ABSTRACT

A comparative assessment of domestic water supply sources in Ishiagu, a rural heavy

metal mining community was carried out using physicochemical and biological indices.
The water supply sources were rain water, ground water (Hand dug well and borehole)
and surface water Ivo River. Hand dug well (HDW) and surface water (Ivo River) had
pH values of 5.6 6.5 while borehole and rainwater hand a range of 6.1 7.4. TSS and
TDS were lowest in rainwater while highest values were observed in the surface and
HDW water. Analysis showed that SO4, NO3 and PO4 had lowest values in rainwater,
followed by borehole water but values from HDW were similar to surface water values.
Among the heavy metals analyzed, Fe, Pb, Ca and Zn have significantly high values
above FEPA standard in surface water, and in HDW, with values from boreholes being
marginally less than FEPA standards. The heavy metal values were within the acceptable
limits (WHO). In rain water the concentration of Cu in the various water sources was
very low(10.00-0.02). Total heterotrophic bateria had their highest counts in the surface
water (1.1 2.3 x 105 cfu/ml) and lowest (0.2 0.7 x 101 cfu/ml) in rainwater. Coliform
bacteria.(CB), heavy metal resistant bacteria (HMRB) and potentially pathogenic
bacterial (PPB) had highest counts in the surface water, followed by the HDW while rain
water and borehole water had the lowest counts. This study therefore concludes that only
rainwater fall within the acceptable standard in the area while other sources require
proper treatment before human consumption. This also calls for government intervention
to save the people from water related diseases.

Keywords: Water quality, physicochemical properties, bacteria, heavy metals.

Corresponding author: Dr. V.O. Nwaugo, 08063494654, E-Mail: vonwaugo@yahoo.com.

INTRODUCTION
Water is the second most important life sustainer after oxygen (Aluyi et al.,
2006). It is the medium in which all biochemical reactions of the body take place
and constitutes about 65-70% of the body weight. It is used for various domestic,
recreational and industrial purposes (Chima et al., 2008, Nduka, et al., 2008). The
importance of water can therefore not be over emphasized.
Water is said to occupy about two thirds of the entire earth surface. In
addition, a considerable proportion of the earth crust and atmosphere are also made
up of water in various forms (Chima, et al., 2008, Oladeji et al., 2004). Inspite of
its abundance, the availability of water in potable form is an enormous problem in
many communities, even in the developed nations. Many deaths have been
attributed to the consumption of inpure water, especially in children (Oladeji et al.,
2004, Aluyi et al., 2006 ab Nwaugo et al., 2007, WHO 1996, 2000).

1
 The type and source of water determine its quality and composition.
Atmospheric water (mainly rain water and snow in the temperate climate) quality
is influenced by water soluble gaseous and particulate matter in the air and
microbial propergules. Ground water on the other hand, is influenced by the type
of rock materials it encounters on its way, in addition to biological entities present
and industrial activities in the area concerned (Nwaugo et al., 2007a, Aluyi et al,
2006a).Surface water is the most abused of all water sources as it is easily assessed
by man and animals. In some cases, flowing water bodies even serve as sinks for
the disposal of several industrial and domestic wastes (Pelczar et al., 2003,
Narayanan, 2007 Aluyi, 2006b) Every water source is therefore unique in its own
way and can be influenced by several factors.
Generally, many studies have been carried out on domestic water quality but
most of these studies centre on either ground water or surface water separately.
Little attention is even paid to rain water due mainly to the erroneous or presumed
high quality as rain water is viewed as condensate of vaporized water. This study
therefore aligned with Olabaniyi and Efe (2000) in assessing rainwater quality in
comparison to the other sources (surface and ground). This study was aimed at
assessing water quality in heavy metal (lead and zinc) mining rural community of
Ishiagu as a study area.
Materials and methods
Study area
Ishiagu is a rural community in Ivo L.G.A of Ebonyi State, Nigeria where
farming is the main stay of the people. Crops grown include rice, yam, cassava and
oil palm. Heavy metal (Pb and Zn) mining is the major industrial activity in the
area. Barium was only recently discovered in one of the settlement in the same
Ishiagu.
The main surface water supply in Ishiagu is the Ivo River, with a few
seasonal streams criss crossing the area. A few privately owned boreholes are
available with the other ground water source being hand dug wells (HDW). Lying
in the typical Guinea Savannah region of the tropical climate zone of Nigeria,
Ishiagu has her own fair share of rainfall spread mainly in the rainy season months
of April to September while the dry season has mainly sunshine of October to
February.
SAMPLE COLLECTION
Water column as used by the people was collected from different sources for
twelve months. These sources include rain water, (only when it rained) borehole
water (3 boreholes pooled together as one), hand dug well (3 wells pooled into
one) and Ivo River from two sources up stream (outside Ishiagu) and within
Ishiagu area. In all cases, sterile containers were used to collect the water samples.

