E2759 Fruit Crop Ecology

Michigan State University Extension Bulletin E-2759 New December 2002
Fruit Crop Ecology

and
Management
Fruit Crop Ecology and Management
Table of contents
Introduction: An ecological approach to growing fruit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 1. The agricultural ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
The natural environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

The fruit plant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
The soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Farm biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Chapter 2. Managing the community of pests and beneficials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
The community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Environmental effects on insects and diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Influence of surrounding landscapes on pest management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Chapter 3. The human setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Production and marketing strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Community relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Human resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Chapter 4. Where do we go from here? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Cover:
Annemiek Schilder: raspberry, diseased grape leaf
Tyler Fox: ants tending aphids
Rufus Isaacs: scout checking data, bee hive
Ron Perry: pruning fruit trees
Ted Cline, Photair Inc.: Aerial view of lake and orchards
1
Introduction: An ecological approach

to growing fruit
Joy N. Landis, Jose E. Sanchez, Richard H. Lehnert, Charles E. Edson,
George W. Bird and Scott M. Swinton
What is fruit crop

ecology?
Biosphere
Biological and social factors are
driving the need for new
farming practices. Fruit crop
ecology is the study of the
E os s em
interactions among the many
biological, environmental and
management factors that make
up and influence fruit
production. This book explores
growing fruit within a complex Commu
web that connects soil, plants,
animals, humans, landscapes
and the atmosphere. An
ecological approach to fruit
production recognizes that Population
these factors interact in a
changing environment and that
it is impossible to change one
aspect of a farming system Individual
without affecting others.
Growers and consumers have

benefited greatly from
technological advances in fruit
production that have increased
yields and reduced labor costs.
There have also been some
unexpected environmental and
social consequences, such as Individuals of a species are connected to the rest of the ecosystem.
pesticide resistance, loss of The biosphere includes all the worlds ecosystems.
biodiversity, potential water
pollution, consumer concerns
3
Fruit Crop Ecology and Management: Introduction
about chemical residues and Understanding which to make decisions.

issues of worker safety. A grower must operate within
Growers and scientists are
the system the natural environment
looking for better ways to work Using light energy, plants take climate, weather, surrounding
within a healthy system of soils, carbon from the air and water ecosystems and apply
plants and animals. and nutrients from the soil and management. Management
assemble them into molecules decisions are made in
Many pieces of the ecological
that store the suns energy and response to the natural
systems described throughout
the earths minerals in the organ- environment and socio-
this book are familiar to
ic matter we consume as food. economic conditions.
horticulturists. This
Through the process of photo-
publications goal is to present Within the context of a
synthesis, plants are the primary
a fresh look at the connections constantly changing
producers of organic matter and
among the pieces and help environment, management
storers of the suns energy.
farmers better understand their decisions are heavily
ecosystem. They can use Sounds simple. But between influenced by the develop-
ecosystem knowledge to sun, photosynthesis and shiny mental stage of the fruit
design operations that result in red apples lie grower manage- system. Managing young non-
high quality fruit, a healthy ment and the need for bearing trees is different from
environment and confident fundamental knowledge upon managing a mature orchard.
consumers.
We hope this books readers

will find it a useful tool for Atmosphere
examining their practices and
evaluating new alternatives. An
Light
ecological approach will help Carbon
fruit producers:
dioxide
Produce quality fruit.
Enhance profitability.
Adopt new practices.
Reach new markets.
Temperature
Interact with the environment
surrounding their farm.
Comply with evolving laws
Nutrients Water
and restrictions.
Respond to neighbors
questions or concerns.
Soil
The plant and its immediate surroundings.
4
Managed inputs
The fruit plant
Soil and nutrients
Enterprise goals
Irrigation
High quality fruit
Farm biodiversity
Profitability
Pest control measures
Enhanced ecosystem
Labor and equipment
services
High quality of life
Long-term sustainability
Natural environment
Climate and weather
Topography
Market and social demands Microclimates
Prices Surrounding ecosystems
Marketing system Natural biodiversity
Government regulations
Neighbors' norms
The fruit enterprise and its environments.
Nursery Site System Young Young
stock selection & establishment non-bearing bearing
selection preparation system system
System Aging Mature
removal system bearing
for system
planting
Fruit system dynamics.
5
A guide to reading Fruit Crop Ecology and Management
This book explores fruit biodiversity are all contributors. information for monitoring and
production at three different The mix of sunlight, preventing pest problems. A
scales. Imagine looking down temperature, water, essential look at landscape ecology
at the Earth from a satellite elements, soil quality and reveals the effects of the
equipped with a powerful biodiversity at your site affects immediate surroundings and
telescope. You can focus in on management decisions and the regional landscape on the
a single leaf or zoom out to a resulting outcomes. For optimal community of organisms.
larger scale until you see the results, we need to understand
entire orchard or field how the plant and soil take up
surrounded by its landscape carbon and minerals and
setting. Also envision you have transform them to perform a
a special filtering lens that range of functions.
reveals the human setting of
markets, neighbors and
policies that affect fruit
production. These diagrams
illustrate the three scales that
organize the flow of information
throughout this book.
Chapter 3. The human setting.
We filter the information in

