CHAPTER 8

GRAMMAR

The topics covered in this chapter are:

1. Subject-Verb Agreement.
2. The Passive Voice.
3. Compound Sentences.
4. Complex Sentences.
5. Parallelism.
6. Run-on Sentences and Sentence Fragment.
7. Relative Clauses.
8. Noun Clauses.
9. Adverb Clauses.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Identify the grammar patterns.

8.1 SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

In English, when forming a sentence, the basic rule asserts that a

singular subject must take a singular verb, while a plural subject must
take a plural verb.

First, the writer must know whether the subject is singular or plural.

Usually, a singular subject comes without s/es/ies at the back while

a plural subject ends with s/es/ies.

Look at these examples:

SINGULAR SUBJECT PLURAL SUBJECT

car cars
baby babies

Next, the writer must recognise a singular or plural verb.

Verbs do not form their plurals by adding an s as nouns do. In order

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to determine which verb is singular and which one is plural, the
writer must think of which verb he/she would use with he or she and
which verb he/she would use with they.

talks, talk

Which one is the singular form?

Which word would you use with he?

We say, He talks. Therefore, talks is singular.

We say, They talk. Therefore, talk is plural.

There are 15 important rules that every writer must follow:

Rule # 1
Two singular subjects connected by or or nor require a singular
verb.

My son or my daughter joins the trip to Bangkok.

Rule # 2
Two singular subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor
require a singular verb as in Rule 1.

Neither Yani nor Erma likes the shawl.

Either Irda or Amir is helping with stage decorations today.

Rule # 3
When I is one of the two subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor,
put it second and follow it with the singular verb am.

Neither she nor I am going to the lecture.

Rule # 4
When a singular subject is connected by or or nor to a plural subject,
put the plural subject last and use a plural verb.

The cute girl or the handsome boys follow the musicians.

Rule # 5
When a singular and a plural subject are connected by either/or or
neither/nor, put the plural subject last and use a plural verb.

Neither Fatin nor the other staffs are available for invigilation.

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Rule # 6
As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when
they are connected by and.

A car and a bike are my transportation.

Rule # 7
Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such
as along with, as well as, besides, or not. The writer should ignore these
expressions when determining whether to use a singular or plural
verb. Instead, stay focus on the subject.

The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.

Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.

Rule # 8
The pronouns each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone, anybody,
someone, and somebody are singular and require singular verbs. Do not
be misled by what follows of.

Each of the chefs cooks well.

Every one slice of the fondant cakes is gone.

* Everyone is one word when it means everybody. Every one is two words
when the meaning is each one.

Rule # 9
With words that indicate portionspercent, fraction, part, majority, some,
all, none, remainder, and so forthlook at the noun in of phrase (object
of the preposition) to determine whether to use a singular or plural
verb. If the object of the preposition is singular, use a singular verb.
If the object of the preposition is plural, use a plural verb.

Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared.

Pie is the object of the preposition of.
Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared.
Pies is the object of the preposition.
One-third of the city is unemployed.
One-third of the people are unemployed.

- all spelled-out fractions must be hyphenated (e.g.: Fifty percent of

the pies (50%) have disappeared).

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All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.
None of the garbage was picked up.
None of the sentences were punctuated correctly.
Of all her books, none have sold as well as the first one.

- none can be both singular and plural

Rule # 10
The expression the number is followed by a singular verb while the
expression a number is followed by a plural verb.

The number of people we need to hire is thirteen.

A number of people have written in about this subject.

Rule # 11
When either and neither are subjects, they always take singular verbs.

Neither of them is available to speak right now.

Either of us is capable of doing the job.

Rule # 12
The words here and there have generally been labelled as adverbs even
though they indicate place. In sentences beginning with here or there,
the subject follows the verb.

There are four hurdles to jump.

There is a high hurdle to jump.

Rule # 13
Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time.

Ten dollars is a high price to pay.

Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.

Rule # 14
Sometimes the pronoun who, that, or which is the subject of a verb in
the middle of the sentence. The pronouns who, that, and which become
singular or plural according to the noun directly in front of them. So,
if that noun is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural
verb.

Allyzsa is the artist who draws then expensive painting.

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The word in front of who is artist, which is singular. Therefore, use the
singular verb draws.

She is one of the instructors who compile the module.

The word in front of who is instructors, which is plural. Therefore, use

the plural verb compile.

