Seoul 2000 FISITA World Automotive Congress F2000IS001

June 12-15, 2000, Seoul, Korea

Basic Considerations for the Concepts of Wheeled off-Road Vehicles

Gnter H. Hohl,1), 2) ; Alexander Corrieri 1)

1)
Austrian Military Technology Agency
2)
Austrian Society for Automotive Engineers

The demand for greater mobility on unprepared terrain in all seasons by agriculture, construction, and the
military has stimulated interest in the study of off-road vehicles. Thus the use of automobiles for cross-country
movements and the potential for building more efficient automobiles and vehicles with high off-road mobility
has also increased significantly.
The engineers and designers of off-road vehicles face a lack of generally recognized theories. Usually, the
concept of terrain vehicles are developed very empirically and are based on principles of mechanics and land
locomotion.
The author presents a general overview on models and considerations for wheeled off-road vehicle concepts.
First vehicle and soil are defined, then the interaction between these two elements is discussed.
Based on these models, methods to predict and measure traction of off-road vehicles are evaluated.
The relevant elements of off-road vehicles and their influence on mobility are presented. At last the human
factors and future developments are shown.

Keywords: Terrain vehicles, Terra mechanics,

1. Introduction
The importance of off-road mobility is inversely
proportional to the density of the network of hard
surface roads. However, to some extent, it is also
relevant for regions with a well-developed network
of roads because of the possible need of transporting
cargo and persons to places away from the road.
Off-road vehicles share many components and
design principles with commercial vehicles. To
operate in terrain, these vehicles need different
considerations, a new design or modifications of
components.
First the designer of an off-road vehicle has to ask
where the vehicle will operate. The user, too, has
great influence on the layout of a terrain vehicle. In
technology one always the tries to form categories.
This attempt has also been made for terrain and for
vehicles. Unfortunately there are generally accepted
theories about that. Models are available to describe
the influence of the vehicles components, which are
necessary for the off-road operation and interaction
with the terrain.
Vegetatio
Visibility Mound
Ditch
Obstacles
Roughness
Slope
Figure 1: Vehicle in terrain [11]
The first question for a concept of an off-road
vehicle is:
What is the difference between road and terrain, and
what are the resulting influences?
If the strength and deformation of terrain material
can provide the necessary flotation and traction to
keep a vehicle in constant travel and produce the
required tractive force, terrain cover characteristics
can constitute another factor which could restrict
vehicle speed, or even cause total vehicle
immobilization.
These factors can be identified in Fig. 1 as:
(a) slope, (b) obstacles, (c) vegetation, (d) visibility
and (e) roughness.
(a) Slope: In terrain, slope can be anything up to a
vertical wall, whereas roads do not exceed 18%.
Motion resistance increases because of the
gravitational component of the vehicle along the
slope. When traversing a slope. For this the torque
on the wheels has to be increased either by a high
torque of the engine or by the gear boxes in the drive
line.
The position of the center of gravity must be
considered to prevent overturning.
(b) Obstacles: These include surface features, such
as boulders, stumps, logs, dikes, potholes, mounds,
ditches, etc., which are impediments to vehicles.
These will cause a vehicle to move slowly or
circumvent the obstacle. Maneuvering around
obstacles will generally require additional traction
forces to account for steering, in particular for any
distance between two obstacles less than two vehicle
lengths.
Two criteria are required for a vehicle to cross an
obstacle. There must be
(1) no interference between the obstacle and
the bottom profile of the vehicle and
(2) enough traction and enough torque at the
driving wheels.