Chapter 3 to view the people
Chapter 2. Managing the of the farm community and the
community of pests and
world beyond as they affect
beneficials.
production decisions. Every
grower and consultant feels the
In Chapter 2, our perspective pressure of integrating
Chapter 1. The agricultural shifts to view the community of economics and marketing with
ecosystem. organisms around the plant. the biology of the system while
These insects, mites, microbes respecting the law. For fruit
and nematodes are very crop ecology, this means
In Chapter 1, we zoom in for important ecological elements meeting quality standards of
a close look at the fruit plant in the orchard, vineyard or consumers and processors,
and the natural and managed field. Climate and weather add building mutually beneficial
environments that surround it. to the complexity, driving interactions between farm and
Climate and weather, organism spread and non-farm residents, and
topography, surrounding development and at the same providing a safe, attractive
ecosystems, the soil and farm time offering important place in which to live and work.
6
In Chapter 4, we set aside production system that is Lakes region, but much of the
the imaginary telescope and rooted within and at ease with information can be applied well
consider what the three the larger community. beyond that area. In general,
perspectives tell us about we present fundamental
Fruit Crop Ecology and
producing fruit sustainably. knowledge rather than specific
Management is an effort to
Management moves beyond a recommendations and
encompass ecological
pest-by-pest focus to a anticipate growers will seek
principles and horticultural
community focus. We note the additional references for details
practices for both tree fruits
environmental impacts created about practices for integrated
and small fruits. At times this
by management practices and pest management or organic or
requires the reader to examine
aim to limit any negative ones other approaches to farming.
examples from one crop and
while producing quality fruit.
make their own connection to
You should leave this book
another. Our primary region of
equipped with new ideas for
reference is the U.S. Great
managing a sustainable fruit
S. Deming
7
Chapter 1: The agricultural ecosystem
Chapter light, mineral nutrients and

The natural
weather. The living components
questions: include plants and animals
environment
How do climate and natural such as birds, rodents and
ecosystems influence farms? insects, and microscopic Jeffrey A. Andresen, Jose E.
How can I make my fruit plant organisms such as bacteria, Sanchez and George W. Bird
efficiently use ecosystem fungi and nematodes. R. Isaacs
resources? In fruit production ecosystems,

How can a more biologically components can be natural or
active soil benefit sustainable managed. The natural
fruit production? environment is the most
How does biodiversity important factor determining
promote the health of my where, how and what kind of
farm? fruit is grown. The managed
environment is the part of the
T. Cline, Photair Inc.
ecosystem that contains the
farm and its immediate
surroundings. The managed
environment consists of three
interacting elements: the fruit
plant, the soil and farm
biodiversity. These elements
should be clearly understood
Key elements of the natural
and managed so that natural
environment are weather and
processes enhance crop
climate, geographical features
health, productivity and
and surrounding ecosystems.
Blooming fruit trees within a lakeside environmental quality.
The natural environment drives
community. Management practices that
ecological processes and
affect these processes include
affects management decisions.
A farm is a piece of a bigger those that allow better plant-
It affects the species and
ecosystem. An agricultural climate relationships, such as
varieties of fruit that can be
ecosystem is composed of all orchard and vineyard design
grown and determines the
the populations in a given area and pruning, and those that
requirements for irrigation,
and the physical environment enhance plant-soil
supplemental fertilization, and
within and beyond the farm relationships, such as cover
control of diseases, weeds and
boundaries. The non-living cropping, mulching and
insects. It influences the entire
components include water, soil, applying organic amendments.
8
Fruit Crop Ecology and Management: Chapter 1
ecology of the landscape,

including the interests of Examples of the three scales of climate and weather
people with whom fruit growers
share the environment. Scale Length/size Area Phenomenon
Weather and climate are two
facets of the natural Macro thousands of miles USA jet stream
environment that fruit growers
see daily and are vitally Meso regional Michigan thunderstorm,
important to the management lake-effect
of fruit production.
Understanding how weather Micro up to 0.5 mile field canopy leaf
and climate function helps wetness
growers turn the local forecasts
into management decisions on
their farms. Global energy and slanting sun angles, day
and water cycles length and atmospheric
Climate obstructions such as clouds
Three factors generally control create regional differences in
and weather climate: the amount of solar energy. Surpluses of energy
Climate refers to weather energy striking the surface, the occur in a broad belt around
conditions at a location rotation of the earth on its axis, the Earths equator, with a net
averaged over long periods of and the distribution of land and energy deficit north and south
time, usually 30 years or longer. water on the surface of the of that belt to the poles. This
Weather refers to current or planet. The effects of direct surplus and deficit of energy
recent conditions.
Temperature, wind velocity and
precipitation are just a few of
the weather conditions that are Energy
used to describe a locations deficit
climate. Climate and weather
change over time and operate
in cycles. Climate changes
tend to occur over long Band of
periods; weather changes
surplus
constantly. Climate and
weather function on many energy
scales, from the large e.g.,
a jet stream to the micro
underneath the leaf on a tree.
Energy y
deficit
9
and the movement of energy

as it seeks equilibrium are the
major driving forces behind
weather and climate.
Fundamental laws of nature
require energy to move from
areas of greater to lesser
concentration and seek
equilibrium. About 75 percent
of the energy imbalance
between equator and poles is
corrected by flows in the
atmosphere; the rest of the
energy is transferred by ocean
currents.
Jet streams occur in both the

north and south temperate
zones. These rivers of faster
moving air are several hundred
The hydrological cycle shows how water circulates throughout
miles wide and stream above
a site where fruit is grown.
and around both hemispheres.
They mark the boundaries
between areas of energy deficit goes directly into evaporating Climatological
to the poleward side and water, which moderates limitations to
energy surpluses to the temperature extremes and agriculture
equatorial side. Jet streams act creates precipitation. If there
as steering mechanisms for were no water to evaporate, the In temperate areas, the most
weather disturbances in temperature of the earth would important climatic limitation is
temperate climates of the be about 80 degrees F warmer the change of the seasons.
world. The Northern than it is. Evaporation from the Temperate crop species must
Hemisphere jet stream is the oceans also generates 86 complete their reproductive
key atmospheric feature percent of Earths precipitation. cycle during the time of the
affecting the fruit-growing The remaining precipitation year when temperatures are
regions of the northeastern comes from evaporation from warm enough to allow growth
United States. Its movement soil surfaces and plant and development. Other
and configuration strongly transpiration over land. Water temperature-related constraints
affect day-to-day and week- in the form of vapor is moved are day-to-day variability
to-week weather patterns. inland by prevailing winds. In during the growing season and
general, the farther a location is extreme cold temperatures
Oceans are the ultimate source during the off-season. Because
from an ocean, the drier its
of all water on earth. A large temperature is difficult for a
climate.
amount of the suns energy grower to modify, it is perhaps
10
R. Isaacs
Energy transfer associated
with plant photosynthesis and
respiration.
During photosynthesis, plants