Rule # 15
Collective nouns such as team and staff may be either singular or plural
depending on their use in the sentence.

The staff is in a meeting.

Staff is acting as a unit here.

The staff are in disagreement about the findings.

The staff are acting as separate individuals in this example.

The sentence would read even better as:

The staff members are in disagreement about the findings.

Practice 1

1. The price of these pair of pants ___________reasonable.

2. The theses borrowed from the university
library ___________on my reading desk.
3. The brilliant boy who won the gold medals in the spelling
competition ___________my son.
4. Rice and fried chicken ___________ his daily food.
5. The long awaited prince ___________arrived.
6. Collecting first-day envelope and stamps ___________ one
of his favourite pastimes.
7. The quality of the cupcakes that I bought at the
mall___________ poor.
8. Neither Ichas mother nor her father___________ tea.
9. Neither parent ___________fond of sending her to study
overseas.
10. None of my friends ___________there.
11. Many of the students___________ made the same spelling
mistake.

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12. White gold, as well as silver, ___________ recently raised in
price.
13. The boss, as well as his colleagues, ___________ been
tricked by the cheater.
14. Ten tonnes of sand ___________a heavy load.
15. Seventy miles ___________a long distance.
16. Thirty seven years ___________ a long time.
17. One of the alphabets ___________ been missing.
18. The poor___________ suffering.
19. You should decide which one of the three choices A, B, or C
__________ best for the question.
20. One of the most intelligent students who___________ full
marks ___________John.

Now check your answers.

8.2 THE PASSIVE VOICE

8.2.1 The Fundamental Ruling

Verbs are said to be either active or passive in voice. In the active

voice, the subject and verb relationship is straightforward; the subject
is a be-er or a do-er and the verb moves the sentence along.

Nafidz kicks the ball.

Subject the do-er

In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is neither a do-er or a

be-er, but is acted upon by some other agent or by something
unnamed.

The ball is kicked by Zarriff.

the do-er is acted upon by another agent

The passive voice does exist for a reason. The passive is particularly
useful in two situations:

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 When it is more important to draw our attention to the person or thing
acted upon:

The unidentified victim was apparently struck during the early

morning hours.

When the actor in the situation is not important:

The aurora borealis can be observed in the early morning hours.

As mentioned earlier, in a sentence using passive voice, the subject

is acted upon; he or she receives the action expressed by the verb.
The agent performing the action may appear in a by the... phrase or
may be omitted.

The boy was stunk by the bees.

The bees is acting upon the subject of the sentence (the boy),
meaning it uses passive voice.

The business proposal will be presented by Zarriff during the

meeting.

The subject (business proposal) is being acted upon (presented) by

another person (Zarriff)

8.2.2 Recognizing Passive Voice

Passive-voice expressions can easily recognised because the verb

phrase will always include a form of be, such as am, is, was, were,
are, or been. The presence of a be-verb, however, does not
necessarily mean that the sentence is in passive voice. Another way to
recognize passive-voice sentences is that they may include a by
the... phrase after the verb; the agent performing the action, if
named, is the object of the preposition in this phrase.

However, never assume that just because there is a form of be that

the sentence is passive. Sometimes a prepositional phrase like by
the in the sentences above indicates that the action is performed on
the subject and that the sentence is passive.

8.2.2.1 Passive verb formation

The passive forms of a verb are created by combining a form of the

"to be verb" with the past participle of the main verb.

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8.2.2.2 Form of passive

Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle

A coconut was eaten by the squirrel.

When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the
passive sentence.
the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle).
the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the
passive sentence (or is dropped).

Tense Subject Verb Object

Simple Active: Icha eats a coconut.
Present Passive: A coconut is eaten by Icha.
Simple Past Active: Icha ate a coconut.
Passive: A coconut was eaten by Icha
Present Active: Icha has eaten a coconut.
Perfect Passive: A coconut has been eaten by Icha.
Future I Active: Icha will eat a coconut.
Passive: A coconut will be eaten by Icha.
Modals Active: Icha can eat a coconut.
Passive: A coconut can be eaten by Icha.
Present Active: Icha is eating a coconut.
Progressive Passive: A coconut is being eaten by Icha.

Past Active: Icha was eating a coconut.