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 Clean-catch rainwater samples in sterile containers 2m above ground level
were obtained from three different places and pooled together. Sampling was done
twice a moth, except rain water which was not available in some months
(December January). Results obtained were placed only as averages i.e. lowest
highest without reference to the month.
SAMPLE ANALYSES
Physicochemical properties
The temperature and pH of water samples were measured in situ-using the
multipurpose tester (Jenway HANNA 1910 tester). The total dissolved solids
(TDS) and total suspended solids (TSS), were determined according to APHA
(1998). The Winklers titrametric method was used in dissolved oxygen (DO) and
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) determination. The procedure as stated in
UNEP (2004) analytical manual was used for sulphate (SO4), Phosphate (PO4), and
Nitrate (NO3).
The trace and heavy metal concentrations were determined according to the
APHA (1998) method using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). The
metals determined include Mg, Ca, Fe, Pb, Zn, and Cu.
Microbiological analysis
The assessment of the various water samples for microbiological quality was
done using the culture method using spread plate inoculation technique after ten-
fold serial dilution according to Chesssbrough (2003). Four bacterial groups were
determined using different culture media. These include total heterotrophic bacteria
(THB) using Tryptone Soy Agar, Coliform bacteria (CB) using McConkey Agar,
and phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) using phosphate medium (US Patent,
2003). The heavy metal resistant bacteria (HMRB) were estimated using Mineral
Salt Agar into which Pb and Zn were incorporated at 5ug/ml each. The bioloads
were obtained as colony forming units per ml (cfu/ml).
Statistical analysis
The results obtained in this study were subjected to standard statistical analysis to
ascertain their significance. The methods used include ANOVA and standard
deviation.
Results
Physicochemical properties
Temperature values obtained ranged from 24.3 31.4 oC. The highest was in
surface water and lowest in ground water (Borehole). pH had its lowest value in
Hand Dug well (HDW) 5.6 6.5, followed by surface water (5.7-63) while
borehole and rainwater had a range of 6.1 7.4 (Table 1) Statistical analysis
showed significant variation between rainwater and borehole water on one hand
and HDW and surface water on the other (P = 0.05).

