Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
in Performance
Studies in Linguistics, Literary Criticism,
and Language Teaching and Learning
To H o n o u r Werner Hllen
on the Occasion of H i s Sixtieth Birthday
E d i t e d by
Wolfgang Lrscher and R a i n e r Schulze
Printed in Germany
ISBN 3 - 8 7 8 0 8 - 3 7 7 - 7
Contents
Volume 1
Preface V
Reinhold Freudenstein
Hochschule und Schule im Dialog. Analyse einer
fremdsprachlichen Verbandszeitschrift 1
Parti Linguistics
Foundations of Language
Walter A. Koch
Genes and Mernes: Modes of Integration for Natural and
Cultural Evolution in a Holistic World Model ('ELPIS) 46
Wolf-Dietrich Bald
Reduced Structures in English Grammar 69
Ren Dirven
Diminutives in Afrikaans and Dutch 100
Klaus Faiss
Words, Words, Words: Compound or Suffixation
in German and English 110
Udo O. H.Jung
'Nemini Parcetur': Morphological Aspects of Acronyms
in English and German: A Contrastive Analysis 148
Dieter Kastovsky
Boundaries in English and German Morphology 159
VII
Alfred Schopf
TAKE and TOOK: English Morphology from Various Points of View 199
John Speicher
Word Play in Shop and Business Names 208
John R. Taylor
Tense and Metaphorisations of Time in Zulu 214
Flor G. A. M. Aarts
Imperative Sentences in English: Properties and Constraints 230
Dafydd Gibbon
Notes on Computational Linguistics (and Language Teaching) 250
Raymond Hickey
Sie hat ihn versucht zu erreichen: On Interlocking in
Present-Day German Syntax 271
Leonhard Lipka
Prototype Semantics or Feature Semantics: An Alternative? 282
Rainer Schulze
The Perception of Space and the Function of Topological Prepositions
in English: A Contribution to Cognitive Grammar 299
Hans-Jrgen Diller
Always Irreverent, Never Uncharitable: The Style and Status
of Katherine Whitehorn 323
Rosemarie Glser
Metakommunikative Sprachhandlungen in Fachtexten - dargestellt
an englischen Lehrbuchtexten fr Schler und Studenten 351
Lothar Hoffmann
Basic LSP for Academic Studies 369
Carl James
On the Pragmatics of Examination Questions 380
Bernd Spillner
Pragmatische und textlinguistische Anstze in der klassischen Rhetorik 390
Eija Ventola
Textbook Dialogues and Discourse Realities 399
Karl-Heinz Wandt
Schweigen - ein Desiderat sprachwissenschaftlicher Forschung? 412
VIII
Translation and Performance
Wolfgang Lrscher
On Analysing Translation Performance 424
Danica Seleskovitch
Context-Free Language and Sense in Translation 441
Richard J. Brunt
"My waterworks are playing me up something chronic."
The Description of the English of Medicine and Some Didactic Implications .. 447
Achim Eschbach
Salomon Maimons Abhandlung ber die symbolische Erkenntnis
im Lichte der Geschichte der Semiotik 470
Lilith M. Haynes
Of Pineapples, Pomelos, and Unknown Plants:
Maria Sybilla Merian and the Language of Science 485
Michael Isermann
Thomas Hobbes: Natur und Kunst in der Sprache 509
Gabriele Stein
Reference Point and Authorial Involvement in John Palsgrave's
Esclarcissement de la langue francoyse 530
Languages in Contact
Werner Enninger
Amish English: Dutchified? 547
Leo Loveday
Sino-Japanese Language Contact: A Case for Historical Sociolinguistics 579
Rdiger Ahrens
The Educative Paradigm of the Modern Novel of Initiation 611
Peter Freese
'Teaching People How to Write Who Don't Know What to Write':
Bernard Malamud's A New Life and the Myth of the West 642
Albert-Reiner Glaap
From Albert to Werner: Conscious Linguists and Communication
in Contemporary Drama 658
Fredrik J. Heinemann
'Beowulf 665b-738: A Mock Approach-to-Battle Type Scene 677
Valerie Heitfeld
'With the ear not the eye' - On Reading Hopkins 695
IX
Ruth Freifrau von Ledebur
Der 'Geist' von Shakespeares Sommernachtstraum :
berlegungen zu Botho Strau' Der Park 712
Elmar Lehmann
A Grammar of Historiography and the Art of Historical Fiction.
