07/12/2016 ESILReflection:NationalandInternationalLegitimacyofGovernments|EuropeanSocietyofInternationalLaw

EuropeanSocietyofInternationalLaw
Languages
Sociteuropennededroitinternational
English Franais

ESILReflection:NationalandInternationalLegitimacyofGovernments

PDFVersionVol4,Issue5
EditorialBoard:AnnevanAaken(editorinchief),JuttaBrunne,Baakali,JanKlabbers

KerstinOdendahl*
WaltherSchckingInstituteforInternationalLaw,Kiel

NationalandInternationalLegitimacyofGovernments

I.Introduction

WhentheSecurityCounciladoptedresolutions1970(2011)and1973(2011)authorizingtheUNmemberStatesmilitaryinterventionin
Libya,theglobalcondemnationoftheLibyanregimewasalmostunanimous.ThefactthatthegovernmentofMuammarAlGaddafiemployed
militaryforceagainsttheLibyanpopulationwasregardedasunacceptable.Remarkably,mostofficialstatementsinvokedthelostlegitimacyof
thegovernmentasjustificationoftheirposition.InMarch2011,USPresidentObama,forexample,declared:MuammarQaddafihaslostthe
legitimacytolead,andhemustleave.[1]AsimilarstatementwasissuedbytheG8summitinMay2011:GaddafiandtheLibyangovernment
havefailedtofulfiltheirresponsibilitytoprotecttheLibyanpopulationandhavelostalllegitimacy.(...)Hemustgo.[2]

AnalmostidenticalattitudewasandstillistobeobservedinthecaseofSyria.EventhoughtheSecurityCouncilhasnotauthorizedtheUN
memberStatestointerveneduetovetoesbyRussiaandChina,mostStatesrejectthelegitimacyoftheSyriangovernmentsince2011.The
useofindiscriminateviolenceagainsttheSyrianpopulationbroughtseveralStatestocallonAssadtoresignfromofficeinvoking,again,his
lostlegitimacy.TheUK,FranceandGermany,forexample,statedinAugust2011:OurthreecountriesbelievethatPresidentAssad,whois
resortingtobrutalmilitaryforceagainsthisownpeopleandwhoisresponsibleforthesituation,haslostalllegitimacyandcannolongerclaim
toleadthecountry.Wecallonhim(...)tostepaside(...).[3]SimilarstatementswereissuedduringadebateattheHumanRightsCouncilin
August2011.TheexampleoftheBulgariandeclarationmaysuffice:Despiteoutstandingeffortsbymanyinternationalmediators,theSyrian
regimehascontinuedwiththepolicyofrepressionratherthandialogue,leadingtoalossoflegitimacynationallyandinternationally.[4]This
positionisstillvoicedcontinuously.InNovember2014,theWhiteHousespokesmanJoshEarneststated:Webelievethathe[Assad]haslost
thelegitimacytolead.

Theseofficialdeclarationsmaybeinterpretedasthebirthofanewapproachtowardsthelegitimacyofgovernments.Sofar,legitimacyhas
beenregardedasanexclusivelyinternalmatter(nationallegitimacyofgovernments[5]).Areweabouttoexperiencethedevelopmentofan
internationaldimensionoflegitimacy(internationallegitimacyofgovernments[6])whichsupplementsitsnationaldimension?

Thereareseveral(wellknownandlargelydiscussed)aspectsofinternationallawwhichseemtoberelatedtotheconceptofinternational
legitimacyofgovernmentsorwhichmaybecharacterizedasitspredecessors,suchastheconceptofhumanitarianinterventionandtheright
touseforce[7]orthecondemnationofgovernmentsnotcompliancewithinternationallaw.[8]Inalloftheseinstances,however,thequestion
whethertherespectivegovernmentwasinternationallylegitimateornot(inthesensethatithadtherecognitionoftheinternationalcommunity
torulethecountry)wasneitheraskednorusedasanargument.Furthermore,inallofthesewellknowncasesthegovernmentswereonly
urgedtocomplywithinternationallawtheywerenoturgedtoresign.Thisisnolongerthecase.Afundamentalchangeoflanguage,the
creationofanewterm(internationallegitimacy)istobeobservedwhichmayimplyashiftininternationallawwithfarreaching
consequences.Hasinternationallawlostitsneutralityconcerningthechoiceandformofgovernment?Doesagovernmenthavetofulfil
certaincriteria,definedbyinternationallaw,inordertoberegardedasinternationallylegitimate?