Progressive Passive: A coconut was being by Icha.
eaten
Past Perfect Active: Icha had eaten a coconut.
Passive: A coconut had been eaten by Icha.
Future II Active: Icha will have eaten a coconut.
Passive: A coconut will have been by Icha.
eaten
Conditional I Active: Icha would eat a coconut.
Passive: A coconut would be eaten by Icha.
Conditional Active: Icha would have a coconut.
II eaten
Passive: A coconut would have by Icha.
been eaten

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8.2.3 Passive Sentences with Two Objects

Writing an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means

that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one
remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends
on what you want to put the focus on.

Subject Verb Object 1 Object 2

Active: Zarriff bought a book for me.
Passive: A book was bought for me by Zarriff.

8.2.4 Personal and Impersonal Passive

Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence
becomes the subject of the passive sentence. So, every verb that
needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive.

They build houses. Houses are built.

Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a

personal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become the
subject of the passive sentence). If the writer wants to use an
intransitive verb in passive voice, he/she needs an impersonal
construction therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive.

He says (active)
It is said (passive)

In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception

(e. g. say, think, know).

They say that women live longer than men. (active)

It is said that women live longer than men. (passive)

Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more

common.

They say that women live longer than men. (active)

Women are said to live longer than men. (passive)

The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning

of the sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The
rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction with 'to'
(certain auxiliary verbs and that are dropped).

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Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the
indirect object of an active sentence is to become the subject of the
passive sentence.

Practice 2

Write the passive form of the following sentences.

1. We can classify all matter around us into three states: solid,

liquid and gas.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

2. We use rubber to insulate electrical wires to prevent

electrocution.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

3. Builders of aeroplanes, trains, automobiles and rockets will

always utilise aluminium because it is very light and resistant to
corrosion.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

4. Scientists have discovered scientific evidence that suggests why

aeroplanes and ships keep missing in the Bermuda triangle.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

5. The position of the sun and stars guides animal migration.

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

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6. The doctor was advising my sister to avoid taking too much of
cholesterol-laden food since it might cause heart attacks.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

Now check your answers.

8.3 COMPOUND SENTENCES

Experienced writers use a variety of sentences to make their writing

interesting and lively. Too many simple sentences, for example, will
sound choppy and immature while too many long sentences will be
difficult to read and hard to understand. A compound sentence is a
sentence that includes two or more complete ideas that are related.
These ideas are known as independent clauses. These independent
clauses are usually connected in a compound sentence via a
conjunction. The coordinating conjunctions, also known as
coordinators are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. These coordinators
are better remembered as F.A.N.B.O.Y.S. Except for very short
sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a comma.

Zahril bought some new shoes, and he wore them to a party.

Niesa liked her new house, but she didn't like the front yard.
We can go watch a movie, or we can get something to eat.

The above three sentences are compound sentences. Each sentence

contains two independent clauses, and they are joined by a
coordinator with a comma preceding it. Notice that in each example,
there is a subject and a verb in each independent clause. These
sentences can be changed by removing the subject:

Zahril bought some new shoes and wore them to a party.

Niesa liked her new house but not the front yard.
We can go see a movie or get something to eat.

These are still good sentences, but by removing the subject from one
part of them, they are no longer compound sentences.

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Compound sentence is distinct from a complex sentence, which is an
independent clause that is joined with a dependent clause.

The example below demonstrates the use of coordinators in

combining two ideas.

Many students lead stressful lives. For example, Alyzsa wants

to meet her parents high expectations for her future, so she works very hard
at school. Every semester, she takes 5 courses to graduate as
quickly as possible. Her parents want her to be a doctor, so they expect
her to get all As in her courses. As a result, she has little free time
during this period in her life.

In the example above, you can see two phrases combined by using a
coordinator so to make one long sentence.

Practice 3

Underline the subject(s) and verb(s) in each sentence. Write S

or C in the blanks to identify the sentence as simple (S) or
compound (C).

(_____) Eduardo has always loved the circus, and now he is

planning to become a circus performer. (_____) He has taken
gymnastics classes, and his teacher is impressed with Eduardos skill.
(_____) Eduardo also belongs to a drama club. (_____) He likes
performing in all kinds of plays, but comedies are his favorite.
(_____) Soon Eduardo will have to decide which skills to develop.
(_____) He may become a circus acrobat, or he may decide to
become a circus clown.

Now check your answers.

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 Practice 4

Combine the following simple sentences to form a compound

sentence. Remember the F.A.N.B.O.Y.S tip.