1
(c) Vegetation: Vegetation causes additional
resistance to vehicle motion. Maneuvering around
vegetation, e.g. trees and bushes requires additional
traction forces and a small steering radius.
(d) Visibility: This is also referred to as driver
recognition distance. Visibility controls the
maximum speed at which a driver may proceed. It
influences the design of the braking system.
(e) Roughness: This can be defined as random
ground surface irregularities, which are the source of
vibrations to the vehicle body through the tire/wheel
assembly and at last to the crew. Surface roughness
can be described using statistical methods for
collecting data of the profile of the ground surface
(power spectral density). Terrain data are collected
in terms of elevation at regular intervals using land
survey or aerial photography techniques and
calculated as the root mean square (RMS) of the
terrain roughness.
Water:
Off-road vehicles often need to cross rivers or lakes,
where they move at slow speeds on the ground.
These should not be called amphibious.
For this purpose there are special designs, so that the
water cannot damage any component of the vehicle.
For a first consideration of a terrain vehicle, a very
simple model, the so-called Driver-Vehicle-
Terrain Model, can be used.
Figure 2: The driver-vehicle-terrain model [8]
These three elements influence each other. It is
clearly to be seen that the driver influences the
vehicle by handling the controls which are necessary
for the mobility of the vehicle.
Vice versa, the vehicle and its components give a
response to the driver. But also the vehicle and the
terrain have mutual interaction. The terrain
influences the driver in many ways, as mentioned
above. But there is also an impact of the driver on
the terrain, as he chooses the route and can remove
small obstacles or put rigid objects on soft terrain in
case of immobility.
2
2. Selecting Vehicle Concepts:
System analysis of off-road vehicles results in the
increasing complexity of the interaction between
man, machine and the environment. Developing off-
road vehicle concepts for given missions and defined
environment are good examples for system analysis.
The objectives of the analysis in this chapter are to
show methods to find concepts which will lead to
mission accomplishment with acceptable
approximation of performance.
Vehicle concepts are generally definable in this
context, in a form-size-weight- power relationship.
Environment of Locomotion Vehicle Mission
Geometry of Physics of
Terrain Surface Soil
Functional Operational
Vehicle Concept
Form Size Weight Power
Figure 3: Elements of a terrain-vehicle system for
off-road locomotion [3]
In addition, fuel economy, safety, cost, impact on
the environment, reliability, maintainability and
other factors have to be taken into consideration.
To define the optimum vehicle configuration for a
given mission and environment, a system analysis
approach should therefore be adopted.
The analysis of terrain-vehicle systems usually
begins with defining mission requirements, such as
the type of work to be performed, the kind of
payload to be transported, and the operational
characteristics of the vehicle system, including
environmental considerations and economy.
The physical and geometric properties of the terrain
on which the vehicle is expected to operate are
collected as inputs. Based on past experience and
future development trends competitive vehicle
concepts with probability of accomplishing the
specified mission requirements are chosen,. The
operational characteristics and performance of the
candidates are then analyzed and compared. As a
result of the system analysis, an order of the
candidates is established, from which the optimum
vehicle configuration is selected.
3. Vehicle Terrain Interaction
3.1 General
Usually automobiles are intended to move over
specially prepared surfaces, which are easily defined.
Contrary to this it is very difficult to give an exact
definition of the terrain properties. Due to the large
variety of natural surfaces, the ir properties must be
evaluated statistically, and the probability of
satisfying these condition over a given route must be
appropriately considered as an index of off -road
mobility.
Terrain vehicles are characterized by special
properties for off-road mobility, which also must be
defined. To categorize an off-road vehicle for a
certain degree of Mobility, one must evaluate the
tractive characteristics, the maneuverability and the
stability of the automobile.
Both specifications, of the terrain and of the vehicle,
have to be considered in their interaction.
3.2 Terrain Specifications
One way to describe the terrain is to specify the
irregularities as obstacles and roughness.
Figure 4 shows a schematic representation of how
some of these obstacles might appear in an off-road
mission.
Figure 4: Obstacle dimensions [3]
Surface roughness can be described using statistical
methods for reducing data of continuous profile of
ground surface (power spectral density).
An additional way to describe the terrain is to
investigate the interaction between the running gear,
which is the umbrella term for wheels and tracks. In
the figure below the main elements of a terrain
vehicle and the interaction between the vehicle and
the terrain are shown in a simplified form.
The interaction is a typical example for the law of
action and reaction. The running gear acts on the
terrain in many ways.
The bearing substrate requires expenditure of input
energy as part of thrust development.
3
Gearbox Engine
Frame
ACTION Suspension
Interface
Thrust Action
Compression of
REACTION Bearing
Substrate
Figure 5: Elements of vehicle-terrain interaction
The interface and boundary shear layer is
responsible for the effectiveness of thrust
development and transfer into the substrate depends
on frictional and adhesion characteristics established
between running gear and terrain slip. The bearing
stability of the substrate must be considered, too.
Yong [11] proposed the following five major classes
of soil types for trafficability purposes:
(a) cohesive soil , (b) cohesionless soil, (c) mixed
soil, (d) muskeg, and (e) snow. The characteristics of
these types of material for trafficability purposes
differ widely. Grass covered surfaces as lawn and
muskeg and snow are very difficult to describe.
Some attempts have been made to specify these
kinds of terrain. [10]., but a generally accepted and
used model is not available. Widely used methods
for the determination of pure soil and how to use the
properties for calculation of traction and mobility
prediction are presented below.
Among others, there are two accepted and used
methods to describe soil properties:
- Bekker Values
- Cone Index
Based on the model in figure 4 and observing an off-
road vehicle in motion, two effects can be seen.:
- vertical sinkage
- horizontal movement (slippage)
of the running gear at the point of interaction with
the terrain. These considerations can be expained in
a simple plate model:
j
p
z
Figure 6: Simple plate model
The pressure (p)-sinkage (z) relationship can be
characterized by the Bekker equation:

k
p = c + k z n
b
angle
Whereby kc, k and n are soil properties. The of
smaller width of a rectangular plate is defined as b. ground approach angle of
ramp angle
The shear stress -shear displacement (j)- clearance departure
relationship may be described by an exponential Figure 8: Geometrical properties of a wheeled off-
function of the following form, proposed by Janosi road vehicle
and Hanamoto:

j The definition of off-road mobility is complicated.
max = (c + p tan )1 e k One of the methods was developed by WES to
predict wheeled vehicle performance in an empirical
Due to the linear relationship between max and equation.
normal pressure (p), c is defined as the cohesion, They introduced the Mobility Index MI, which tries
which is zero for sand. The angle defines the to define the Off-Road Performance of the vehicle.
inclination of the line. The MI for a wheeled vehicle is given by:
The definition of the various factors can be found in
Cone Index: [9] on page 107 108.
The cone pentrometer used for soil trafficability To predict the mobility of the vehicle in a certain
studies and forecasting was developed by the U.S. terrain, which is defined in values of CI or RCI, it is
Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station. The necessary to transform the MI into a fictive Cone
dimensions of the instrument can be seen in figure 7.
The measured value is the cone index (CI) which has Mobility
the dimension of a pressure in psi, or in kN/cm2 The Index =

range is between 0-300 kN/cm2 .

contact
pressure x weight
factor factor
Force + wheel - clearance transmission
Cone Index (CI) = x engine x
Cone Base Area tire grouser load factor factor factor
factor factor

Index value, the so-called Vehicle Cone Index

L=3 ft.