convert carbon dioxide gas
and water into simple sugars
(carbohydrates) and release
oxygen. The energy captured
and stored in this process is
responsible for the growth and
activities of all living organisms.
Blueberry leaves show red fall color. Daily cycle of the

boundary layer
The planetary boundary layer
the most important constraint Net radiation (radiant energy
of air surrounds Earth up to
influenced by geography. moving toward and away
about 3,000 feet. Carbon
from surfaces).
Water is another major dioxide, heat energy and water
limitation. Plants require water Energy changes associated vapor move to and from the
for both growth and with evaporation and plant canopy within this layer.
temperature control. An condensation. Changes in the amount of
actively growing plant Transport of heat energy by energy available on a
transpires five to 10 times as wind. landscapes surface directly
much water per day as it holds Movement of heat into and affect the physical character of
at any given time. Water out of the soil profile. this layer. Higher amounts of
conservation and quality are
very important for fruit growers.
Other constraints include
excessive wind, cloudiness Free atmosphere
Cloud
and moisture. 4000 layer
The balance of energy

at the surface Residual layer
Height (feet)
Convective
mixed
layer
In addition to Earths energy 2000
balance on a global scale,

distribution and flow of energy
Convective
take place on a much smaller Stable nocturnal boundary layer mixed
layer
(micro) scale. Balances are 0
obtained when energy flows to Noon Sunset Midnight Sunrise Noon
and from matter, as by:

Example of the growth and decay of the earths boundary layer
throughout the day and night in a temperate climate with fair
weather conditions. (Adapted from Stull, 1988.) 11
C. Edson
energy are usually associated
with more rapid vertical
movement and transport.
The typical daily pattern of the

planetary boundary layer
begins at sunrise with the air
next to the ground heating and
rising. This vertical motion
creates turbulence that mixes
the air. The layer reaches its
maximum depth by late
Vines growing in a low area of this vineyard are noticeably
morning or early afternoon and
smaller.
begins to diminish shortly after
sunset.
microclimates as it quickly Frost formation is also affected
At sunset, the opposite leaves some areas and pools by large bodies of water.
process takes place. Without in others. Oceans or large inland lakes
sunlight, the ground surface such as the Great Lakes
cools. Because air is an
modify air as it flows across the
effective insulator, the surface Frost and water. Water may either add or
and vegetation quickly become its formation extract heat from the air flowing
cooler than the air above them.
Soil type and moisture content over it. In temperate climates,
This cooling results in the
may affect frost formation. this moderation tends to result
formation of a surface inversion
Ground heat flux, the in fewer cold and warm
layer that slowly grows deeper
movement of heat energy up
during the night. During
out of the soil profile at night,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

inversions, ground tempera-
influences the rate of surface
tures may be several degrees
cooling. The most common
cooler than the air above. This
way of reducing this flux is to
is why frost can be on the
trap the heat by spreading
ground while the official
mulch. In addition, keeping a
temperature taken at 5 feet is in
soil well watered protects
the mid- or upper 30s F.
against frost formation. A soil
Because cool air is denser than with greater water content
warm air, air cooled near the allows more heat to move
surface may flow downhill like a toward the surface. Coarse-
liquid moving under the force textured soil with lower water-
This satellite image shows
of gravity. This cold air holding capacity generally
clouds of precipitation
drainage creates pronounced experiences more frost.
streaming downwind from
the Great Lakes on a
December day. An outline
of Michigan is drawn over
the image.
12
temperature extremes and in Conserving biodiversity is

seasonal delay in spring warm- essential for the environment
up and fall cool-down. Cold, and for a sustainable way of
dry air flowing across warmer life. Natural biodiversity
D. Landis
water surfaces can result in consists of a variety of plants,
milder, cloudier and wetter animals and other life forms
weather downwind (called lake that exist in an area, from the
or ocean effect). smallest microbe to the largest
trees. Individual species such
as the white pine, sparrow
Surrounding hawk and brown bat, and
ecosystems communities of species such
and natural as hardwood forests and
biodiversity marshes are all components of
D. Landis
The interaction between biodiversity.
humans and natural Many medicines, improved
ecosystems is so pronounced crops and pest control benefits
that we can no longer ignore are derived from the genetic
the consequences of our and species diversity of natural
actions on other species and ecosystems. Natural
natural habitats. Natural ecosystems serve as a refuge
ecosystems include forests, for animals beneficial to
grasslands, freshwater ponds agricultural production. For
D. Landis
and marshlands. They provide example, lady beetles that prey

many benefits to society and on aphids and insects, and
enhance quality of life. Green rodents and birds that feed on
plants produce oxygen. Plants weed seeds all depend on
and animals provide food and natural habitat for their survival.
clothing, and fungi and
bacteria produce life-saving Successful conservation of
drugs. Microorganisms recycle natural ecosystems and their
nutrients and help clean our diversity depends on good
waters. These ecosystem stewardship of the land
services are fundamental for founded in ecologically sound
the support of life on the management practices. These
planet. The natural world also practices should be promoted
and undertaken by landowners
D. Landis
contributes to the local

economy by creating and managers of public lands
employment and economic and supported by the general
public. A biologically diverse ecosystem
benefits through tourism.
includes a variety of organisms
such as these, which are found
throughout the Great Lakes
states.
13
hydrates (sugars and starch),

proteins, oils and fibers, and
releases oxygen as a
byproduct. The leaves are the
most important structures
responsible for trapping energy
and producing carbohydrates
used throughout the plant.
More than 90 percent of a
plants dry matter is carbon.
R. Isaacs
Black raspberries ripening in the sun.
The fruit plant