1. Sufee likes to fish. He is going fishing on Friday.

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

2. Iman wishes she could be younger. Everyone else in the

program is half her age.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

3. She is going to the store. She is going to the mall.

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

4. Nafidz is very smart. He does not enjoy school.

_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

5. I am in my last semester of my study. I am looking forward to

work next year.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

6. I study at University Utara Malaysia. I am taking a double major

degree in Law and Management.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

7. My English, Statistics, and Management lectures are easy for

me. I am having trouble coping with my Law lectures.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

Now check your answers.

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 .
8.4 COMPLEX SENTENCES

When an independent clause and a dependent clause are joined, a

complex sentence is formed, which is distinct from a compound
sentence. A complex sentence combines a subordinate clause with a
main clause. The main clause has a subject and a verb and can act as a
complete sentence. When the subordinate clause is placed before the
main clause, the two clauses must be divided by a comma. A complex
sentence is often used to make clear which ideas are most important,
and which ideas are subordinate.

After I came home, I made dinner.

Subordinate clause Main clause

When the main clause is placed before the subordinate clause, no

punctuation is needed.

Example:

I made dinner after I come home.

Main clause Subordinate clause

Complex sentences are often formed by putting subordinating

conjunctions at the beginning of the dependent clause. The examples
of subordinating conjunctions include as, as if, before, after, because, though,
even though, while, when, whenever, if, during, as soon as, as long as, since, until,
unless, where, and wherever.

When a complex sentence starts with a subordinate clause, the

sentence begins with a subordinating conjunction. For example:

Although Alyaa has eaten a really big dinner, now she wants to eat
cake for dessert.
If Fayyaz keeps exercising, he will be able to maintain a healthy
weight.

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 Practice 5

Circle the main clause and underline the subordinate clause in

each sentence below.

1. I learned a valuable lesson about cheating after I changed a

mark on my report card in the third grade.
2. After the rain stopped, the boys started playing football.
3. Although it was hot, we had so much fun playing volleyball by
the beach.
4. If we eat too much processed-food, we will gain weight.
5. Because she is a good leader, Ashley considers many factors
before making a decision.

Now check your answers.

Practice 6

Rewrite the sentences below so that the main clause is placed

before the subordinate clause.
For example: Though she was sleepy, she continued to study
for the exam.
Answer: She continued to study for the exam though she was
sleepy.

1. Because the world is getting warmer, polar bears are in danger

of becoming extinct.
______________________________________________________

2. Whenever they eat at this restaurant, they order a charcoal-grill-

burger and chips.
______________________________________________________

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3. Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before
noon, I did not see them at the station.
______________________________________________________

4. If we eat too much starch, we will gain weight.

______________________________________________________

Now check your answers.

8.5 PARALLELISM

Parallelism refers to using elements in sentences that are

grammatically similar or identical in structure, sound, meaning, or
level. Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to
show that two or more words or ideas are of equal importance and to
help the reader comprehend what is being written.

It is grammatically correct to ensure that phrases, clauses and items

on a list after a colon (:) use the correct parallel structure. Other
than colon (:), the usual way to join parallel structures is using
conjunctions such as and or or.

8.5.1 Parallelism in Words and Phrases

With the ing form (gerunds) of words:

Allyzsa loves singing, dancing, and playing violin.
With infinitive phrases:
i. Allyzsa loves to sing, to dance, and to play violin.
ii. Allyzsa loves to sing, dance, and play violin.

The infinitive to can be used before all the verbs in a sentence or

only before the first one. However, the form should not be mixed.

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 Not parallel Parallel
Allyzsa loves singing, dancing, Allyzsa loves singing, dancing,
and to play violin. and playing violin.

The lecturer was asked to write
his evaluation quickly,
accurately, and in detail.
The professor said that she was
a poor student because she
waited until the last minute to
study for the exam, completed
her reports in a careless manner,
and has low motivation.
The lecturer was asked to write
his evaluation quickly,
accurately, and thoroughly.
The professor said that she was
a poor student because she
waited until the last minute to
study for the exam, completed
her reports in a careless manner,
and lacked motivation.

8.5.2 Parallelism in Clauses

When creating parallel structure with clauses, the writer must ensure
that the format of the first clause is maintained in the second clause.
Be sure to check the nouns, the adjectives, the adverbs, and the verb
tenses.
The blueberry tart is excellent, and I like the strawberry tart.