Thereareonlyveryfewscholarswhohavedealtwithorevenidentifiedthisnewquestion.Thefirstonetopickupthisissuedidsoabout15
yearsago,cautiouslystatingthattheinternationallegitimacyofgovernmentswasaconceptinstatunascendi:Wearewitnessingasea
changeininternationallaw,asaresultofwhichthelegitimacyofeachgovernmentwillonedaybemeasureddefinitivelybyinternationalrules
andprocesses.[9]SincetheeventsoftheArabSpring,however,agrowingnumberofscholarsareoftheopinionthattheinternational
legitimacyofgovernmentsisanexistingconceptwhichsupplementstheirnationallegitimacy.Theymakeacleardistinctionbetweenthe
internalandtheexternallegitimacyofagovernment.[10]Someauthorshaveseenthequestion,buttheyrejectsuchanewapproach:

http://www.esilsedi.eu/node/983 1/5
07/12/2016 ESILReflection:NationalandInternationalLegitimacyofGovernments|EuropeanSocietyofInternationalLaw

Legitimacyisapoliticalconceptandnotalegaltermofart.Infact,internationallawdoesnotprovideanycriteriafordefiningand
determininglegitimacy.[11]

ThisReflectionwill,asafirststep,recallthetraditionalconceptoflegitimacyofgovernments,i.e.itsnationaldimension.Asasecondstepit
willdefineanddevelopthenewconceptofaninternationallegitimacyofgovernmentsassuch.Asathirdstep,itwillaimtosketchitsmain
aspectsasderivedfromcurrentStatepracticeananalysislackinginthosepaperswhichaffirmitsexistence.

II.TheNationalLegitimacyofGovernments

Thetermlegitimacyisdifficulttodefineitisemployedinvariouscontextsandbydifferentdisciplines.Thereis,however,alargeconsensus
astoitsdefinitionwhenitisusedinrelationtogovernments,i.e.toStateauthority.Inthiscase,legitimacyisunderstoodasjustificationofthe
exerciseofpublicauthority.[12]Aplainerexpressionwouldbe:Legitimacymeanstherighttoruleacountry.Thisrightisawardedbythose
whoareruled.Itistheconsent,thewillofthepeoplewhichlegitimizesagovernment.AslongastheStateauthorityisrecognizedand
acceptedbythepeople,ithasthepowertotakebindingdecisions.Oncethegovernmenthaslostitslegitimacy,ithastoresign,orthepeople
havegottherighttochangeorevenoverthrowthegovernment.Theideathattheexerciseofpublicauthoritybyagovernmentneedsa
justificationdatesbacktotheageofEnlightenment.[13]

Thereis,however,noconsensusastothecriteriaforgaininglegitimacy.Thevariousviewsinlegalliteratureconcerningthewaysthat
normativelegitimacyisgained,mayberegroupedinthreeschoolsofthought:[14]Legitimacydependsonformalfactors(publicauthorityis
exercisedthroughpreagreedproceduresseenasadequateorfair),onmaterialfactors(thedecisionstakenbythepublicauthorityare
consistentwiththevaluesandaspirationsofthepeople)oronitsorigin(thoseexercisingpublicauthorityhavebeenchosenbythepeople).In
spiteoftheirdivergentapproachesalloftheseviewsarebasedonthesamethreeassumptions:

1.Stateauthorityneedslegitimacy.
2.Legitimacyisawardedbythosewhoareruled,i.e.thepeople.
3.Thecriteriaforlegitimacyinthenormativesensestemfromdomesticlaw.

Accordingly,thelegitimacyofgovernmentsistraditionallyregardedasaninternalmatter(nationallegitimacyofgovernments).International
lawisneutralinthisregard.

Obviously,thenationallegitimacyofgovernmentsdoeshaveimplicationsattheinternationallevel,too.Themostevidentimplicationconcerns
therecognitionofgovernmentsbyotherStates.Forcenturies,theefficiencyofStateauthoritywasthesolecriterionfortherecognitionofa
newgovernment.Aspracticeshows,however,thisattitudehaschangedsincetheendoftheColdWar.ThereisacleartendencyofStatesto
recognizeonlylegitimategovernments.Accordingtothisview,governmentsarelegitimateiftheyhavecometopowerinaccordancewith
nationalconstitutionallaworiftheyhavebeenelecteddemocratically.[15]Anotherimplicationofnationallegitimacy,i.e.acceptancebythe
people,attheinternationallevel,concernsStateslikeSouthAfricaduringthetimesoftheapartheidregime.TheUNGeneralAssembly
declaredthattheSouthAfricangovernmenthadnorighttorepresentthepeopleofSouthAfricaandthattheliberationmovements
recognizedbytheOrganizationofAfricanUnity[were]theauthenticrepresentativesoftheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheSouthAfrican
people.[16]Suchaconsiderationofnationalfactorsandofnationalacceptance,however,isnomorethantakingintoaccountthenational
legitimacyofgovernmentsattheinternationallevel.Itisnotequivalenttotheinternationallegitimacyofgovernments.