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 In TSS, values were significantly low in rainwater (3.7 16.7mg/l),
followed by 6.4 37.7 mg/l in Borehole water while surface water had the highest
13.1 67.3 mg/l. This same trend was observed in TDS. Statistical analysis
showed significant variations in the sample analyzed (P = 0.05). While DO was
highest in rainwater (6.3 7.7), and lowest in borehole water (2.0 2.6), BOD was
highest in surface water and lowest in borehole water (Table 1).
SO4 had its highest value in surface water just like NO 3 and PO4, while the
lowest in each of these parameters was in the rainwater (Table 1). The differences
observed in PO4, NO3, and SO4 were statistically significant (P = 0.05).
Metal analysis
The concentration of Cu which ranged from 0.01 0.03 was within the
FEPA acceptable limits. All other metals, Fe, Pb, Zn, Mg and Ca had their lowest
limit in rainwater especially Cu which was not observed. In each case, highest
values were observed in surface water which had marginal variation with the HDW
water samples (Tables 2). The borehole water values of Pb, Zn, and Ca were
significantly (P = 0.05) above FEPA standard, though they were the second lowest
values after rainwater values.
Microbiological analysis
THB had the highest counts in each water sample analyzed. However lowest
THB count was seen in borehole water (0.2-0.21 x 10 1 cfu/ml), followed by rain
water sample (0.4 1.3 x 10 2 cfu/ml). Potentially pathogenic bacterial (PPB)
counts were the least in each group. Rainwater had the least PPB counts followed
by borehole water while the mining zone of Ivo River water sample had the
highest counts (Table 3). Rainwater had the least HMRB counts (Table 3).
DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION
Results obtained in this study indicated varied physicochemical properties in
the various domestic water supply sources in the study area Ishiagu. The values
for temperature and pH observed fall within the limits observed by Orewole et al.,
(2007) in Ile Ife, Aluyi et al., (2006ab) in Benin City and Yusuf (2007) in Lagos.
The low pH values observed in the borehole water, HDW and surfaces water
showed the effects of mine effluent in the area. Ishiagu is a heavy metal mining
area and the mine effluent is acidic (Nwaugo et al., 2007b, 2008). The discharged
mine effluent percolate into the soil, down to the ground water level. The near
neutral pH observed in rain water show that the air does not contain acidic oxides.
The slightly acidic pH observed (6.3 6.8) could have resulted from the smoke
from the equipment used in quarrying activities since Agwu, a very close
community is known for such activity. The dusty air at Agwu could easily be
blown to Ishiagu since they are close (Obiekezie et al., 2006).
The TSS and TSS values observed in this study fell within those observed by
Olabaniyi and Efe (2007) and Nwaugo et al., (2009). The high levels of TSS and

4
TDS in Ivo River indicate the high level of contamination. This could have caused
the high turbidity of the river observed in course of the study. The air did not
contain much particulate matter nor much soluble solids to make the rainwater
turbid, hence less TDS and TSS. This trend changed in the DO and BOD with rain
water having high DO and less BOD while HDW and surface water of Ivo River in
the mining zone had less DO and much BOD. This could be attributed to much
dissolved and soluble matter in the HDW and surface water which needed to be
oxidized with available oxygen. This situation makes the rainwater better than
other sources. However, the passage of ground water (borehole) in the ground did
not make room for much dissolved oxygen as inside the ground is anaerobic. The
low BOD in ground water (borehole and HDW) indicated less organic matter
which equally needed less oxygen for oxidation. This observation agrees with
Oladeji et al., (2004) and Prescott et al., (2003) which stated that less organic
matter required less BOD for oxidative processes.
Observations in the PO4, SO4, and NO3 showed highest values in Ivo River
(mining zone), followed by the HDW water with the rainwater being the least in
such contents. This also is in consonance with Olabaniyi and Efe (2007) Aluyi et
al 2006a ) and Nwaugo et al., (2007a). Much substances containing NO3, PO4 and
SO4 dissolved in the surface Ivo River water in the mining zone which was not the
case with rain water and ground water. These compounds were not often carried
into the air but they form important components of surface water pollutants as
stated by Prescott et al., (2003). Most of the heavy metals mined in the area
occurred as sulphates, nitrate or even phosphates which could be found in the
effluent water to increase the constituents in ground water as observed in this
study.
Results obtained in the metal analysis showed that Cu was not present in the
water samples from the area. The other metals analyzed showed highest values in
the Ivo River (surface water in the mining zone) while rainwater had the least
values. Ivo River has been used as sink for the Pb and Zn mine effluents in Ishiagu.
The effluent is known to contain the mined metals in high concentrations hence the
Ivo River which received it also had high concentrations too (Obiekezie et al,
2006).
Similarly, the effluent percolated into the ground contaminating the ground
water. This situation reflected in the concentrations of the metals in the ground
water (HDW and borehole water). Not much of these metals are vaporized, hence
could not be found in the rainwater.
Several researchers have stated that acidic pH favoured solubilization of
metals (Nwaugo et al., 2007b, Li et al., 2005, Lee et al., 2004). This situation is
typical of mine effluents as reported by Nwaugo et al., (2007b, 2009). This
therefore explains the high metallic content of ground water and surface water with

