with much
larger radii and much smaller widths than are actually created.

The 2D models are available in Fracpro for a number of reasons.

Results (especially dimensions) from the 2D models can be compared
to 3D results. As well, the 2D models can be used in an attempt to
match observed net pressures, a process that should readily
demonstrate their inadequacy. Also, the 2D models can be used as a
starting point for understanding typical hydraulic fracture treatment
designs provided to you on the basis of other 2D models.

Databases for Treatments

This option is available only if Multiple treatment option is selected in

Additional Options and the Fracpro is set to run from Database data.

Common Database: Choose this option if you want to use single

database file which has data for all the treatments.

Individual Databases: Choose this option if you want to use

separate database file for each treatment.

Description

The Fracture Design Options - F4 screen, Additional Options tab is where you choose from
among the numerous, but less often used, options available for hydraulic fracture design.

Fracture Model Options

Leakoff Model

Fracpro has three leakoff models, which are described below. Due to recent leakoff model
changes and additions, you may see certain messages when loading input files from previous
Fracproversions or when you switch between the three leakoff model options.
 Lumped-Parameter (Default): This is the original leakoff model used in the
Fracprosystem. It can best be described as a classical leakoff model in terms of the
physics that are modeled, however it has been formulated such that it executes
extremely fast (that is, for real-time analysis). The model formulation gives rise to the
model characterization as lumped.
This model generally works quite well in most situations, however it may lose
accuracy in higher permeability situations and in reservoirs with complex
permeability profiles (that is, when permeability varies significantly with depth).
However, this model has a problem with linear gel and cross-linked gel in the same
wellbore and non-zero wall-building coefficient Cw and spurt loss.

Grid-Based Classical: This is a classical leakoff model in terms of the physics that
are modeled. However, this model overlays a grid on the hydraulic fracture face and
tracks the leakoff history of each individual grid block in time. In general, this model
should be more accurate than the Lumped-Parameter Model, but it is also noticeably
slower and the difference between it and the Lumped-Parameter Model will most
often be very small. Use this model if you have permeability contrast of at least 2
orders of magnitude.

Grid-Based FLIC: This model is similar to the Grid-Based Classical model,

however two additional physical processes are accounted for: Dynamic filter cake
buildup and non-Newtonian gel invasion into the reservoir. Use this model if you have
a pay zone permeability of at least 100 mD.

Refer also to:

Important Information on Leakoff Model Options

Leakoff Model.

Heat Transfer Effects

Ignore: If you choose this option, the fluid is assumed to be at Reservoir

Temperature (as entered on the General Reservoir Parameters - F9 screen) as soon
as it enters the formation, and no modeling of wellbore heat transfer will occur.

Model: Choosing this option activates Fracpro's wellbore temperature model. The
calculated bottomhole temperature of the pumped fluids is then passed to the
hydraulic fracture model where any additional heat transfer between the reservoir
rock and the pumped fluids is calculated. Various parameters for the model are
entered on the Wellbore Heat Transfer screen, which is accessed by selecting
Wellbore Heat Transfer from the Wellbore Configuration - F7 screen.

Proppant Transport Model

 Settling: Allows settling of proppant in the hydraulic fracture based primarily on fluid
viscosity and particle diameter (that is, Stokes Law).
Use this option for slickwater treatments, where proppant settling is the main
downward proppant transport mechanism.

Convection: Proppant Convection may be a dominant mechanism for proppant

transport and placement in hydraulic-fracture stimulation treatments. However, the
convective process will be slowed impeded by hydraulic fracture offsets (for example,
at bedding planes), narrow hydraulic fractures (for example, when multiple hydraulic
fractures are created), and highly viscous fluids in the hydraulic fracture.
Proppant Convection is a process whereby heavier treatment stages (for example,
proppant stages) displace rapidly downward from the perforations to the bottom of the
hydraulic fracture. Those stages nearest the perforations may then be replaced by the
pad or by low-concentration proppant stages.
Use this option for linear or crosslink gel treatments, where proppant convection is
generally more important than proppant settling.

No Convection or Settling: This should be selected only when modeling a horizontal

hydraulic fracture where those effects can be ignored.

Frac 3DTransport: Frac3D Transport model is based on a multi-dimensional, multi-

fluid computational fluid dynamics model (CFD) for fluid/proppant transport. The
fluid/proppant flow model (FPFM) simulates the flow of fluid and proppant in a two-
dimensional vertical fracture. The properties of the fluid and proppant are allowed to
vary along the fracture length and in its height. The width can vary spatially and
temporally.

Fracture Orientation

Vertical: Vertical Fracture is generally selected. The Fracture Profile - Alt + F5

screen, the Stage Profile - Ctrl + F5 screen, and the Width Profile - Alt + F7 screen
all show a vertical hydraulic fracture with a depth scale and a vertical profile of the
minimum horizontal stress.

Horizontal: If you select Horizontal Fracture, Fracpro grows a horizontal hydraulic

fracture at the Initial Frac Depth shown on the Reservoir Parameters - F9 screen.
You must first select Lithology Based Reservoir (in another section of this Options -
F4 screen, Additional Options tab) before selecting Horizontal Fracture. The
Fracture Profile - Alt + F5 screen, the Stage Profile - Ctrl + F5 screen, and the
Width Profile - Alt + F7 screen display the horizontal hydraulic fracture, but with a
vertical screen orientation.