James A. Flore, Jose E. Sanchez,
Dario Stefanelli, Roberto J.
Zoppolo and George W. Bird
The fruit plant is a constantly

evolving factory that utilizes
ecosystem resources to
produce fruit. It is important to
understand how this factory
works and which factors can
be controlled to achieve the
best plant performance with
the highest quality fruit. In all
plants, photosynthesis is the
cornerstone of growth and
development.
Life depends on energy

captured from the sun.
Photosynthesis is the process
Conceptual plant growth and survival curve.
used to capture this energy
Every factor influencing growth, reproduction and survival has
and make it available. During
an optimum level. Above and below the optimum, stress
photosynthesis, carbon dioxide
increases until survival becomes impossible at the limits of
is taken from the air and
tolerance. The total range between the high and low limits is the
combined with water in green
range of tolerance. (Adapted from Wright & Nebel, The
leaves. Using the suns energy,
Structure of Ecosystems, pg. 41, Fig. 2-17.)
the plant produces carbo-
14
R. Zoppolo/D. Stefanelli R. Zoppolo/D. Stefanelli
R. Zoppolo/D. Stefanelli
At left, a shoot during tip growth and (at right) after tip growth has
stopped.
The first pruning after planting

Time: spring and ends at the time of shortens the tree height to less
the growth cycle vigorous shoot growth, with the than 3 feet.
second during late summer
A plants annual growth cycle is
and fall after shoot growth
a sequence of vegetative and ends. This change in rate may
reproductive processes driven be due to competition between
by temperature. This cycle shoots and roots for
changes as the plant ages. carbohydrate reserves.
The vegetative and
reproductive phases differ Shoot growth builds the
among species and cultivars. structure of the tree, which
supports fruit and leaves. The
rate of shoot growth peaks
Vegetative growth after fruit set and decreases
Roots, shoots and leaves are when fruit starts the phase of
the main vegetative structures fast growth. Generally, each Next, the tree is pruned to remove
of fruit plants. Because theyre species has an optimum ratio all of the weak feathers and
underground, roots have differ- between root and shoot that branches with too narrow an
ent growth requirements than can be expressed by dry angle.
shoots and leaves. weight or length. When this
A plants root system grows ratio is disturbed, as by
throughout the year, but the pruning or pest damage, the
rate varies, depending on plant seeks to restore balance
temperature, water, nutrients by increasing or decreasing
and oxygen availability. The shoot or root growth.
temperature range for growth Vegetative and reproductive
varies among species. In growth can be adjusted
general, the optimum through management of water,
temperature for root growth is nutrients and pruning. The
lower than that for shoot structure of the plant for the
growth. Depending on the reproductive stage is built
species, there are generally through pruning and training
two major peaks of root growth during the early years after After pruning is complete, the
for fruit plants one occurs in planting. newly planted trees branches are
well distributed with good angles. 15
T. Cline, Photair Inc.

Bud break can be after the first killing frost,
referred to as the usually between early October
biofix for the plant, a and early November.
point from which to
The leaves, the trees factories
calculate the
for producing energy and
phenologic stages
carbohydrates, are on the
that follow. The
cherry tree for only about half of
Cherry trees in bloom. degree or stage of
the year. Biological or
subsequent growth
environmental disturbances
can be predicted on
such as pest damage or
Temperature controls the the basis of temperature
drought stress can have
stages of plant development. accumulation (growing degree-
profound effects on both the
Vegetative and reproductive days at a species-specific base
current and future years crops
buds go through three distinct temperature) after the chilling
and may affect tree survival.
stages of dormancy. During requirement is met. Growing
While leaves are present, the
paradormancy, buds are degree-days (GDDs) for every
shoots and trunk continue to
dormant, inhibited by plant phenologic stage depend on
increase until the growth tissue
parts outside the bud. the species. (Further explana-
becomes dormant after leaf fall.
Endodormancy is related to tions of biofix and GDDs are
factors inside the bud, and included in Chapter 2.) Tart cherry trees have both
during ectodormancy, the vegetative and reproductive
Preliminary research in cherry,
dormant bud is able to grow buds, which may have different
for example, found that spurs
but does not because of chilling requirements for
are fully developed 350 GDD
unfavorable environmental breaking dormancy. It is
after bud break, which occurs,
conditions. Paradormancy and common in Michigan to see
depending on the year, within
endodormancy cannot be flowering before vegetative
20 to 33 days. The canopy is
broken; buds will not grow until development.
50 to 60 percent developed
certain requirements are met.
within 30 days of bud break
These stages can be
and fully developed by two
Reproductive growth
measured as the number of
months. Shoots (longer than 3 Flower bud initiation occurs
hours needed to reach bud
inches) are developed after almost a year before the
break. The value varies,
850 GDD, which takes place in corresponding harvest. Many
depending on species and
55 to 65 days. Leaf fall occurs environmental, biological and
varieties.
Apple bud phenologic growth stages