5
acidic pH and less of these metals in rainwater. The high metallic contents of the
water samples was more pronounced in the cases of Pb and Zn, which are the
metals mined in area (Nwaugo et al.,2007b, 2008).
Further observations in this study showed that microbial groups estimated
had their highest counts in the surface Ivo River water in the mining zone but
lowest in the rainwater. The values observed in the borehole and HDW water were
quite similar. THB had the highest counts in each type of water sample. Nwaugo
et al., (2006ab, 2007, 2008) and Onyeagba et al., (2008) reported a similar high
occurrence of THB in their different studies. The THB is a very complex group in
which all other bacterial groups could be found. The other bacterial groups studied
could have representatives in the THB. The high prevalence of THB was therefore
not surprising. Similarly, the surface water of Ivo River which had the highest
concentrations of NO3, PO4 and S04 could favour the survival and proliferation of
microorganisms. These substances are microbial nutrients. The high content of
these nutrients could therefore encourage microbial growth in the Ivo River water
at the mining area.
The CB were the least in prevalence. Most coliforms are not resistant to
heavy metals (Prescott et al., 2003). This could therefore explain the low counts of
these CB in Ivo River, and ground water. Again, most CB are not capable of
surviving long in the air since they are not spore-formers. The HMRB and PSB
could survive more in such water bodies excluding the rain water. The surface and
ground water contain high metallic concentrations hence only organisms that are
familiar with such situations could survive in them. This agrees with the values
obtained in this study.
The growth of some bacterial species in Blood Agar suggested danger for
consumers of such water. Blood Agar is used in culturing pathogenic and
potentially pathogenic bacteria, especially the fastidious ones. The growth of such
bacteria as observed in this study show that consumption of the water, especially
drinking, could be of serious health implication for the people. The culture on
Blood Agar showed hemolytic zones of various diameters. This clearly indicated
pathogenicity and the likelihood of causing diseases when they gain access into
man since the blood heamolysed was human blood.
The dehydrogenase activity observed in this study could be said to be of
much importance. Karin (2006) and Prescott et al., (2003) reported that only 3-5%
of microorganisms grow on laboratory media. The use of dehydrogenase in this
study was therefore to assess the activities of both culturable and unculturable
bacteria in the water samples. The ground water could contain some sulphur
oxidizing, iron-reducing and iron oxidizing bacteria (Karin, 2006).which could not
grow on the media used. Again, dehydrogenase is known to be produced by living
intact cells, hence its assessment in quality studies has been advocated (Lee et al.,

6
2004, Li et al., 2000, Nwaugo et al., 2008). observations in this study show that the
dehydrogenase activities followed the pattern of the THB. The highest THB was
seen in the surface Ivo River at the mining zone which also had the highest
dehydrogenase activity and the lowest activity was seen in rain water which also
had the lowest THB count. This observation showed the enzyme as being good
indicator of microbial prevalence and agrees with other studies of Lee et al., (2004)
and Nwaugo et al., (2007ab, 2008).
Results obtained in this study therefore confirmed that the water supply
sources in Ishiagu are contaminated. This is more in the cases of surface and
ground water. The situation calls for serious government interventions to save the
people from further problems. This intervention will be to provide the people with
portable water through pipe bone water from outside the area and very deep
boreholes beyond the level of the percolated effluent water.

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