15.9mm
(5/8 in) Penetration velocity = 30 mm/s
Cone angle = 30
Cone Base Area = 323 mm2
Figure 7: Cone Index
Many soils with low strength in situ condition
will become even weaker under the action
(remolding effect) of a vehicle. The so-called Rating
Cone Index (RCI) takes the remolding effect into
consideration. The method to determine the RCI is
described in [9] on page 285. The CI or the RCI can
be used for the prediction of the mobility of a whole
vehicle or of the performance of a single tire.
3.3 Vehicle Classification
Terrain vehicles can be classified by their static
properties as weight and geometrical contours.
These properties do not describe the whole off-road
capability and their automotive properties. The main
dimensions related to off-road mobility are to be
seen in the figure below.
(VCI):
For a self-propelled wheeled vehicle, the VCI1 for
one press and VCI50 for 50 presses, is related to the
MI through the following empirical equation:
39.2
VCI 1 = 7.0 + 0.2 MI
MI + 5.6
125.79
VCI 50 = 19.27 + 0.43MI
MI + 7.08
After the strength of the soil (RCI) to be traversed
and the vehicle performance (VCI) have been
determined, the mobility and the performance
parameters of a wheeled vehicle, such as the net
maximum drawbar pull coefficient and the towed
motion resistance coefficient, can then be predicted
using empirical relations. The performance
parameters are related to the excess of RCI over VCI
( RCI VCI). If the vehicle cone index is higher than
the rating cone index, the area is considered
impassable for the vehicle.

This method has some shortcomings, too. Some

elements as all-wheel drive, differential locks and

4
some geometrical properties are not taken into continuous variable transmission (CVT) and the
consideration. hydrostatic transmission are not often used in highly
mobile terrain vehicles.
With the addition of the front wheels as driving
0,7
members of an all-wheel drive vehicle to supply
more traction, a transfer case is necessary The
Net Maximum Drawbar

0,6
0,5
transfer case splits the torque to be transferred.
Various types of all-wheel drive systems are
Pull Coeff.

0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0 20 40 60
Rating Cone Index - Vehicle Cone Index
Figure 9 RCIVCI versus max. DP-coefficient
4. Elements of Off-Road Vehicles
4.1 Drive Line
As symbolized in figure 1 the drive line consists of
engine, gearbox, transfer case and in some cases of a
final drive or additional gear elements. Unalterable
demands for an off-road vehicle are all-wheel-drive
and differential locks.
There are two limiting factors for the performance of
an off-road vehicle: one is the maximum tractive
effort that the tire-ground contact can support, and
the other is the tractive effort that the engine torque
with a given transmission can provide. The smaller
of these two will determine the performance
potential of the vehicle.
The maximum power Pmax required to keep the
vehicle mass mv moving under the given conditions
(rolling resistance fR, required DP and vmax, is
determined by the formula given below:
( f R mv g + DP)vmax
Pmax =
3600
Wheel 4x2 6x4 4x4
arrang
ement
0.9- 0.85- 0.85-
0.95 0.9 0.9
An increase in the specific power improves the off-
road mobility of the automobile. Moreover,
increased engine power is accompanied by negative
consequences, by increased mass of the power plant
and transmission and by the increased cost of the
automobile. Also important is the selection of the
engine type; for the same power requirement, the use
of a diesel engine ensures higher off-road mobility
indices compared to those of a gasoline engine.
The selection of transmission parameters is such that
the automobile has maximum tractive force on the
one side and high maximum speed on the other side.
There are two common types of transmission for off-
road vehicles: manual and automatic with a torque
converter. Other types of transmission, like the
employed:
Permanent all-wheel drive, with 50% distribution
using a conventional gear differential or
asymmetrical distribution via planetary gear unit.
The theoretical torque distribution is modified by the
80 100
effect of automatic or controlled limited-slip
differentials.
Driver-selected all-wheel drive (solid couplings at
front/rear, viscous coupling or transfer case), with
driver-actuated differential locks in the transfer case
and the final drive. Transfer cases for off-road
vehicles incorporate an additional driver-controlled
conversion range for steep gradients, low speeds and
high torque transfer.
The viscous coupling (an encapsulated multiplate
unit with a high-viscosity silicone fluid) represents
yet another means of activating the all-wheel drive.
The purpose of a final drive is to increase torque at
the end of the drive line and thus to reduce the
weight of the drive line elements. The final drive
gear box can be based on a planetary gear, which is
in the hub of the wheel, or free portal axle design
with a spur gear unit.
The differential unit compensates differences in the
respective rotation rates of the drive wheels, but also
in case of a permanent all wheel drive between
different drive axles. Lateral variations in terrain
surfaces produce different traction values at the
respectively wheels, that means there will be no
traction in the other wheel even though its tire-to-
terrain adhesion is good. The purpose of a
differential lock is to rigidly join the half-shafts or
drive-shafts of an axle.
This engagement can be done manually or
automatically (see 5.1)
6x6 8x8
4.2 Frame
0.8- 0.75- To appreciate the design and construction of an off-
0.85 0.8 road vehicle frame, an understanding of the
operating environment is necessary.
Once the terrain conditions are known, a comparison
of the different frame layouts can be made.
Side-member Cross-member
Figure 10 Ladder frame
The most popular type of frame is the ladder-frame
which is a simple, rugged, channel iron construction.