Dormant Green tip Half-inch green Tight cluster Pink Bloom
16 Jack Kelly Clark. Source: Ohlendorf, B.L.P.. 1999. Integrated Pest Management for Apples and Pears, 2nd ed. University of California ANR, Publication 3340, Oakland, Calif.
R. Perry
cultural factors such as crop Balanced growth
load, leaf health and pruning
Crop productivity can be
influence it. In Michigan, flower
explained as a balance
buds begin to form in late June
between root and shoot
and early July. They continue to
growth. The shoots
develop, even during the
generate carbohydrates
winter, and arent fully
and sugars; the roots
developed until just prior to
send water and nutrients
bud break the following spring.
to the shoot system.
Species and cultivars differ in
There must be a balance
their periods of flower bud
between carbohydrates
initiation and flower
and nutrients throughout
development. The timing of
the plant. Stress and
cultural practices such as
cultural practices affect
thinning or summer pruning
this balance.
can profoundly affect flower
bud formation, especially if Optimal fruit yields are
theyre done just prior to bud obtained when
formation. This Gala apple tree was winter pruned for
vegetative growth is well
appropriate branch distribution that will
balanced to crop load balance growth and production.
Fruit development has three
throughout the plants life.
distinct stages:
R. Perry
If the balance goes

Cell division, which toward shoot growth, the
determines fruit size plant will become
potential. vegetative and crop load
Seed development during a will suffer. Conversely, if
time of limited growth. shoot growth is too low
Cell enlargement, when fruit with a high crop load, not
increases by 40 to 60 percent enough carbohydrates
to full size. and sugars will be
available to sustain the
Growers who understand fruit current load or the next
development stages can adjust years crop. This balance
their practices. During cell should be kept in mind
enlargement, biological or when making cultural
environmental stresses such decisions such as when
as those caused by pests or and how much to fertilize
drought affect the current crop or thin. Maintaining a
and bud formation for the plants balance is at least
next crop. as important as timing of
cultural practices such
as pruning.
Another Gala apple tree is overcropped
due to unbalanced growth.
17
Plant management
Fruit production management
systems should be designed to
maximize light interception and
minimize internal shading
within the plant.
Fruit growers have a variety of

tools for manipulating the
vegetative structure of plants On this farm, early blooming sweet cherries are planted on the
while providing better condi- hilltops to minimize frost damage. In the valleys where cold air
tions for plants interacting with pools and frost is more likely to occur, tart cherries, which
the soil and climate. Selecting bloom later, are planted.
rootstock and scion, planting
design and spacing, and
pruning and thinning are the decisions a fruit grower makes. drainage and water availability.
most common examples of In the ideal site, the interaction It should be located on well
these practices. between plant, soil and drained and good quality soil
environment results in optimum and close to inputs, processing
Site selection production of high quality fruit. plants, transportation and
The site should provide an markets.
Selecting the planting site is
adequate natural environment
one of the most important
of climate and weather, air Rootstock and scion
R. Perry selection
Rootstocks are chosen for their
effects on orchard/vineyard
performance, including
tree/vine vigor, cropping, fruit
quality, resistance to pests and
adaptability to soil conditions.
Selecting a scion cultivar
depends on specific objectives
such as improved cropping,
fruit size, color, disease
resistance, overall quality and
market opportunities. Choosing
the best rootstock is a
compromise that requires
consideration of site
characteristics as well as
Compare properly pruned trees, at left, to those needing to be
marketing. Growers must
pruned, at right.
identify a rootstock with good
18
grafting compatibility that will Planting design

induce the best performance and spacing
for the variety chosen. Disease
and stress resistance are Establishing a new orchard,
increasingly important vineyard or field is a significant
attributes that help achieve an expense and is worth careful
ecologically balanced system, planning of the design and
which reduces costs in the spacing. Planting design and
long term. density depend on several
factors, including economics,
The next priority is to consider growth habits, pruning and
the quality of the plants coming At the time of planting, it is
training, site factors, and type
from the nursery: size, age, important to keep the grafting
and size of mechanical
shape and health. Healthy union above the ground level to
equipment. Rootstock vigor
nursery stock is pathogen-free prevent the scion from rooting
and characteristics of the
with excellent ability to resist and to express the desired
variety are the main factors in
degradation and respond to rootstocks characteristics. Using
defining the plant spacing. For
management. Investing in top a 2- by 6-inch board on edge to
berries, whether the plants are
quality plants will always pay align the tree at the correct height
upright or bushy and dense or
back in the future. above ground keeps the planting
sparse flowering affects plant
level.
spacing. Maintaining
Planting density
Species Low Plants Moderate Plants High Plants

density(1) per acre density(1) per acre density(1) per acre
Apple 10-15 x 20 145-217 6-10 x 12-18 242-605 3-6 x 8-16 454-1,815