III.TheInternationalLegitimacyofGovernments

Incontrast,thestatementscitedatthebeginningofthisReflectionseemtoimplythatthetraditional,nationaldimensionofthelegitimacyof
governmentshasbeenexpandedbyasecond,atrulyinternationaldimension(alossoflegitimacynationallyandinternationally[17]).Ifwe
takeoverthemodelofnationallegitimacy,theinternationallegitimacyofgovernmentsisalsobasedonthreeassumptions,butthesecondand
thethirdcriterionaredifferent:

1.Stateauthorityneedslegitimacy.
2.Legitimacyisawardedbyequals,i.e.theinternationalcommunity.
3.Thecriteriaforlegitimacyinthenormativesensestemfrominternationallaw.

Thereareseveraltheoreticalargumentsagainstandinfavouroftheexistenceofaninternationallegitimacyofgovernments.Theyhavebeen
addressedindetailinanotherpaper.[18]ThemostimportantargumentisthatStatesincreasinglyacceptthattheirgovernmentshavetomeet
normativeexpectationsoftheinternationalcommunityiftheystrivetoberegardedaslegitimate.[19]Mostofthesenormativeexpectationsare
laiddownininternationaltreatiesestablishingregionalorganisations,suchasECOWAS,theOAS,theASEANortheCouncilofEurope.
Theyestablishthatonlygovernmentsthatmeetcertaincriteria(liketheprotectionofhumanrights,democracy,theruleoflaworgood
governance)willbeacceptedaslegitimatebytheotherStatesparties.Apparently,Stateshaveacknowledgedthattheirgovernmentsarenot
onlyinneedofnationallegitimacy(i.e.acceptancebythepeople)butalsoofinternationallegitimacy(i.e.acceptancebytheinternational
community).

IV.TheMainAspectsofanInternationalLegitimacyofGovernmentsasDerivedfromCurrentStatePractice

Intheend,however,scholarlyargumentswillnotbesufficient.ItwillbeforStatepracticetodecidewhethertheconceptofaninternational
legitimacyofgovernmentswillberecognizedornot.Therefore,thepotentialsubstanceofaninternationallegitimacyofgovernmentsas

http://www.esilsedi.eu/node/983 2/5
07/12/2016 ESILReflection:NationalandInternationalLegitimacyofGovernments|EuropeanSocietyofInternationalLaw
derivedfromStatepracticesofarwillbeexamined.Inthefollowing,Iwillfocusonthreeaspects:

1.Whicharetheinternationalcriteriathatdeterminewhetheragovernmentisinternationallylegitimateornot?

TheStatepracticesofarisclear,yet(perhaps)somewhatdisappointing.Therearenocases,outsideoftreatylaw,[20]inwhichStates
invokedinternationallawinordertodenythelegitimacyofanewgovernment.Theyhaveinvokedinternationallawexclusivelywhenthey
thoughtthatagovernmentinpowerhadlostitslegitimacy.Thekeyargumentwasalwaysasfollows:Agovernmentwhichcommitsgrave
violationsofcertaininternationalruleslosesitsinternationallegitimacy.

Butwhicharetheserules?Sofar,onlygraveviolationsofhumanitarianlawandinternationalhumanrightsagainsttheStatesownpopulation
areregardedasmeetingthecriterionleadingtothelossoflegitimacy.Otherviolationsofessentialrulesofinternationallaw,likethe
prohibitionoftheuseofforceortheviolationoftheterritorialintegrityofStates,donotleadtothelossofinternationallegitimacy.Despitethe
strongcriticismoftheannexationofCrimeabyRussia,forexample,noStatehasdeniedthelegitimacyoftheRussiangovernment.

2.Whataretheconsequencesofalossofinternationallegitimacy?

Theofficialstatementsareagainclear:Agovernmentwhichhaslostitsinternationallegitimacyhastogo,i.e.toresign.Doesthismeanthat
thegovernmenthasaduty,accordingtointernationallaw,toresign?Andwhathappensifthegovernmentdoesnotdoso?