5
 The side rails are usually parallel to each other to
permit the mounting of engine, transmissions, - Springs & dampers
transfer assemblies, and axles. - Axles
For off-road vehicles the torsional or twisting ability
is very important. In most cases off-road vehicles have mechanical
When front and rear diagonally opposite wheels roll springs. The three main systems are shown in the
over an obstacle simultaneously , the two ends of the figure below.
chassis will be twisted in opposite directions. Both
the side and the crossmembers will thus be subjected
to longitudinal torsion which distorts the frame.
The designer of an off-road vehicle can choose from
two philosophies. The one is to use a torsion Leaf spring
friendly frame, which twists or a torsion resistant
frame, which does not.

Stiff Frame Torsion Friendly Frame

Cylindrical coil spring Barral shaped coil spring
30 13 %
Frame

20 57 %
Springs
77 % Torsion bar
10 36 %
Tires
10%
30 7% Figure:12 Spring systems
30
Twisting of the axles Twisting of the axles
Leaf springs have the advantage of low cost, a
Figure11 Comparison of twisting ability certain damping ability and a good transfer of forces
to the frame. The disadvantage is the limited spring
A closed rectangular profile for the frame side displacement. Therefore, the leaf springs are used
members in combination with circular closed cross for vehicles with medium off-road ability.
member profiles have a good resistance to Coil springs have no self-damping and thus need
longitudinal torsion. stronger shock absorbers. They need additional
A rarely used, but a very torsion resistant design is components to control wheel movement. Variable
the central tube frame (Pinzgauer, Tatra). compliance rates or conical-wire designs provide a
The X frame would be very stiff, but it is almost progressive characteristic and extended spring
useless, because there is no space for vehicle movement.
components. Torsion bar systems are rarely used. Their advantage
is that they are maintenance free and the vehicle
height is adjustable.
4.3 Suspension Suspension systems for wheeled off-road vehicles
are classified into two major categories: non-
As explained earlier and in chapter 5.1, the independent and independent types, depending on
permissible speed on uneven surfaces is limited by the mechanical relationship of the wheels.
body vibrations and dynamic loads.
The main parameters on which suspension
characteristics are evaluated include the energy
storing capacity of the suspension, the displacement
amplitudes of the shock absorbing and non-shock
absorbing masses and vertical vibrational
acceleration. The energy storing capacity of the
suspension reflects the ability to cross bumps with
less shock in the shock absorber. The displacement
amplitude of the shock absorbing and non-shock
absorbing masses determines the variation of the
normal wheel load and the likelihood of the wheels
separating from the surface. Vertical vibrational
accelerations are the main indicator of the effect of
vibration on man. These parameters vary, depending Figure 13 Suspension systems for wheeled vehicles
on the extent of road unevenness, speed, suspension
parameters and the overall parameters of the
automobile.
The suspension system of off-road vehicles usually
consists of two main elements:

6
As both systems are used, it is worth while to
investigate their advantages and disadvantages.
Suspension systems can be examined with respect to
- their ability to twist,
- body roll in curves and on slopes,
- wheel and steering control,
- economic, practical and design
considerations
- overall height & configuration of vehicle
belly.
To maximize the twisting ability, rigid axles are
superior in their off-road capabilities, as the
difference in wheel loads of two axles twisting in
opposite directions is smaller than that for
independent suspension systems.
Contrary to the above, independent suspensions, are
better with respect to body roll in curves and when
crossing slopes.
A hump crossed by one wheel causes a vertical
displacement relative to the chassis. In case of a
rigid axle not only the wheel which crosses the
obstacle is influenced, but also the other wheel of
the same axle. This causes a gyroscopic moment
which has a negative influence on the steering
ability and on wheel control.
From an economic, practical and design standpoint,
rigid axles have the advantage that they have been
adapted from standard commercial trucks and that
they can be connected to the springs in a simple and
inexpensive way. This is one of the reasons why
rigid axles have been used for off-road vehicles for a
very long time.
The overall height is lower for independent
suspensions.
4.4 Tires
The interaction between tire and soil is a very
complex process. Both elements are not completely
defined.
There are several methods available to asses the
performance of a tire.
Practical Test Methods:
The tire is mounted on a vehicle, a single wheel
tester or on a rig in a test bin. Torque, speed tractive
force and the rpms of the wheel(s) are measured.
With these values, drawbar pull (DP) and slip can be
determined. This method has the advantage, that the
tire is exposed to realistic conditions. On the other
hand it is complicated, expensive and in many cases
impossible to vary tire performance and the
parameters.
Computer Aided Methods:
A widely used approach is the analytical method.
This method, developed by Bekker and Wong takes
the normal and shear stresses into account. The basic
idea is to integrate the vertical components of the
shear and normal stresses over the contact area. The
result is equal to the wheel load. Then the horizontal
components of both these stresses are integrated
over the contact area. This value represents the DP.
7
A new and very realistic method is the finite element
method, which is described in detail at this congress
by I Schmid.
For more details about off-road tires consider the
presentation of H. Stumpf.
5. Human Factors
Sometimes in the development of off-road vehicles
the crew vehicle, is not taken into consideration.
In this respect, two factors can be pointed out:
- Ride comfort, and
- Automation
5.1 Ride Comfort of Off-road Vehicles
Because of the roughness of the terrain, off-road
vehicles are exposed to more shock and vibration
than ordinary vehicles. Hence, off-road speed is
usually limited by the ability of the driver to
withstand these vibrations and to retain adequate
control of the vehicle. In addition to other factors,
the comfort of the driver contributes to his general
safety. It also depends on the physical characteristics
of the seat, which is the link between the driver and
the vehicle.
During the last years great attempts have been made
to improve the driver seat. Such developments,
however, should not be at the expense of the drivers
ability to feel the terrain. Usually the driver is
better situated than the other crew members. He is
able to control speed (the main factor affecting
vibration), and to observe obstacles in front of the
vehicle. Soldiers sitting in the rear of a truck or in
the crew compartment of a tracked vehicle are
affected not only by vibrations, but also by exhaust
fumes and by psychological effects.
The human body itself has no special sense to
register mechanical vibrations, nor does it have any
specific defense mechanism to counter those
vibrations. The influence of mechanical vibrations
on humans may be tested either by collecting
statistical data or by experimental research. Both
methods of investigation lead to the conclusion that
a human being exposed to mechanical vibrations can
be affected by reduced comfort, fatigue, decreased
proficiency, and finally by impairment of his safety
and health.
Tests carried out by the Austrian Armed Forces
showed that the main influence for the perception of
vibration are terrain roughness and speed.
Suspension and seat are of minor influence.
5.2 Automation
Very early in the development of the automobile,
vehicle designers tried to make the man machine
interface as comfortable as possible for common