Peach 20 x 20 108 15 x 20 145 10 x 15 290
Cherry (tart) 20 x 20 108 15 x 20 145 10 x 18 242
Cherry (sweet) 10-15 x 20 145-217 6-10 x 12-18 242-605 3-6 x 8-16 454-1,815
Plum 20 x 20 108 15 x 20 145
Apricot 20 x 20 108 15 x 20 145 10 x 15 290
Pear 10-15 x 20 145-217 6-10 x 12-18 242-605
Blueberry 5 x 10 871 4 x 10 1,089 3 x 10 1,452
Grapes 8 x 10 544 6 x 10 726 4-5 x 6-8
Raspberry 3 x 10 1,452 2.5 x 10 1,742 2 x 10 2,178
Strawberry 2x4 5,445 1.5 x 4 7,260 1x4 10,890
(1) In-row and between-the-row distances are expressed in feet.
19
C. Edson
ecologically based ground Pruning can also spread
cover and diversity infectious diseases, especially
management practices such as those caused by bacteria. In
use of cover crops, mulch and cherry production, the ideal
compost application may alter conditions for pruning are dry,
the design. Keep in mind that warm periods to prevent
extremely high densities will dispersal of bacterial canker
make it harder to balance the (Pseudomonas syringae).
entire farm ecosystem.
Thinning improves fruit quality
Generally, rows should be and maximizes yield and
oriented north to south to production in the following
optimize sun exposure. When season. Fruit can be thinned by
cool air drainage is important, chemicals or by hand. The
rows should run downhill amount of fruit that should be
instead of across the slope or removed varies, depending on
on the contour. the variety, the age and vigor of
the plant, and the size and
quality of the fruit desired.
Pruning and thinning Excessive vigor created a Timing and type of thinning
Pruning is probably the most dense canopy blocking the depend on the organ targeted.
important operation to maintain flow of air and light in Chemical flower thinning needs
plant vigor and productivity, these Vignoles grapes. to be managed carefully
achieve large fruit size and because late spring frosts and
superior quality, reduce insect pests can further reduce fruit
C. Edson
and disease pressure, and
develop appropriate growth
habits for harvesting. It also
provides better conditions for
spray and light penetration and
reduces the need for fruit
thinning. Proper pruning
balances good fruit production
with growth of vigorous new
vegetation. Pruning too lightly
can lead to dense and weak
plant growth because plants
fail to develop strong branches
for future production. In
contrast, severe pruning results
in fewer and larger fruit and
stimulates new vegetative The bunch rot that developed from the dense canopy
growth. conditions is evident.
20
Abiotic soil components

Organic matter
set and production. Timing of 5 percent Mineral matter
chemical fruit thinning also 45 percent
needs to be carefully
determined it depends on
temperature and the size of
fruitlets. Hand thinning can be
done over a more extended
period and so allows more
accuracy in determining the
amount of fruit left. Hand-
Water
thinned plants will be better
25 percent
Air
balanced and fruits will be of 25 percent
better quality, but this method
Soil Management, Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, 1994.
is more expensive than
chemical methods.
components include plant webs similar to those in above-
roots, bacteria, fungi, nema- ground ecosystems. Working
todes, protozoa, arthropods together, they transform and
The soil and earthworms transport matter and energy
throughout the system.
Jose E. Sanchez, Thomas C. All of these elements interact in
Willson, Roberto J. Zoppolo, dynamic belowground food
Dario Stefanelli and
George W. Bird
Biotic soil components
Soil supplies minerals and
water, anchors plant roots, and
Plant roots
mediates interactions between
plant roots and organisms such Plant residues (roots and shoots) are
as soilborne pests and the ultimate source of almost all carbon
pathogens. For fruit production, (energy) for soil organisms.
soil and subsoil should be well There may be 1,000 times more soil
drained but with enough water- microorganisms near plant roots than in
holding capacity to provide a soil farther away from roots.
K. Stepnitz
good reserve of water.
Bacteria
Soil is an ecosystem with
regenerative properties. Its Bacteria and fungi are the most
abiotic (non-living components) important groups in organic matter
consist of mineral matter (clay, decomposition.
silt and sand), water, air and Extracellular compounds help bind soil
organic matter (plant and particles into aggregates.
animal residues and humus).
Specialized groups are involved in each M.J. Klug
The soils biotic or living
portion of the nitrogen cycle. Continued on next page.
21
Biotic soil components (continued)
Fungi
M.J. Klug
Fungi are the most important group involved in decomposing resistant
compounds such as lignin.
Hyphae grow extensively through soils, helping bind soil particles into
aggregates.
Some specialized fungi grow symbiotically with plant roots, increasing
nutrient and water uptake and decreasing disease incidence.
G. Garrity,
MSU Center for Microbial Ecology
Actinomycetes
A type of bacterium with a growth form and function similar to those of
fungi.
Produce compounds that give soil its distinctive aroma.
W. L. Goodfriend
Nematodes
The most numerous animals in the soil.
Help accelerate decomposition when they graze on bacteria, fungi and

plant residues.
V.V.S.R. Gupta
Protozoa
Help accelerate decomposition when they graze on bacteria, fungi and
plant residues.
Arthropods
Mites, collembola and other insects help accelerate decomposition when
they graze on bacteria, fungi and plant residues.
Collembola are an important arthropod in plant residue decomposition.
R. Carvajal
Earthworms
Burrowing by worms mixes soils and creates macropores that increase
water infiltration and flow and help aerate soil.
Soil passage through guts increases aggregation and nutrient cycling.
22
So r
en gy
6 CO2
O Nematodes
6 Root feeders
6 CO2
6 H2O rthropod
Nematodes Predators
o
Organic
Fungal and
amendments
s bacterial
b cte feeders
Compost, manure,
anu Mycorrhizal
iza fungi
mulch Saprophytic
hy fungigi
Nematodes
ots, Predators
exudates
Protozoa
Waste, residue and Amoebas, flagellates
metabolites from and ciliates
plants, animals and Bacteria
microbes
Interactions in a belowground food web.
Organic matter is a major food thousands of years and is active pool, which takes less
source for most soil organisms. unavailable to most soil than two years to decompose.
There are three pools of microorganisms. The slow pool Microbes readily decompose
organic matter. The resistant requires three to 10 years to the organic matter in the slow
pool decomposes over tens to decompose. The third is the and active pools.
Functions of some soilborne organisms
Photosynthesizers (plants, algae, bacteria) Add organic matter to soil
Primary and secondary consumers Feed on organic matter originating from plants
(nematodes, insects, mites, rodents, etc.)
Decomposers (bacteria, fungi) Feed on organic matter originating from plants
Mutualists (bacteria, fungi) Two organisms living in beneficial association

that enhance plant growth
Bacterial grazers (nematodes, amoebas, Feed on bacteria

ciliates, flagellates)
Fungal feeders (nematodes, insects) Feed on fungi
Organic matter shredders Shred plant litter while feeding on bacteria