If the clauses change tack at all, the sentence must be rewritten so

that it is parallel. If not, the clauses can be written as two different
sentences.

The blueberry tart is excellent, but I really like the strawberry tart.
The blueberry tart is excellent. I also like the strawberry tart.

She had studied hard for her exams, and there was pride in the results.
She had studied hard for her exams, and she was proud of the results.

His new novel is funny, which was making it sell quickly.

His new novel is funny, which has made it popular.

A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with

clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing the voice of the
verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism.

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 Not parallel
The teacher told the students
that they should get enough rest,
watch their diet, and to do some
exercises before the test.
Parallel
The teacher told the students
that they should get enough rest,
that they should watch their diet,
and that they should do some
exercises before the test.

or

The teacher told the students

that they should get enough rest,
watch their diet, and do some
exercises before the test.

8.5.3 Parallelism in Lists after a Colon

When making a list after a colon, any form of word is permitted, but
it should be in a consistent form. Use all nouns, all adjectives, all
adverbs, or all one form of verb.

Not parallel Parallel

There are many things to be considered There are many things to be considered
when writing: good grammar, how to when writing: grammar, spelling,
spell, the way sentences are made, and sentence structure, and vocabulary.
vocabulary.

Practice 7

Rewrite the following sentences using proper parallel

construction.

1. The kind professor rewarded her students for their hard work
on the final project and going beyond the call of duty.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

2. In class, Iman learned theories of leadership critically and she

appreciated the servant-leader theory.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

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3. Miss Atheera kept her office clean, neat, and she made it
conveniently arranged.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

4. He wanted three things out of university: to learn a skill, to

make good friends, and learning about life.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

5. In summary, the research done by Dr. Fawzy has been of high

quality, has provided an important contribution to the field, and
that his knowledge of the topic will be a great asset to the
department.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

6. The subject of the first sentence must be the same as the

second.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

7. Dictated by and signed in Mr. Hamids absence.

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

8. The kitchen was filled with dirty dishes, broken bottles, and the
wash-basin was overflowing.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

9. Charming, graciously, and elegance: Mary is all of these and

more.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

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10. Andrew couldnt figure out what to do with his free time: to
play computer games, watch football, or sleeping.

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Now check your answers.

8.6 RUN-ON SENTENCE AND SENTENCE

FRAGMENT

8.6.1 The Fundamental Ruling

Run-on sentences are sentences that contain too many ideas without
proper punctuation. Not all long sentences are run-on sentences. It is
perfectly acceptable to join several related ideas in one compound
sentence. However, if a writer does not follow punctuation rules, a
sentence can become a run-on. A simple explanation of run-ons and
some examples of run-on sentences should help to make this point
clear.

The basic rule in constructing sentences in English is that every

sentence must have a subject and a verb. The ideas expressed in the
sentence must be complete. The sentence is considered a fragment
when the subject or the verb is missing. This is because the sentence
is incomplete.

Incorrect
Because his car was in the shop
(subject is missing)
He active in class. (verb is
missing)
Correct
Because his car was in the shop,
he missed his favourite class.
He is active in class.

On the other hand, run-on sentences are two sentences that run
together with a punctuation error between them. The major error in
the run-on sentence is the incorrect use of punctuation.

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Incorrect Correct
My favourite Mediterranean My favourite Mediterranean
spread is hummus it is very spread is hummus. It is very
garlicky. garlicky.
I told a ghost story, they were I told a ghost story, and they
scared. were scared.

My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus because it is very garlicky.

This one sentence actually contains two complete sentences. But in

the rush to get that idea out, a writer always makes it into one
incorrect sentence. Luckily, there are many ways to correct this run-
on sentence.

First, by using a semicolon:

My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus; it is very garlicky.

Next, by using a comma and a coordinating conjunction (for, and,

nor, but, or, yet, so):

My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus, for it is very garlicky. -OR- My

favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus, and it is very garlicky.

Other than that, we can use a subordinating conjunction (see

above):

My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus because it is very garlicky. -OR-

Because it is so garlicky, my favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus.

This sentence can also be made into two separate sentences with a
period in between:
My favorite Mediterranean spread is humus. It is very garlicky.

In addition, the use of an em-dash (a long dash) for emphasis can

also help to correct a run-on sentence:
My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummusit is very garlicky.