On Robert Graves' Claudius Novels 738
Helmut Schrey
Language at Play. A Philologist as Author -
J. R. R. Tolkien with Horses 747
Lothar Bredeila
From New Criticism to Response Theory: The Epistemologica!,
Aesthetic, and Pedagogical Implications 760
Hans Weber
Tom Stoppard als Schulautor? 786
Volume 2
Herbert Christ
Fremdsprachenlehrer im Portrait. Biographisches und
Autobiographisches aus vier Jahrhunderten 819
Ingeborg Christ
Die Entdeckung Hispanoamerikas fr den Spanischunterricht 839
Wolfgang Khlwein:
Roger Ascham: An Early Elizabethan Linguist 857
Practical Aspects
Albert Barrera-Vidal
Pragmatische Didaktik und didaktische Praxis 884
Michael Bludau
Some Thoughts on Desiderata of EFL Syllabuses
at the Intermediate Level 897
Wolfgang Butzkamm
Grammar in Context: Theory on Trial 906
X
Francizsek Grucza, Karl-Dieter Bunting
Das Konzept einer Grammatik der deutschen Sprache
fr polnische Muttersprachler 917
Albert Raasch
Video fr den Fremdsprachenerwerb -
am Beispiel des Franzsischen 927
Arbeitsgruppe Fremdsprachenerwerb
Welcher Typ von Forschung in der Fremdsprchendidaktik?
Zum Verhltnis von qualitativer und quantitativer Forschung 943
Waldemar Pfeiffer
Zur Methodologie der Methodiken 976
Douglas K. Stevenson
Authority, Accountability, and Modern Language Measurement 993
Socio-Psychological Implications
Rupprecht S. Baur
Kein Huhn im Topf? Alltagswissen
und interkulturelle Kommunikation 1006
Karlfried Knapp
English as an International lingua franca
and the Teaching of Intercultural Communication 1022
Gerda Lauerbach
Sprache, Identitt, Persnlichkeit -
Interkulturelle Kommunikation als Krise? 1040
Gnter Raddn
National Stereotypes: The English, the Americans,
the French, and the Germans 1061
Willis J. Edmondson
1
'Acquisition' and 'Learning : The Discourse System
Integration Hypothesis 1070
Lothar A. Jung
Psycholinguistik und Lernphasen im Fremdsprachenunterricht 1090
Gertrud Jungblut
Begrndungen fr eine einsprachige Wortvermittlungsphase
im Fremdsprachenunterricht 1107
Annelie Knapp-Potthoff
Speaking for Others - On a Neglected Aspect
of Using a Foreign Language 1125
XI
Gudula List
Trumen in fremden Sprachen. Psychologische Reflexionen
ber ein vernachlssigtes Thema 1143
Jrgen Quetz
Child-Adult Differences in Second Language Learning:
Reformulating the Approach 1174
Kari Sajavaara
Intake in Second Language Acquisition 1190
Hans W. Dechert
Pseudo-Discrimination in Second-Language Processing:
Answers and Questions 1200
Claus Faerch
Focus Shifts in FL Classroom Discourse 1226
Dieter Wolff
Auf- und absteigende Verarbeitungsprozesse
bei der Textverarbeitung in einer zweiten Sprache 1310
Karl-Richard Bausch
Anmerkungen zum Prinzip der G e n e r a l i s i e r u n g bei der
Erforschung und Durchfhrung von Fremdsprachenunterricht 1324
Wolfgang Brner
Schreiben im Fremdsprachenunterricht:
berlegungen zu einem Modell 1336
Hans-Jrgen Krumm
Effecting Change in Teaching Behaviour
in the Modern Language Classroom 1350
Dieter Mindt
New Ways for Research on Grammar for English
as a Foreign Language: Outline and Application 1361
Rudolf Nissen
Beyond Sinclair/Coulthard: 'Free Didactic Conversations'
in the German EFL Classroom 1373
Joachim Raith
Englischunterricht und trkische Lerner - Bereich Aussprache 1385
Johannes-Peter Timm
Operationelle Regeln fr den Englischunterricht 1398
XII
Albert Valdman
Interlinguistic Variability: The Control of Variable ''
by American Graduate Student French Instructors 1418
Wolfgang Zydati
Fossilized Grammar Proficiency? A Developmental View
of German Obers tu fen-Pupils' Written English 1429
XIII
P r o t o t y p e Semantics or F e a t u r e Semantics: An Alternative?*
Leonhard L i p k a (Mnchen)
1. D e f i n i t i o n s
Over the last few years, a new approach toJLej^caJL jneaning has devel-
oped, which may be l a b e l l e d P r o t o t y p e Semantics ( h e r e a f t e r PS). It has
a r i s e n m a i n l y under the i n f l u e n c e of psyc^ho^
nature of human c a t e g o r i z a t i o n . Rosch ( 1 9 7 7 ) and Rosch/Mervis (1975)
are p o s s i b l y the most s i g n i f i c a n t publications in this f i e l d . This a l -
t e r n a t i v e semantic theory sees i t s e l f as being in opposition to A r i s t o -
t e l i a n Semantics, which F i l l m o r e ( 1 9 7 5 ) has l a b e l l e d " c h e c k l i s t theo-
r i e s of meaning". Other l i n g u i s t i c r o o t s can be seen i n e m p i r i c a l i n -
v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o the denotative s t r u c t u r e of E n g l i s h nouns, as sum-
marized i n Labov (1978). Recent c o n t r i b u t i o n s to PS are the articles
by Lakoff, Posner, T v e r s k y , and Givn i n C r a i g (1986), with Lakoff
(33-36) d i s t i n g u i s h i n g d i f f e r e n t "types of p r o t o t y p e s " . At first sight,
y there i s a very considerable d i f f e r e n c e between PS and the classical
feature theory of semantics. We will see i n the f o l l o w i n g whether i t
is a v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e , as F i l l m o r e (1975) claims.