cars. For a long time, terrain vehicles as well as
trucks were not included in this development. But in
the last two decades, off-road vehicles got power
assisted steering or an automatic gearbox too. But
manually operated traction systems, as all wheel
drive and differential locks on all axles are still the Off-road vehicles need to have special capabilities in
standard for off-road vehicles. Automation is order to pass rough terrain. In the past these unique
required along with this general tendency to make features could only be achieved by special
the operation of the drive-train components more developments. The improved capabilities of standard
comfortable. mass produced vehicles of modern design now
Simpler control and greater comfort are also comes very close to the requirements of off-road
important safety factors because both allow the vehicles. A cost effective solution would be to adapt
driver to concentrate on steering the vehicle, to those mass produced vehicles by improving key
observe the surrounding terrain, and to listen to components.
information and orders from his commander, as an
example for a military application. This reduced Our society nowadays cares for the environment,
workload is an advantage, both for trained and energy conservation and the total price tag.
untrained drivers. But to use all-wheel drive and So therefore the improvement of fuel consumption
differential locks properly and at the right time, and reduction of undesirable emissions will have
takes a long time of training and great experience. high priority.
Human beings have the tendency to operate on the Because future developments will have to consider
safe side. Therefore, the drivers of cross-country costs as well, there will be a tendency to use
vehicles often engage these components too early components, which are used in commercial vehicles
and keep them engaged too long and in situations as well.
when it is not necessary. The computer will speed up the development of new
The purpose of a differential lock is to rigidly join concepts and products. The prediction of missions
both half-shafts of an axle. This is normally will be extended and improved. These methods will
achieved by locking together any two convenient reduce the time to market.
components of the differential which have relative
movement. References (in alphabetic order):
The differential locks are engaged manually by the
driver or automatically. The automatic engagement [1] Ia.S. Ageikin
can be done mechanically or electronically. Off-the-Road
The limited-slip employs friction plates, friction Mobility of Automobiles
cones, self-locking gears, or multi-plate units in [2] Ia.S. Ageikin
high-viscosity fluids to limit the differential effect. Off-the-Road
The locking factor defines the effectiveness of the Wheeled and Combined Traction Devices
limited-slip differential.
Limited-slip differentials can also employ electronic [3] M.G. Bekker
control to adapt to a widely varying range of Introduction to Terrain-Vehicle Systems
operating conditions: A high locking factor for
starting conditions can be followed by a lower factor [4] Bosch
AUTOMOTIVE HANDBOOK
as speed increases or as the traction limit is reached.
The value of the locking factor usually is between 25 [5] H. Heisler
and 40%. Vehicle and Engine Technology
One of these systems is the Automatic Drive-Train
Management (ADM) System. The ADM System [6] G.H. Hohl
controls and engages all traction components Ride Comfort of Off-Road Vehicles
including all-wheel drive, rear and front differential 8th International ISTVS Conference
locks when necessary. Compared to manually 1984 Cambridge, UK
operated devices, ADM has the advantage of an [7] G.H. Hohl, M. Schrck
automatic engagement and, compared to semi- The Automatic Drive-Train Management
automatically operated devices as disk or visco System (ADM) Description and Test
couplings, the advantage of transferring 100% of Results
torque. 7th European ISTVS Conference
1997 Ferrara, Italy
6. Future Developments
[8] I. Schmid
In the coming years the use of electronics, Interaction of Vehicle and Terrain
interaction between components in combination with 6th European ISTVS Conference
external information will increase. 1994 Vienna, Austria
Then the drive line can be controlled automatically [9] J.Y. Wong
in order to adjust engine, transmission and tire Terramechanics and Off-Road Vehicles
pressure, engage e.g. all wheel drive, differential
locks etc. to adapt to the varying soil conditions. Of [10] J.Y. Wong
course, the computer in the terrain vehicles could Theory of Ground Vehicles
easily be connected to external networks.
Computers will be extensively used to develop and [11] N. Yong
simulate advanced models for vehicle and terrain Vehicle Traction Mechanics
interaction.