Wellbore and Perf Options

 Run Fracture and Wellbore Models: This is the default and most often used of these
options. As the name implies, both the hydraulic fracture and the wellbore models are
run.

Run Wellbore Model Only: You may choose this while going through the process of
removing all friction from measured pressure data. This causes Fracpro to run much
faster. This option is very useful for large treatments where the user is trying to
determine and subtract friction from the measured pressure data near the end of
pumping. This option temporarily disables the hydraulic fracture model. Once all of
the friction is accounted for, the hydraulic fracture model may be reactivated.

Run Fracture Model Only: If Run From Job-Design Data is selected and only net
hydraulic fracturing pressures and hydraulic fracture growth are of interest to you, it is
possible to ignore the wellbore and perforations in terms of predicting hydraulic
fracture growth. However, the wellbore and perforations must be modeled to predict
surface pressure.

Reservoir Data-Entry Options

Lithology Based: All mechanical properties (for example, for opening), all chemical
properties (for acidizing), and all thermal properties (for injection-fluid heating and
reservoir cooling) will be input to the simulator based on rock type and a single set of
depths.
In general, this is the most convenient way to specify model inputs. Once you have
constructed your Lithology Based Reservoir, Fracprocan automatically convert it to a
General Reservoir if necessary. Unfortunately, there is no way to convert from
General Reservoir to Lithology Based Reservoir without loosing some of this data.
However, you should rarely, if ever, want or need to convert from General Reservoir
to Lithology Based Reservoir.
Use this type of data entry if you do not know many properties about the reservoir,
and if you want to set up a layered profile quickly. Once you assigned the main
properties of the lithologies that you are using and defining the depth of individual
layers, you are ready to start modeling.

General Multi-Scale: Enter each of the mechanical properties (for example, stress,
modulus) with its own independent set of layer depths. Chemical properties (for
acidizing) and thermal properties (for injection-fluid heating and reservoir cooling)
are input to the simulator based on rock type and a single set of depths.
Use this type of data entry if you can assign reservoir properties using various
different log files and if you have no log information on other parameters. Once you
have assigned specific properties using the Log Viewer / Layers Editor, you need to
provide only a few entries for estimates of properties on which you do not have more
specific data.
 General Single Scale: Enter each of the mechanical properties (for example, stress,
modulus) with its own independent set of layer depths. Chemical properties (for
acidizing) and thermal properties (for injection-fluid heating and reservoir cooling)
are input to the simulator based on rock type and a single set of depths.
Use this type of data entry if you can assign all reservoir properties different log files.
Once you have assigned specific properties using the Log Viewer / Layers Editor, you
are ready to use the model.

Fracprocan automatically convert a Lithology Based reservoir to a General reservoir, if

necessary. Unfortunately, there is no way to convert from i reservoir to Lithology Based
reservoir without loosing some of this data. However, you should rarely, if ever, want or need
to convert from General reservoir to Lithology Based reservoir.

Fracture Design Goals

Automated Treatment Selection: Using this option, fluids and proppants can be
picked manually or automatically based on local circumstances (for example,
temperature, permeability, and effective hydraulic fracture closure stress). The
program then provides numerous pump schedules that all fulfill a user-defined
dimensionless conductivity criterion, which allows a determination of how a given
Productivity Index (PI), which the ratio of stimulated well production response to the
non-stimulated response, can be achieved as a function of hydraulic fracture treatment
size. Finally, an ideal proppant concentration profile (versus distance from the well) is
defined for the selected treatment size, and Fracproiterates to find the best pump
schedule to match this ideal profile.

Manual Entry: Choose this option to use the design methodology that has always
been included with Fracpro. After fluids and proppants are picked manually or with
the assistance of Fracpro, the user must determine and then enter a desired propped
hydraulic fracture length and a desired average proppant concentration. The program
will then iterate to design a suitable pump schedule.

Proprietary Treatment Selection: This option works very similar to the Automated
Treatment Selection option, but provides various proprietary pre-set numbers that can
be used

A fundamental principle used in all fracture models is that the fracture

volume is equal to the total volume of fluid injected minus the volume of
fluid that leaks off into the reservoir. [1] The fluid efficiency is the
percentage of fluid that is still in the fracture at any point in time, when
compared with the total volume injected at the same point in time. The
concept of fluid loss was used by Howard and Fast to determine fracture
area.[1] If too much fluid leaks off, the fluid has a low efficiency (10 to
20%), and the created fracture volume will be only a small fraction of the
total volume injected. However, if the fluid efficiency is too high (80 to
90%), the fracture will not close rapidly after the treatment. Ideally, a fluid
efficiency of 40 to 60% will provide an optimum balance between creating
the fracture and having the fracture close down after the treatment.

In most low-permeability reservoirs, fracture-fluid loss and efficiency are

controlled by the formation permeability. In high-permeability formations,
a fluid-loss additive is often added to the fracture fluid to reduce leakoff
and improve fluid efficiency. In naturally fractured or highly cleated
formations, the leakoff can be extremely high, with efficiencies down in
the range of 10 to 20%, or less. To fracture treat naturally fractured
formations, the treatment often must be pumped at high injection rates
with fluid-loss additives.

PKN simulation
GDK Simulation
Radial model
3D SHEAR COUPPLED