282
which a t t r i b u t e s p l a y a r o l e . The c o g n i t i v e aspect i s a l s o stressed
i n Coleman/Kay ( I 9 8 I : 27), wljo say t h a t a semantic prototype:
(.1)
auersprach-
liche Welt
Leisi's t h e o r y can a l s o be d e s c r i b e d as r e f e r e n t i a l or d e n o t a t i v e s e -
mantics. Before t u r n i n g to some c l a s s i c a l examples of p r o t o t y p e s , l e t
us l o o k at some f u r t h e r p a r a l l e l s between t h i s approach and Leisi's
2
theory. L e i s i ( 1985: 57) s t a r t s out from some r e l a t i o n a l norms ('Be-
1
zugsnormen ' ) , i n c l u d i n g a species-norm ( Speziesnorm'). By t h i s he un-
d e r s t a n d s an i m p l i c i t comparison w i t h an average r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a
s p e c i e s . For example, he says t h a t a p e n c i l 75 cm l o n g may be des-
c r i b e d as 'enormous', w h i l e a s k i of the same s i z e would be 'tiny'.
283
Another important concept i n L e i s i ' s t h e o r y o f meaning i s h i s c o n d i -
1
t i o n s f o r the use o f words ('Gebrauchsbedingungen ) (see 4. below). In
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h PS, L e i s i ' s ( 1985:
2
3 8 , 40) two complementary defini-
t i o n s o f meaning are a l s o r e l e v a n t . For him, meaning ('Bedeutung') i s :
2. Some C l a s s i c Examples
(2)
owl, f l a m i n g o c e r t a i n SIZE, SHAPE
l a y s eggs
BIRD sparrow, r o b i n , swallow
(ostrich, penguin, c h i c k e n )
284
Several a t t r i b u t e s from t h i s c a t e g o r y , such as ' l a y i n g eggs' and 'hav-
ing a beak', may occur i n c o n j u n c t i o n i n completely d i f f e r e n t other
categories. This i s demonstrated by the Australian platypus, also
c a l l e d a d u c k b i l l or d u c k b i l l e d platypus. A l t h o u g h i t has a beak or
bill like that of a duck, and l a y s eggs, i t i s f u r r y and suckles its
young.
(3)
retriever FUNCTION
285
(4)
286
enee of context i s taken i n t o account. F i r s t the s u b j e c t s i n the ex-
periments were asked to name items without any particular context.
In a second experiment they were asked to assume t h a t the containers
were f i l l e d with c o f f e e , food, soup, or f l o w e r s , or t h a t they saw some-
one stirring i n sugar w i t h a spoon or d r i n k i n g out of them.
(5)
BOWL TUMBLER
1
In g e n e r a l , a c c o r d i n g to Labov s f i n d i n g s , the f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s or
parameters are r e l e v a n t i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c o n t a i n e r terms: shape, pro-
p o r t i o n , m a t e r i a l , f u n c t i o n , handle, e t c . These 'parameters' can be
i d e n t i f i e d with the ' a t t r i b u t e s ' of PS.
287
or d e n o t a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s have two fundamental p r o p e r t i e s : They are
1. vague and 2 . m u t u a l l y i n t e r d e p e n d e n t . By i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e Labov means
t h a t v a r i a b l e s l i k e h e i g h t , w i d t h , or f u n c t i o n are not i s o l a t e d and
independent of each o t h e r .