(earthworms, insects) and fungi
23
microorganisms excrete gels

Desirable soil quality and slimes that bind soil
particles together and improve
A high quality soil resists degradation and responds to
soil structure.
management. It has a dynamic belowground food web that
transforms and transports the matter and energy required to
develop and maintain successful fruit plantings.
Biological properties
The active soil organic matter
High quality soil characteristics pool is the main food source for
Provides suitable habitat to sustain biological activity, diversity microorganisms. Practices that
and productivity. increase this pool build
microbial activity, enhance
Stores, releases and cycles nutrients.
nutrient availability and may
Regulates water and solute flow without being excessively wet lower incidence of soilborne
or dry. diseases. Such practices
Provides ecosystem services such as filtering, buffering, include planting nitrogen-fixing
degrading, immobilizing and detoxifying undesirable legume cover crops, adding
materials. compost or manure, and
reducing tillage. Micro-
Indicators of soil quality organisms also feed on root
Topsoil and rooting zone depth. exudates released from living
plants, so keeping cover crop
Organic matter levels.
roots active for as much of the
Size of active and slow carbon and nitrogen pools. year as possible promotes soil
Biotic diversity (nematode community structure, for example). microbial activity. These
practices frequently enhance
Water-holding capacity, infiltration and bulk density.
soil biological diversity, such as
pH and electrical conductivity. by increasing beneficial
populations of nematodes.
Physical and slow pools decreases soil

The role of nematodes
chemical properties compaction and erosion of fine
particles. Other benefits are an Most fruit growers think of
Additions of organic materials increase in plant-available nematodes as microscopic
in the form of crop residues or water, improved water worms that cause infectious
amendments such as infiltration and soil aeration, diseases or spread viruses.
composted manure increase greater soil aggregate stability, Nematodes, however, are a
the levels of the resistant and increased ion exchange very diverse group of
slow pools. These forms of soil capacity and greater retention organisms, and most are
organic matter are most of nutrients. More easily beneficial. Though some
responsible for improving the decomposable organic matter species feed on plants, others
physical and chemical is also important because feed on bacteria, fungi, other
properties of the soil. during decomposition small animals or a combination
Enhancing the resistant and
24
Because of their diverse

feeding habitats, nematodes
are affected by crop
management practices and
can be used as indicators of
soil quality. Research at the
Northwest Michigan
Horticultural Research Station
found significantly more
bacterial-feeding nematodes
and fewer plant-feeding
nematodes in systems with
organic matter additions.
Samples were taken in May
1999. For detailed manage-
ment information, refer to the
appendix at the end of this
Two organisms are better than one.
Citation: Ingham, R., et al. 1985 Ecological Monographs 55:119-140.
chapter.
of these. Bacterial-feeding In food webs, both pathogenic Carbon

nematodes often live near the and non-pathogenic species transformations
root surface, where they compete for space and Through photosynthesis plants
mineralize organic matter and resources while releasing convert atmospheric carbon
make nitrogen available for substances toxic to their dioxide into organic
plant uptake. Researchers have competitors. compounds. These materials
shown significant increases in
plant growth when bacterial-
feeding nematodes and their
food source are present.
For example, when a root

surface is colonized by
bacteria (such as Burkholderia
cepacia), the plant is protected
from root-knot nematodes. The
occurrence of bacteria near
roots can increase fungal- and
bacterial-feeding nematodes
and decrease plant parasitic
ones. It is likely that there are
similar effects in other classes
of organisms such as fungi,
protozoa and microarthropods.
25
enter the soil when residues of carbon needed by the long-term experiment at the
plants and animals are placed bacteria. This nitrogen will end Northwest Michigan
in or on the soil. Soon after, soil up as soil organic matter when Horticultural Research Station
organisms begin consuming the cover crop decays. show that horticultural
the organic matter, extracting practices affect the active
How can we increase and
energy and nutrients, and carbon and nitrogen pools.
manage the active organic
releasing heat, water and These pools were enhanced
nitrogen and carbon pools? In
carbon dioxide back into the through use of mixed grass
most fruit systems, it is done by
atmosphere. A natural and legume cover crops, rye
the use of cover crops,
consequence of decay is a straw mulch and composted
mulches, organic amendments
gradual disappearance of soil dairy manure. See table on
from animal sources and
organic matter if it is not next page.
reduced tillage. Data from a
replenished. When residues
are added to the soil at a faster
rate than soil organisms can
transform the organic matter
into carbon dioxide, carbon will
gradually be removed from the
atmosphere and stored in the
soil. Intensive tillage
accelerates decomposition and
the release of carbon dioxide.
This loss of organic matter
occurs because of increased Soil organic matter (SOM)
soil aeration, triggering short-
Fertilizer
term, unwanted microbial
Active SOM
activity and rapid
Microbial
decomposition. action
Slow SOM
Nitrogen Mineralization
Resistant
transformations SOM
A complex community of soil

organisms fixes nitrogen or
decomposes and mineralizes
organic matter. Species of
Soil organic matter (SOM) contains large amounts of nitrogen,
bacteria living in roots of
but it is not readily available to plants. It must first undergo
legume cover crops can fix
decomposition by soil organisms, which will release any
considerable amounts of
excess mineral nitrogen. The soils nitrogen-supplying capacity
atmospheric nitrogen into
is largely defined by the size of the active organic nitrogen and
plant-available forms. The plant
carbon pools and the soil microbes ability to degrade them.
obtains the fixed nitrogen in
The active nitrogen is the raw material; the active carbon
exchange for some of its
provides the energy needed to transform organic nitrogen into
inorganic forms available to plants.
26
Influence of tart cherry ground cover and nutrient
management on the active carbon and nitrogen
pool sizes.
Management systems Active carbon Active nitrogen

