Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Review
The discipline, now often called sensory food science of voluntary members of sensory and consumer panels
(Box 1), evolved from the need for scientifically sound (e.g., the policy statement of the Institute of Food Science
and systematic sensory evaluation of foods (Pangborn, and Technology, 2005). The use of human subjects in
1989). The early development of psychophysics, including sensory science is not as intrusive as it is in the medical sci-
inventions by both German (Weber, sensory thresholds; ences, but ethical aspects need proper attention. Exposures
Fechner, psychophysical law) in the 19th century, and US to foods produced with novel techniques, such as genetic
scientists (Thurstone, law of comparative judgement; Ste- modification and irradiation, may create concerns, and for
vens, power law) in the 20th century, laid the foundation their informed consent to participate, panellists need infor-
for sensory food science (Lawless & Heymann, 1999). mation of the nature of test samples. The organizer of a test
The obvious need for sensory evaluation led to the develop- is responsible for the safety and well-being of the panel-
ment of testing procedures for wine, tea, meat, dairy and lists, and care needs to be taken to avoid any chemical or
other important commodities. Most of these procedures be- microbiological risk or mental inconvenience.
long to the category of descriptive analyses that, from the Research into sensory and hedonic aspects of food has
Flavour profile in the late 1940s and the Texture Profile grown immensely. A range of measures and institutions
in the 1960s, evolved into methods more broadly applicable have encouraged this growth. The following list highlights
to all sensory properties of a food, like Quantitative the evolution.
Descriptive Analysis, that are based on independent judge-
ments of panellists and statistical testing, rather than group The appearance of journals focusing on sensory and con-
discussions and consensus procedures (see Lawless & Hey- sumer research: Journal of Sensory Studies (Blackwell,
mann, 1999). Descriptive methods are used to pinpoint since 1986), Food Quality and Preference (Elsevier,
differences among product variants, storage conditions, 1988) and Chemosensory Perception (Springer, 2008).
and the like; to identify drivers of hedonic responses; and Also journals such as Appetite (Elsevier, 1980), Chemi-
to examine relationships between chemical and sensory cal Senses (Oxford Press, 1974), Perception and Psycho-
characteristics. physics, and Physiology & Behavior (Elsevier, 1966)
Major evolutionary steps of sensory food science took publish sensory papers, and some food science journals
place during the latter half of the last century. Crucial to have a strong sensory component. Journal of Food Sci-
the development was the recognition of the nature of the ence has a specific sensory evaluation section. Food sci-
measurement apparatus, the human being, and contributions ence journals tend to focus on sensory aspects of specific
from psychology played a significant role in the evolution products or ingredients, while the basic science journals
of valid measurement techniques (Meiselman & Schutz, focus on perceptual mechanisms, whether of biological
2003). However, psychology is only one aspect of this sci- or psychological origin. Sensory methodologies are
entific enterprise. Other behavioural sciences, biological a major interest in sensory journals, although they cover
and food sciences, as well as nutrition and health sciences basic and applied aspects as well.
all bring their viewpoints and research questions to the field Since 1992, there is a world conference series, the Pang-
and, increasingly, so do the physiological and neurosci- born Sensory Science Symposium, named after a pioneer
ences. Thus, sensory food science stands at the intersection researcher and instructor in the field, Professor Rose
of many disciplines and research traditions, and the stake- Marie Pangborn (1932e1990) from the University of
holders are many (Moskowitz & Hartmann, 2008). California. The meetings were started at 3-year intervals,
As part of the family of food sciences, analytical sensory but are now scheduled every second year. In the 1st
evaluation serves to identify perceived product attributes meeting in Finland, some 220 participants were present,
and differences. In this capacity, its function is similar to while more than 1000 delegates are expected at the 8th
chemical, physical, and microbiological characterisation meeting in Italy in 2009.
of products. Yet, being closer to consumer perceptions Geographically focused meeting series have also been
than physicochemical and biological assays, sensory analy- started, such as the European Sensory meetings, first
sis helps to interpret consequences of recipe and process in Italy (2004), second in the Netherlands (2006), and
modifications, storage, and the like. Also, using methodol- third in Germany (2008).
ogy applicable to consumers, sensory research can directly Scientific associations have been established, nationally
acquire information about consumer responses to products. e.g., in the USA (IFT Sensory Evaluation Division, since
Here it approaches, and sometimes merges with consumer 1973), Finland (Finnish Society of Food Science, Sen-
science. However, consumer research on foods has pecu- sory Division, 1984), and Italy (SISS, Italian Society
liarities not common with most consumer goods, mainly for Sensory Science, 2002); and an international society
the deep cultural roots, frequently repeated consumption devoted to statistical aspects of sensory and consumer
and the involvement of physiological feedback. science, the Sensometrics Society (meetings since 1992).