(6)
a) b) c) d)
O b v i o u s l y , a l l v e s s e l s or c o n t a i n e r s i n ( 6 ) have a g r e a t d e a l i n com-
mon. Consequently, the d e f i n i t i o n s of d e c a n t e r i n LDCE and COD 7 both
c o n t a i n the s u p e r o r d i n a t e term b o t t l e . On the o t h e r hand, the p r o t o -
t y p i c a l DECANTERS ( 6 b ) to ( 6 d ) have a t t r i b u t e s i n common, such as 'with
a s t o p p e r ' , which are m i s s i n g i n the c a t e g o r y BOTTLE. They f u r t h e r have
i n common the FUNCTION ' f o r d e c a n t i n g ' . The verb to decant i s defined
i n LDCE as:
288
"To pour (liquid, esp. wine) from one container,into another,
esp. so as to leave a l l the u n d r i n k a b l e p a r t s (sediment) i n
the f i r s t c o n t a i n e r " .
(7)
289
On the o t h e r hand, French f l e u v e and rivire, as w e l l as German Strom
and Flu, converge i n the E n g l i s h c a t e g o r y r i v e r , as r e p r e s e n t e d i n
(8). French and German d i s t i n g u i s h between a ' r i v e r f l o w i n g i n t o the
sea' and a ' t r i b u t a r y river'.
(8) (9)
river Affe
290
(10a) The monkey i s c l i m b i n g down the flagpole
(10b) The snail i s climbing up the flagpole.
(11)
f o r k , and spoon
291
Here we could speak of an o v e r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n German, namely i n t o
essen vs. f r e s s e n , but we could a l s o speak of s p e c i f i c a t i o n gaps i n
E n g l i s h . I t i s t r u e t h a t f r e s s e n may be rendered to some extent by
to guzzle. However, d i c t i o n a r i e s d e f i n e t h i s verb as 'eat o r drink
g r e e d i l y ' , which means t h a t we have a convergence of f r e s s e n and saufen
in t h i s E n g l i s h c a t e g o r y . At any r a t e , the d i f f e r e n t v e r b s demonstrate
clearly the fact of language- and culture-dependent categorizationi.
(12)
a) b)
Both the complex lexeme S c h r e i b t i s c h and the simple item desk represent
a c a t e g o r y of a r t i f a c t s whose p r o t o t y p e is characterized by the attri-
bute 'with drawers'. These are m i s s i n g i n object (12b). Ic can never-
t h e l e s s be categorized as a S c h r e i b t i s c h , as was done i n a r e c e n t exhi-
b i t i o n of Japanese a r t i n Munich. In order to understand t h i s , we have
to r e a l i z e that the traditional activity of w r i t i n g i n the East i s car-
r i e d out differently than i n Europe. T h e r e f o r e , both a r t i f a c t s are ap-
propriate to t h e i r FUNCTION ' f o r w r i t i n g ' . In China and Japan w r i t i n g
was traditionally performed s i t t i n g cross-legged or on one's heels,
w i t h a brush.
292
Other examples o f the a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f a r t i f a c t s f o r t h e i r FUNCTION
are the d i f f e r e n t types of d e c a n t e r i n ( 6 ) , with t h e i r g l a s s stoppers.
Functionality i s particularly striking i n ( 6 d ) , the s o - c a l l e d ship's
d e c a n t e r , whose p r o t o t y p i c a l shape, w i t h an extremely low c e n t r e o f
gravity, i s p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l s u i t e d t o the c o n d i t i o n s on a s h i p .
5. A F e a t u r e A n a l y s i s o f C o n t a i n e r Words
293
5.2. T h i s a n a l y s i s c o r r e s p o n d s to the one given i n the d e s c r i p t i o n by
Hansen et a l . ( 1 9 8 5 : 2
180 f . ) of E n g l i s h 1
Behltnisbezeichnungen'. In
t h i s treatment a m a t r i x representation i s used, which c o n t a i n s the b i -
nary f e a t u r e s [ s i c ! ] <METALLIC, NARROW-NECKED, LARGE, LIQUID, STORING>.
Thus f o r example <-NARROW-NECKED> i s to be i n t e r p r e t e d as 'weithal-
sig'. On the s i d e of the m a t r i x , two n o n - b i n a r y f e a t u r e s are added,
1 1
namely: "a = 'aus Glas " and "b = aus P l a s t ' " , which o b v i o u s l y corre-
spond to L e h r e r ' s parameter MATERIAL. Cup i s defined as 'small non-me-
tallic wide-necked bowl ( f o r immediate consumption of d r i n k a b l e s ) ' .