However, please remember that simply adding a comma between

the two sentences sometimes will not end up in fixing a run-on
sentence , instead it may resulted to what is called a comma splice.
Below is an example of a comma splice:
My favorite Mediterranean spread is hummus, it is very garlicky.

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A comma splice can be fixed using the same way of fixing a run-
oneither by changing the punctuation or adding a conjunction.
The good news is that writers tend to be either comma splicers or
run-on artists, but almost never both.

Practice 8

Correct the following fragments by rewriting them on the

blanks below. No. 0 has been done for you.

0. Goes to the supermarket during the weekends.

My friend goes to the supermarket during the weekends

1. There several men who were injured during the commotion.

_____________________________________________________

2. Fried chicken my favourite dish.

_____________________________________________________

3. All the vegetables fresh.

_____________________________________________________

4. Wastes a lot of time talking nonsense.

_____________________________________________________

5. It is very cold during winter in London.

_____________________________________________________

Now check your answers.

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 Practice 9

Correct the following run-on sentences by rewriting them on

the blanks below.

0. I received an expensive gift it was from my best friend.

I received an expensive gift. It was from my best friend.

1. He danced continuously for two hours he was very tired.

______________________________________________________

2. I am a student, I spend most of time in the library.

______________________________________________________

3. Many of the workers were scolded by the boss, they were not
angry.

______________________________________________________

4. I walk 10 kilometres to the campus everyday, I feel it is good

exercise.

______________________________________________________

5. I think he is rich not happy.

______________________________________________________

Now check your answers.

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 Practice 10

Correct the five fragments and three run-on sentences in the

following paragraph.

My sister, Athira, is a very jovial person. She has many friends,

they enjoy her company. She gets up early everyday wakes up her
friends. Always tries to cheer them up with her sweet smile. Liked her
very much because of her jokes. She always early for Linguistics
classes. She enjoys asking questions not answering questions. In class,
is the first one to volunteer when the lecturer asks questions.
Although she is popular with most of the students, some students are
not amused with her behaviour. Shouted at Athira one day when
Athira happened to be particularly noisy.

Now check your answers.

8.7 RELATIVE CLAUSES

Basically, a relative clause modifies a noun or noun phrase, and uses

some grammatical device to indicate that one of the arguments within
the relative clause has the same referent as that noun or noun phrase.
A relative clause is one kind of dependent clause. It has a subject and
verb, but it cannot stand alone as a sentence. It is sometimes called
an adjective clause because it functions like an adjectiveit gives
more information about a noun. A relative clause always begins with
a relative pronoun, which substitutes for a noun, a noun phrase, or a
pronoun when sentences are combined.

The relative pronouns are:

who for people can substitute for subject
nouns/pronouns (he, she, we, they)
whom for people can substitute for object
nouns/pronouns (him, her, us, them)
whose for people can substitute for possessive
nouns/pronouns (his, hers, our, their)
that for people or can be either subject or object
things can only be used in restrictive relative
clauses (see below)

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which for things can be either subject or object
can be used in non-restrictive relative
clauses
can also be used in restrictive relative
clauses, though some
people dont like this use

Relative pronoun as subject:

I like the person. The person was nice to me.

I like the person who was nice to me.

I hate the dog. The dog bit me.

I hate the dog that bit me.

I am moving to Changlun. It is the borderline to Thailand.

I am moving to Changlun, which is the borderline to Thailand.

Relative pronoun as object.

I like the compact car. My father gave me the compact car.
I like the compact car that my father gave me.

8.7.1 Restrictive Relative Clauses

Restrictive relative clauses give information that defines the noun

information that is necessary for complete identification of the noun.
It uses that or which for non-human nouns; and that or
who for human nouns. The use of commas is not needed.

I like the paintings. (Which paintings? We cannot clearly identify them

without the relative clause.)

So we add the clause:

The paintings Icha bought as my anniversary gift.

I like the paintings that Icha bought as my anniversary gift.

OR
I like the paintings which Icha bought as my anniversary gift.
*This is acceptable, but some people object to using which in a
restrictive relative clause. That is preferred.

Every student who studies hard will do well in my class.

*Only this group of students will do well.

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Students whose grades are low can drop one test score.
*Only this group can drop a test score.

When the noun is the object of the preposition, both the noun and
the preposition move together to the front of the relative clause. In
less formal English, it is common to move only the pronoun to the
front of the clause.