Many aspects of sensory food science have evolved dur- Many universities have established sensory professor-
ing the past 15e20 years. Among these is the increased ships in their food science departments, with European
awareness and concern of the well-being, safety and rights examples from the University of Helsinki, Finland
56 H. Tuorila, E. Monteleone / Trends in Food Science & Technology 20 (2009) 54e62
Table 1. Methods and instruments developed, or adopted from other disciplines, in sensory food science from the 1990s
examples. The labelled magnitude scale (LMS), quantify- of perception, temporal dominance of sensations (TDS)
ing oral sensory magnitude (Green et al., 1996) has served being the most innovative (Table 1).
as a point of departure for the development of the hedonic, The need to combine the information on product charac-
labelled affective magnitude scale (LAM) (Table 1). teristics and consumer behaviour in product development
As predicted by Pangborn (1989), alternatives to time- has led sensory scientists to adopt methods from other
intensity have been developed to analyse temporal aspects scientific disciplines. The repertory grid method coupled
58 H. Tuorila, E. Monteleone / Trends in Food Science & Technology 20 (2009) 54e62
(or not) with Generalized Procrustes Analysis, mean-ends Increased attention to consumer responses
chain and laddering interviews, and conjoint analysis has Research on consumer responses to foods has increased,
become increasingly popular in the sensory science com- and research combining sensory and consumer responses
munity (Table 1). also shows a stable increase (Fig. 1).
Computers are an inseparable part of a sensory labora- In traditional sensory evaluation, the samples (foods or
tory, and they have meant progress for sensory food sci- their components) are evaluated blind, and all effort is
ence. They are important for logistics (data entry) and made to minimize the impact of external cues. This is as-
handling of large data sets. Measurement of temporal sumed to yield unbiased information of perceived charac-
aspects of perception is a specific example; and, without teristics of the samples, without interference of the brand,
computers, collecting and analyzing large multivariate package, or labelling. Marketing research has been left
data sets would be almost impossible. Currently also Inter- with the task of finding out what contributions the brand,
net is used to collect quantitative (home use tests, question- package or other information may have to the purchase or
naires) and qualitative (e.g., chat rooms) data. acceptance of a commercial product.
With wine as an example, Table 2 shows different lines In the 1990s, consumer-oriented sensory research
of recent sensory research on one commodity. Sensory focused on understanding food acceptance as a whole. Po-
analysis is widely applied in wine research to describe tential interactions of sensory properties and other factors
the effect of factors such as grape variety or processing affecting the responses became interesting, and the interest
on properties of wine, and to study the relationship between was extended from hedonic to more overt behavioural out-
chemical and sensory characteristics, but there are many come measures, such as purchase intentions. For example,
further approaches and targets of research. information of the origin, ingredients, and production
major contributing factors (e.g., Drewnowski & Specter, in the definition of acceptable options, i.e., in minimising
2004), there is no way to ignore the need for tasty foods waste. Understanding the character of cuisines of different
in the growing segment of dieters and overweight people. populations is essential both for business and for social
New foods for the weight control market, such as those reasons.
maximizing satiety, naturally require sensory testing and
consumer acceptance research. Catering services and the acceptance of meals
A more fundamental question is the relative importance Changing lifestyles have increased the share of meals
of sensory appreciation in reward from eating (Berridge eaten outside of the home. Furthermore, the growing seg-
& Robinson, 2003). It has been suggested that liking for ment of the elderly need catering services at home and in
a product is a weak predictor of consumption, while urge institutions. Fine meals are an important business in all in-
to eat, wanting, may play a crucial role in the obesity epi- dustrial countries, but their essentials, such as combining
demic (Mela, 2006). Sensory food scientists may need to food and wine, have not been researched well.