InthecaseofLibya,theinternationalcommunityintervenedonthebasisofaSecurityCouncilresolution.TheSecurityCouncil,however,did
notinvokethelossoflegitimacyofthegovernmentbutsimplyChapterVIIoftheUNCharter.Furthermore,theofficialaimoftheUNand
theinternationalcommunitywascertainlynottochangethegovernmentbuttostopathreattointernationalpeaceandsecurity.Suchan
intervention,however,mayleadtoachangeofgovernment.

3.Whatistherelationshipbetweennationalandinternationallegitimacy?

Nationalandinternationallegitimacyofgovernmentsareclearlyindependentfromoneanother:Theyareawarded(anddenied)bytwo
differentgroupsofactors,andtheircriteriastemfromtwodifferentlegalorders.Sowhichoneofthemprevails?

InthecaseofLibyathegovernmenthadlostbothitsnationalanditsinternationallegitimacy.ButwhatabouttheSyriangovernment?There
aregoodargumentstostatethattheSyriangovernment,whichwasreelectedinJune2014,isthenationallylegitimategovernmentofSyria.
Thisgovernment,however,haslostitsinternationallegitimacy.Doestheinternationalcommunityhavetorespectthenationallegitimacyof
theSyriangovernment?Ordoesthelossofinternationallegitimacyoblige/authorizeStatestocallonthegovernmenttoresign,ortotake
stepstoinduceachangeofgovernment?

V.Conclusion

Thisbriefsketchofsomeofthemostimportantaspectsoftheinternationallegitimacyofgovernmentsshowsthateventhoughtheoutlineof
thispotentialnewconceptisalreadyquiteclear,therearestillmorequestionsthananswers.

Furthermore,ithastobeemphasizedthatStatepracticeisnotuniformandnotwithoutcontradictions.Thisbecomesveryclearwhenlooking
attheexampleofSyria.WhilemostStatesdenythelegitimacyoftheSyriangovernment,Russia[21]andChina[22],forexample,stillregard
theSyriangovernmentasinternationallylegitimate.Andofcourse,theSyriangovernmentitselfrejectsanykindofallegationsconcerninga
lossoflegitimacy.[23]Inalltheseinstancestheessentiallysameargumentisadvanced,whichisbestexpressedasfollows:Nobodyinthis
worldhasarighttowithdrawlegitimacyfromapresidentorgovernmentotherthantheSyriansthemselves.[24]Suchstatementsclearly
demonstratethattheStatesinquestioncompletelyrejectthenotionofaninternationallegitimacyofgovernments.ThereasonfortheRussian
andChinesestatementsis,however,evident:Theirgeopolitical,militaryandfinancialinterestsinSyria(notlegalarguments)leadthemto
adoptsuchaposition.Still,wehavetotakethemintoaccountasonlyauniformStatepracticeaccompaniedbyacorrespondingopinioiuris
mayleadtothecreationofnewconceptsofinternationallaw.

Theconceptofinternationallegitimacyofgovernmentswouldnotsimplybeoldwineinnewbottles.Itwouldbeaseachangeininternational
law.[25]Carriedtoitslogicalendtheinternationallegitimacyofgovernmentswouldimplyarightoftheinternationalcommunitytocallona
governmenttoresignoreventointerveneinordertochangethegovernment.Thescopeofapplicationoftheprincipleofnonintervention
woulddiminishsignificantly.[26]LetusseehowthingsdevelopbothinStatepracticeandinlegalscholarship.

*ProfessorofGermanPublicLaw,InternationalLawandEuropeanUnionLawExecutiveDirectoroftheWaltherSchckingInstitutefor
InternationalLaw,Kiel,Germany.

[1]MarkLandler,ObamaTellsQaddafitoQuitandAuthorizesRefugeeAirlifts,TheNewYorkTimes(NewYorkCity,4March2011)11.

http://www.esilsedi.eu/node/983 3/5
07/12/2016 ESILReflection:NationalandInternationalLegitimacyofGovernments|EuropeanSocietyofInternationalLaw
[2]G8:LibyasGaddafishouldgo,sayworldleaders,BBCNewsAfrica(27May2011).<http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldafrica
13572830>accessed14July2015.

[3]JointUK,FrenchandGermanStatementonSyria(18August2011)<http://www.number10.gov.uk/news/jointukfrenchandgerman
statementon...accessed14July2015.

[4]OHCHR,StatementofBulgariaattheHumanRightsCouncildebatessituationofhumanrightsinSyrianArabRepublicinSpecial
Session(22August2011)<http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=11324&L...accessed14July2015.