294
of d i s c o v e r y procedures f o r f e a t u r e s ('Merkmale', i n a wide s e n s e ) ,
their circular definition, their metalinguistic status, lexical vague-
n e s s , the d i s t i n c t i o n between l i n g u i s t i c and encyclopedic knowledge,
the hierarchy and c o n c a t e n a t i o n of f e a t u r e s , and finally, their univer-
sality and psychological reality. Not a l l of h i s arguments c a r r y the
same c o n v i c t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , h i s approach i s on the whole b a l a n c e d
and does not r e s u l t i n a r e j e c t i o n of FS.
1. c l e a r category boundaries,
( - - . ...
2. features as d i s c r e t e p r o p e r t i e s ,
3. y e s / n o - d e c i s i o n s on the presence of f e a t u r e s , and
4-. equal s t a t u s of a l l f e a t u r e s (no w e i g h t i n g ) .
1. vague, c o n t i n u o u s c a t e g o r y b o u n d a r i e s (fuzziness),
2. g r a d u a l c a t e g o r y membership, resemblance,
3. categories with p r o t o t y p i c a l kernels, and
4. the d i f f e r e n t importance of a t t r i b u t e s (weighting).
295
Thus, f o r example, Meinhard ( 1 9 8 4 : 6 0 , 64 f . , 66 f . ) , i n a paper whose
general d r i f t i s s i m i l a r to t h a t of the p r e s e n t article, introduces a
d i s t i n c t i o n between i n v a r i a n t , v a r i a n t , and prototypical features.
I have adopted the term ' i n f e r e n t i a l f e a t u r e s ' from N i d a , but have de-
veloped the concept myself. The n o t a t i o n i n braces d e r i v e s from Leh-
r e r ' s approach, which, as we have seen, admits o p t i o n a l f e a t u r e s . I n -
ferential f e a t u r e s are not d i s c r e t e , o b l i g a t o r y and i n h e r e n t , but
r a t h e r o p t i o n a l , supplementary, and dependent on l i n g u i s t i c and extra-
linguistic c o n t e x t , from which they are i n f e r r e d . They l a r g e l y c o r r e -
spond to Meinhard's (1984) ' v a r i a n t ' f e a t u r e s .
296
7.3. As we have seen, such f e a t u r e s can a l s o be r e g a r d e d as a t t r i b u t e s
of p r o t o t y p i c a l c a t e g o r i e s . Indeed, I b e l i e v e t h a t f e a t u r e s - especial-
ly i f they are not o b l i g a t o r y - c o r r e s p o n d to the a t t r i b u t e s of PS.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , the problems r a i s e d under 6 . above are solved to a l a r g e
extent i n a modified PS.
7.4. The great majority of our examples were taken from E n g l i s h and
are therefore directly relevant to E n g l i s h l e x i c o l o g y . However, e v i -
dence from o t h e r languages i s a l s o i n d i r e c t l y n e c e s s a r y and useful for
a d e s c r i p t i o n of E n g l i s h . F i n a l l y , the g e n e r a l conclusions from our
t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n w i l l have c o n s i d e r a b l e bearing on the analysis
o f the v o c a b u l a r y of any language.
297
C r a i g , C., ed. 1 9 8 6 . Noun C l a s s e s and C a t e g o r i z a t i o n . P r o c e e d i n g s o f a
Symposium on C a t e g o r i z a t i o n and Noun C l a s s i f i c a t i o n , Eugene, Ore-
gon , October 1 9 8 3 - Amsterdam, P h i l a d e l p h i a .
F a r k a s , D., W.M. Jacobsen, K.W. T o d r y s , eds. 1 9 7 8 . P a r a s e s s i o n on the
L e x i c o n . Chicago L i n g u i s t i c S o c i e t y . Chicago
F i l l m o r e , C. 1 9 7 5 . "An a l t e r n a t i v e t o c h e c k l i s t t h e o r i e s o f meaning".
In: Cogen, C , H. Thompson, G. Thurgood, K. W h i s t l e r , eds. 1 9 7 5 .
Proceedings o f the F i r s t Annual Meeting o f the B e r k e l e y L i n g u i s t i c s
Society. Berkeley, 123-131.
F i l l m o r e , C. 1 9 7 8 . "On the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f semantic i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e
l e x i c o n " . I n : F a r k a s , D. e t a l . , eds. 1 9 7 8 , 1 4 8 - 1 7 3 .
G e e r a e r t s , D. 1 9 8 4 . "Prototype t h e o r y and d i a c h r o n i c s e m a n t i c s : A case
study". Indogermanische Forschungen 8 8 , 1 - 3 2 .
Hansen, B. e t a l . 1985. E n g l i s c h e L e x i k o l o g i e . Einfhrung i n W o r t b i l -
2
298