I spent hours talking with a person last night. I hope to hear from
her.

I hope I hear from the person with whom I spent hours talking last night. (more
formal)
OR
I hope to hear from the person whom I spent hours talking with last night. (less
formal)

8.7.2 Non-Restrictive Relative Clause

This type of relative clause merely provides extra information. This

information may be quite interesting and important to the larger
conversation, but it is not essential for precise identification of the
noun. That cannot be used as a relative pronoun in a non-
restrictive relative clause. Commas are always used at the beginning
and end of this type of relative clause.

A non-restrictive relative clause can modify a single noun, a noun

phrase, or an entire proposition.

My mother is thinking of opening a restaurant. My mother is an

excellent cook.

My mother is already a clearly defined noun, so the second

sentence becomes a non-restrictive relative clause set off by commas
on both sides.

My mother, who is an excellent cook, is thinking of opening a

restaurant.
I am planning to grow roses. I find roses quite beautiful.
I am planning to grow roses, which I find quite beautiful.

But, never write

I am planning to grow roses, that I find quite beautiful.

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 Practice 11

Read the following passage and underline all the relative

clauses.

Road Safety Campaigns to Reduce Deaths

THE PENANG State Road Safety Department (JKJR) has

lined up several educational programmes aimed at reducing fatal road
accidents. S. Jegan, who is the JKJR director, said that even though
the number of fatal accidents in Penang had dropped for the first
three months of the year compared with the same period last year, it
must be reduced further.

He said 81 cases were reported from January to March this year

compared with 90 cases during the same period last year. We want
the figure to reduce as there were 56 fatal accidents involving
motorcyclists, which is still high, compared with 63 previously, he
said at a road safety campaign seminar in Seberang Jaya on Saturday.
He said 8,088 road accidents were reported during the period
compared with 8,545 previously, and nine deaths involved
pedestrians compared with 13 cases previously. The seminar which
was attended by 160 people including 120 heavy vehicle drivers from
the public and private sectors was held for one day. Several staff
members, who represented various government agencies, also
participated in the seminar. The seminar was jointly organised by
JKJR, PLUS Expressways Berhad and Malaysian Highway Authority.
According to Ku Jamil Zakaria, who is the PLUS Expressways
Berhad section manager, 1,103 heavy vehicles were involved in
accidents on PLUS highways last year compared with 1,134 in 2007.

[Source: The Star. (2009, May 11).]

Now check your answers.

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 Practice 12

Read the following paragraph. Complete the paragraph with

the correct relative pronoun.

In todays world, the ability to drive a car has many advantages even
though at the same time it has many bad consequences. For example
road accidents 1. _________ (which/who) are almost inevitable
during festive seasons continue to rise each year. Drivers
2.___________(when/who) are responsible and mature realise the
enormous responsibility of having a license. In order to operate a car
or any kind of vehicle, one must take responsibility of their vehicle,
their passengers, pedestrians, and themselves. Safe driving
3._________(whose/which) consists of obeying all traffic laws
should be observed at all times. Drivers, 4._________(who/that)
would like to avoid any bad experience happen to their life, should
never take their eyes off the road. This is because the consequences
of carelessness 5. __________(whom/which) can occur due to any
kind of distraction by only a split second can turn into one of the
worst experiences of ones life.

Now check your answers.

8.8 NOUN CLAUSES

Noun clauses are used in the same way as nouns: as subjects or

objects of verbs, as complements, and as objects of prepositions.
They are also used in reported or indirect speech to express a
persons thoughts or ideas. As a writer and editor, it is important to
know how to form and use noun clauses correctly. Notice how noun
clauses are used in the following two sentences.

Subject verb

What the professor says in class will definitely be on the next quiz.

subject verb object

We cant believe that New Zealand has more sheep than people.

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8.8.1 Forming Noun Clauses

A noun clause begins with either that, if or a wh- word. A noun clause
can appear at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence.

that That they live at opposite ends of the state makes their
relationship difficult.
The reason (that) the delivery is late is the snowstorm
in Toronto.
The students knew (that) they were late for class.
what What we love to cook is spicy Thai food.
when We dont know when the teacher will give the next
quiz.
where Where I left my cell phone is a mystery.
why It is unclear why you lied to your parents.
how I cannot believe how much homework the instructor
gave.
whether/if Tanya doesnt know whether or not she will have a
graduation party.