[5]Anothertermcouldalsobeinternalordomesticlegitimacyofgovernments.

[6]Anothertermcouldalsobeexternallegitimacyofgovernments.

[7]ThomasM.FranckandNigelS.Rodley,AfterBangladesh:TheLawofHumanitarianInterventionbyMilitaryForce(1973)67AJIL275.

[8]UNGeneralAssembly,Resolution3151G(XXVIII)(14December1973)para.1.

[9]ThomasM.Franck,LegitimacyandtheDemocraticEntitlement,inGregoryH.FoxandBradR.Roth(eds),DemocraticGovernanceand
InternationalLaw(CUP2000)25,29.

[10]JeandAspremont,LegitimacyofGovernmentsintheAgeofDemocracy(2006)38JILP877,882JeandAspremontandEricDe
Brabandere,TheComplementaryFacesofLegitimacyinInternationalLaw:TheLegitimacyofOriginandtheLegitimacyofExercise(2011)
34FordhamIntlL.J.190,193ReinhardMerkel,DieInterventionderNATOinLibyen(2011)Zeitschriftfrinternationale
Strafrechtsdogmatik771,778.

[11]StefanTalmon,TheDifferencebetweenRhetoricandReality:WhyanIllegitimateRegimeMayStillbeaGovernmentintheEyesof
InternationalLaw(EJILTalk,3March2011)<http://www.ejiltalk.org/thedifferencebetweenrhetoricandrealitywhy...accessed14July
2015.

[12]RdigerWolfrum,LegitimacyinInternationalLaw,inMPEPIL(March2011)MN1ReinholdZippelius,AllgemeineStaatslehre(16thedn,
Beck2010)95NielsPetersen,DemokratiealsteleologischesPrinzip.ZurLegitimittvonStaatsgewaltimVlkerrecht(Springer2009)5
DanielBodansky,TheConceptofLegitimacyinInternationalLaw,inRdigerWolfrumandVolkerRben(eds),LegitimacyinInternational
Law(Springer2008)309,312

[13]ForamoreindepthanalysisseeKerstinOdendahl,GibteseinevlkerrechtlicheLegitimittvonRegierungen?,inJostDelbrckand
Others(eds)VonKielindieWelt:KielsContributiontoInternationalLaw.Festschriftzum100jhrigenBestehendesWaltherSchcking
InstitutsfrInternationalesRecht(Duncker&Humblot2014)99,103etseq.

[14]AnnePeters,ElementeeinerTheoriederVerfassungEuropas(Duncker&Humblot2001)8etseq.RdigerWolfrum,Legitimacyof
InternationalLawfromaLegalPerspective:SomeIntroductoryConsiderationsinRdigerWolfrumandVolkerRben(eds)(n12)1,6et
seq.

[15]BradR.Roth,GovernmentalIllegitimacyinInternationalLaw(ClarendonPress1999).

[16]UNGeneralAssembly,Resolution3151G(XXVIII)(14December1973)para.11.

[17]Seen4.

[18]Odendahl(n13)110etseq.

[19]Franck(n9)26.

[20]See,forexample,Art.30ConstitutiveActoftheAfricanUnionArt.9CharteroftheOrganizationofAmericanStates.

[21]Moskau:WestendarfAssadRegimenichtdieLegitimittabsprechen(SputnikDeutschland,16March2012)
<http://de.sputniknews.com/politik/20120316/263074013.html>accessed14July2015.

[22]China:Assad'sLegitimacyMustNotBeQuestioned(TruthRevolt,23January2014)<http://www.truthrevolt.org/news/chinaassads
legitimacymustnotbeques...accessed14July2015.

[23]Noone,Mr.Kerry,hasrighttowithdrawpresidentslegitimacySyrianFM(RussiaToday,22January2014)
<http://rt.com/news/genevatwopeaceconference008/>accessed14July2015.SeealsoWesthasnorighttogiveorrefuseSyrianpeople
legitimacyAssad'sadvisor(RussiaToday,7June2014)<http://rt.com/news/164380syrianelectionlegitimatevote>accessed14July
2015.

[24]Seen22.

http://www.esilsedi.eu/node/983 4/5
07/12/2016 ESILReflection:NationalandInternationalLegitimacyofGovernments|EuropeanSocietyofInternationalLaw
[25]Franck(n9).

[26]SeeKerstinOdendahl,RegimewechselundInterventionsverbot:dieElfenbeinksteundLibyenalsFallstudien(2012)50Archivdes
Vlkerrechts318etseq.

http://www.esilsedi.eu/node/983 5/5