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7 Filtration
2.3.7.1 Definition
Filtration is the process of water purification in which water is allowed to pass through a bed of filtering
media, usually sand and gravel. The purified water in form of filtrate is collected at the bottom through an
under drain system. The filter media are very efficient in retaining finer colloidal particles including
bacteria and viruses.
2.3.7.2 Mechanisms of filtration
Filtration is based on several simultaneously occurring phenomena:
sedimentation in the pore spaces of the filtration media
mechanical straining of undissolved suspended particles (screening effect);
charge exchange, flocculation and adsorption of colloidal matter (boundary layer processes);
bacteriological-biological processes within the filter.
Table 11: General features of construction of slow sand and rapid rate filters
Item Slow sand filters Rapid sand filters
Rate of filtration 0.05 to 0.3 m3/m2/hr 5 to 15 m3/m2/hr
Depth of bed 0.3 m of gravel; 1.0 15 m of sand 0.5 m of gravel; 0.75 m of sand
Size of sand Effective size 0.1-0.35m Effective size 0.45-2m
Coefficient of uniformity 2-3 Coefficient of uniformity <1.3
Length of run 20 to 30 to 120 days 12 to 24 to 72 hours
Penetration of suspended Superficial (only the top layer is cleaned) Deep (whole bed is washed)
matter
Preparatory treatment of Normally aeration, but flocculation and Flocculation and sedimentation may
water sedimentation can be included be essential
Method of cleaning i) Scraping off surface layer of sand and Scour by mechanical rakes , sir
washing removed sand scour and removal of dislodged
ii) Washing surface sand in situ by material by upward flow
travelling washer
Cost Construction Higher Lower
Operation Lower Higher
Depreciation Lower Higher
Amount of wash water 0.2 0.6% of filtered water 1 6 % of the water filtered
Drainage system Collection of filtered water towards outlet, by either:
- layer of gravel or crushed rock; grain size 25-50 mm; depth, 0.15 m
- system of bricks, concrete slabs or porous material. See Fig. 2: lateral drains
and main drain sloped toward outlet.
- system of perforated pipes, water and pressure-proof materials: PVC, cast iron,
asbestos cement, locally available porous material
Construction
The smaller the size of a filter unit, the simpler its construction. It must be noted, however, that both the
risk of leakage (along edges) and initial capital cost per square meter decreases with the size of the unit.
For filter lengths greater than 20 m, the design becomes more complicated. Because of the hydrostatic
pressure, the walls must be watertight. Table 13 shows design characteristics for different filter geometries.
Table 13: Construction characteristics of various tank geometries
Form Tank Location Size (m) Slope Walls Material Thickness (m)
Earth basin 1-10 Vertical Concrete or Masonry 0.2-0.3
Round 1-5 Vertical Ferro-cement 0.06-0.12
In/above ground All sizes Vertical Reinforced concrete 0.15-0.2
Masonry 0.1
L and B Sealed earth 0.05
Rectangular or square Earth basin Sloped
2-20 Concrete 0.08
Sand/cement mix 0.08
In/above ground AH sizes Vertical Reinforced concrete 0.25
Rectangular or square
Earth basins Small sizes Vertical Masonry, concrete 0.2-0.3
Note:
i) Earth tanks with sloped sidewalls have the advantage of lower initial costs. No particular skills are
required for the workers to do the excavation. At high groundwater levels, the walls must be
absolutely watertight (mainly to prevent the flow of potentially contaminated groundwater).
Access to pipe work and appurtenances is relatively more difficult.
ii) Tanks with vertical walls should extend at least 0.3 m into the ground and another 0.5 m above
ground. The deeper the tanks reach into the ground, the more favourable the pressure balance that
acts on the walls. Circular shapes are used for small units. Rectangular tanks lend themselves to
forming batteries of filters. They are therefore well suited for expandable larger systems.
10 15 mm 7 - 10 mm 4 - 7 mm
D D
D
y
H
o
Y
L
L
Y
Media
level 1/3 L
L
t3 t2 t1 to
45o
Ho Head loss
H Available Head
max.
Y+L
Cmax Cmax
2. a) Outline 5 differences between slow sand filtration and rapid sand filtration.
b) The effluent of a sedimentation tank is treated by rapid filtration at a rate of 8 m/h. The total
capacity is 0.65m3/s. The filter bed has a thickness of 1.1 m and is composed of sand with
0.80 mm diameter. The depth of the supernatant water is 1.5 m. Initial porosity = 0.4. The
temperature is 20oC.
(i) Selecting a suitable filter area, determine the number of filters to be used. State any
assumptions.
(ii) What is the initial head loss?
(iii) What is the maximum filter resistance?
(iv) Why is the limitation in (iii) considered?
(v) Sketch the Lindquist diagram for this system, showing the head loss for the clean bed and
at the end of the filter runs. State any assumptions.
Table 15 can be used as a guide for selection of a water treatment system for surface water in rural areas.
Table 15: Guidelines for the selection of a water treatment system for surface water in rural areas
Average raw water quality Treatment required
Turbidity:0-5 NTU - No treatment
Faecal coliform MPN*: 0
Guinea worm or schistosomiasis not endemic
Turbidity:0-5 NTU - Slow sand filtration
Faecal coliform MPN*: 0
Guinea worm or schistosomiasis endemic
Turbidity:0-20 NTU - Slow sand filtration
Faecal coliform MPN*: 1-500 - Chlorination, if possible
Turbidity:20-30 NTU - Pretreatment advantageous
(30NTU for a few days) - Slow sand filtration
Faecal coliform MPN*: 1-500 - Chlorination, if possible
Turbidity:30-150 NTU - Pretreatment
Faecal coliform MPN*: 500-5000 - Slow sand filtration
- Chlorination, if possible
Turbidity:30-150 NTU - Pretreatment
Faecal coliform MPN*: >5000 - Slow sand filtration
- Chlorination
Turbidity:>150 NTU - Detailed investigation and possible pilot plant study
required
*Faecal coliform counts per 100ml