NOTE: Whether or not or if can be used for sentences that answer

indirect yes/no questions.

Were not sure if Gabriel wants to go to the concert tonight.

Were not certain whether or not we can get tickets.
OR
Were not certain whether we can get tickets or not.

Practice 13

Put a check () next to the sentences that use noun clauses

correctly. Correct the sentences that have errors.

1. Education prepares people for what will they face in the

real world.
2. It is true everyone makes mistakes in life.
3. The coach told Seon how he could improve his tennis
game.
4. After the burglary, the police recommended that she keeps
her jewelry in a safe.
5. Alice forgot how she had used oxygen or not in the
experiment to get the current results.

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 6. Ralph said that he was afraid that he will be late for his next
class.
7. Community involvement has taught me that everyone has
to contribute in order to make our environment livable.
8. Maria wondered if she can catch the 6.35 train even though
it was almost 6.30.
9. The nurse said the new mother that she should put the
baby on a feeding schedule immediately.
10. The growing world population is causing environmental
problems is troubling.
11. We saw our final grades and feel they are fail.
12. Consumer advocates maintain that the auto industry must
take some responsibility for the countrys smog problems.
13. What does she loves in Indian food.
14. How teenagers create slang are an area of study at the
university.

Now check your answers.

8.9 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

An adverb clause can be a single word adverb or an adverbial

expression. Adverb clauses provide answers to WH-questions such as
when, where and how. For example:

Hanna met her parents yesterday / last week.

Yesterday and last week are adverb clauses of time. Compare the
following sentences:

a) When? Aziz will call you at Aziz will call you when the
2.00pm meeting is over.

b) Why? His dad works for His dad works because he

her daughters university has to earn some money.
fees.

c) How? She sang She sang as if she had pure

beautifully. mouth.

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There are eight types of adverb clauses:

Time After, as, as long as, as soon as, before, since, until,
when, whenever, while
e.g.: While he was talking on his mobile phone, I was surfing
the Internet on my laptop.
Place where, wherever
e.g.: I prefer to work where there is a nursery near the
workplace.
Reason because, since, so that, in order that
e.g.: They postponed the match because the ground was wet
after the heavy rain.
Manner as, as if, as though
e.g.: He drank the coffee as though it were medicine.
Condition as long as, if, in case, provided that, unless, whether or
not
e.g.: I will treasure our friendship as long as I live.
Result sothat, such that
e.g.: He walked so fast that I could not catch up with
him.
Contrast although, though, even though, while, in spite of the
fact that
e.g.: Although they were poor, they led happy lives.
Purpose so that, in order that
e.g. He locked the cupboard so that no one could see what
was inside.

Practice 14

Complete the following sentences.

1. You look ________________ you have seen a ghost. (Manner)

2. Azman studied hard ________________ he might pass the
exam. (Purpose)
3. My brother had to stop schooling and work ______________
our father passed away. (Reason)
4. My friend waited for me _____________ it was dark. (Time)
5. All the students were told to attend all the lessons
_______________ he/she is not feeling well (Condition).
6. Everyone is expected to submit all their assignments on time
________________ many students complained that they do
not have enough time to complete. (Contrast)

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7. He has been practicing with the piano _______ hard
__________ he has not got time for his school homework.
(Result)
8. The doctor said I could leave the hospital ______________
the wound has healed. (Time)
9. Please keep in touch ______________ you are. (Place)
10. Dr. Mahathir Mohammad waited for silence
_______________ he commenced his speech. (Time)

Now check your answers.

Practice 15

Check your understanding of adverbial clauses. Put a tick ()

next to the sentences that are correct.

_________ 1. The lecturer only starts his lecture while the

students have settled down in the lecture hall.
_________ 2. The students are cleverer than the lecturer thought.
_________ 3. Students who arrived late must make as little as
possible so as not to disturb anyone in the hall.
_________ 4. The lecturer wanted all students to put their
assignments on the desk as though it would be
noticeable.
_________ 5. When you persuaded her, she might change her
mind.
_________ 6. My parents came to visit me while they were
spending their holiday in Langkawi.
_________ 7. She was such a friendly student that everybody liked
her.
_________ 8. They could not find any clues though they searched
everywhere.
_________ 9. I will send him the invitation card now however he
may have enough time to consider it.
_________ 10. I shall come to your party if it does not rain.

Now check your answers.

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