push the boundaries of the discipline one more time to un- Research has been conducted on the nature of meals in
derstand the dimensions of reward besides liking, and seek general (see Meiselman, 2000), on consumer perceptions
reliable ways to measure those dimensions to predict prod- of institutional meals (Cardello, Bell, & Kramer, 1996),
uct success in the current market for diet foods. Sensory on the contributions of individual meal items to overall ac-
scientists are also appropriate partners for the pursuit of ceptance, and on the mutual interactions between meal
a balance of enjoyment from food and proper nutritional items (see Meiselman, 2000). There is plenty of space for
qualities. further research, e.g., into modelling mutual sensory inter-
Even without an emphasis on calories, the sensory per- actions of food and beverage, on principles of meal accep-
spective to healthful eating is important. For example, tance and, in a more applied line, meal quality and changes
high correlations of fruit and vegetable intake and ratings during the production and serving chain. Meal is a complex
of liking among children (Baxter & Thompson, 2002) raise sensory experience, and with the current tools of sensory
the question about how to best enhance liking for healthful food science, its essential features do not easily lend them-
foods. selves to scientific analysis. However, with accumulating
attempts and innovative approaches, this area could achieve
Acceptance of alternative production techniques scientific status and recognition. Tools for predicting con-
Consumer responses to products vary based on informa- sumer satisfaction grow in importance when the catering
tion of production techniques (Cardello, 2003), and prod- sector grows.
ucts based on genetically modified raw materials create
controversial responses (Lahteenmaki et al., 2002). Organic Scarcity of food and the reservoirs for alternative
produce may sometimes have favourable and other times materials
unfavourable sensory properties, as many factors affect pro- Is sensory food science only for affluent societies where
duction (Bourn & Prescott, 2002). Consumer perceptions of consumers can afford themselves the luxury of optimised
different production techniques are likely to show in per- sensory properties and the maximal enjoyment from
ceived quality and overall acceptance. Even when a sensory food? It may seem so, but there are great opportunities
difference is not real (not perceived in blind condition), for sensory research in the design of foods for less affluent
it may affect purchase decision. When the aim is to im- societies. Whatever economical status, people want to eat
prove the quality of organic produce, sensory research is tasty food typical of their own culture and tradition (e.g.,
essential. Lambden et al., 2007). Any food aid should respect local
food traditions. If the long and difficult course from bio-
Cross-cultural food preferences and globalization technological or other nutritional innovations (Anupama
Companies expanding their markets worldwide adjust & Ravindra, 2000; Verkerk, Tarmper, van Trijp, & Martens,
sensory quality of products to meet the expectations of 2007) to the table of consumers is to be engaged, it requires
the populations in target countries. Sensory research is skilful consideration of the sensory aspects of a product.
essential for defining optimal sensory properties of these
products. Immigration to Western countries creates situa- Conclusion
tions in which flavour preferences from different food cul- Sensory food science is a discipline increasingly needed
tures need to be taken into consideration in planning the for better understanding of the drivers of consumer prefer-
catering services for schools, hospitals, and other commu- ence. Sensory evaluation is an essential technique for food
nity-based feeding occasions. The acquisition of food pref- industry, now and in the future. Because of acute and long-
erences of another food culture can be a challenge, because terms industrial and societal needs, consumer-oriented
adhering to traditional foods is a cornerstone of cultural sensory research is likely to strengthen. In the changing so-
heritage (Lambden, Receveur, & Kuhnlein, 2007). System- ciety, new issues relevant for science and industry are likely
atic sensory information of cross-cultural preferences and to emerge. For the progress of the field and for the avoid-
their underlying mechanisms would help catering services ance of its regression to simple sensory evaluation services
H. Tuorila, E. Monteleone / Trends in Food Science & Technology 20 (2009) 54e62 61
in applied environments, it is necessary 1) to provide high- Drewnowski, A., & Specter, S. E. (2004). Poverty and obesity: the role
level basic training and opportunities for university students of energy density and energy costs. American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition, 79, 6e16.
to specialise in the field, 2) to direct proper funding for ba- Enneking, U., Neumann, C., & Henneberg, S. (2007). How important
sic research in the field and 3) to foster further collabora- intrinsic and extrinsic product attributes affect purchase decision.
tion of sensory food science and other scientific disciplines. Food Quality and Preference, 18, 133e138.
Essed, N. H., van Staveren, W. A., Kok, F. J., & De Graaf, C. (2007). No
effect of 16 weeks flavor enhancement on dietary intake and
nutritional status of nursing home elderly. Appetite, 48, 29e36.
Gawel, R., & Godden, P. W. (2008). Evaluation of the consistency of
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