nitrogen is faster when the ratio
Pounds per acre
of the active carbon to nitrogen
is below 20. When the ratio is
Conventional 1,054 59
greater, microbes immobilize
Cover crop 1,350 96
nitrogen and its release may be
Mulch 1,409 85
very slow. Tillage is also
Compost 1,348 108
important in regulating
Biosystem 1,680 110
mineralization. Intensively
disrupting the soil profile while
Data are a two-year average of samples taken in May 1999 and
incorporating organic matter
2000. For detailed management information, refer to appendix
will rapidly deplete the active
at the end of this chapter. Source: D.R. Mutch, C.E. Edson, T.C. Willson.
nitrogen and carbon pools.
Reducing tillage can help
Plants rely on microbes to among materials. The goal is to
spoon-feed the nitrogen
recharge the soils supply of balance the active pools of
according to plant needs and
available nitrogen. This pro- carbon and nitrogen. A well
avoid losses. There is no
cess requires careful manage- maintained, legume
perfect recipe, but farmers
ment. Inorganic nitrogen does predominant ground cover and
need to explore the available
not simply accumulate in the applications of manure or semi-
tools and design a strategy
soil. It may be taken up by composted materials are more
best suited to their particular
microorganisms and plants likely to increase the active
needs.
and turned into new recyclable nitrogen. Release of mineral
materials, transformed into gas
S. Deming
and lost to the atmosphere, or
leached below the root zone,
where it has potential to
contaminate groundwater.
Nitrogen management
strategies should stimulate
mineralization during periods of
plant uptake and minimize it
when nitrogen is not needed.
Mineralization can be efficiently

managed by controlling the
organic matter supply (quantity, Impact of tillage on soil
quality and timing) and its rate After planting, deep cultivation should be avoided because it
of decomposition. Cover crops, may severely damage the plants root system and expose the
mulches, compost, manure soil to erosion losses. Shallow cultivation works for specific
and crop residues all increase purposes such as strategic weed control or light incorporation
soil organic matter, but the of residues to enhance nutrient availability in the time of
proportions of carbon and maximum crop uptake. Light incorporation may be needed if
nitrogen vary tremendously replanting is being done to alter the species mix in the ground
cover.
27
Monthly average precipitation and

potential evapotranspiration 1956-86,
Kellogg Biological Station.
Irrigation and 8
supplemental fertility 7
potential
In the upper Midwest, water 6 evapotranspiration
becomes limiting during
5
summer. Irrigation during this
period is essential for 4 precipitation
successful production of most 3
fruit unless the soils water-
2
holding capacity is drastically
improved or new drought- 1
tolerant varieties are 0
developed. It is important to J F M A M J J A S O N D
determine the timing and the Month
amount of irrigation on the
basis of the real need of the Common precipitation and evaporation pattern for southwest
plant to minimize stress and Michigan.
avoid yield reduction.
Influencing this need are
Fruits are composed primarily current years growth, for
several factors such as the
of carbohydrates and water replacing those used in
components of the climate
and do not remove consider- production and for increasing
(sunshine, precipitation,
able amounts of minerals from reserves for a good start the
humidity, temperature and wind
the soil. The amount of nutri- following season. Excessive
speed); the characteristics of
ents needed varies by species applications can generate an
the soil, especially those
and is related to the plants unbalanced condition with
related to its water-holding
age. Nutrients are used for several negative conse-
capacity; and the plants
specifics (density and soil
coverage, age, etc). Precise
irrigation requires
understanding and measuring
the influence of these factors.
Plants are under severe stress
when the foliage is wilting, and
at that stage damage may
have already occurred. The
lack of clear early stress
symptoms emphasizes the
need for other tools such as
evaporation pans and
tensiometers to determine
when to start irrigating. A weather station and an evaporation pan generate data for
pest management and irrigation decisions.
28
quences. Too much nitrogen phosphorus resulting from better control of the amount
results in excessive vigor. mineralization are not and quality of nutrients. It
Applying nitrogen too late accounted for. Fast and reliable should be integrated with the
results in late-season growth analysis approaches are regular fertilization schedule to
that increases winter injury needed to satisfy needs of fruit address specific needs rather
susceptibility. Excessive growers using ecologically than used as a substitute.
nitrogen also causes higher friendly strategies. In the Foliar fertilizers are quickly
susceptibility to some pests meantime, chemical analysis of absorbed and can be readily
and loss of fruit quality such as leaves and fruit may be the best available without the soil
reduced color, firmness and indicators of nutritional needs. interaction to solve immediate
storage life. nutritional problems such as
Fertigation the application of
bitter pit in apple or chlorosis in
Before considering fertilizer supplemental fertilization with
most fruit crops.
application, the grower needs to irrigation is increasingly
credit the estimated being used in fruit production.
contributions made by the This promising technique Farm
original content of the soil, cover allows precise applications of biodiversity
crop residues, compost or fertilizer to supplement crop
manure, and mulches. In this nutrition and minimize nutrient Jose E. Sanchez, Dale R.
kind of system, soil tests may loss to the environment. Mutch and George W. Bird
not accurately estimate the Another fertilization practice
amounts of nutrients available that is becoming increasingly Biodiversity promotes
throughout the season. Nitrogen popular is foliar application. ecosystem health. When
and, to a lesser degree, This type of application allows designing a fruit operation,
C. Edson
growers and consultants
should consider biodiversity
above- and belowground.
Aboveground botanical
biodiversity within and around
the farm provides ecosystem
services such as scavenging
excess nutrients that could
escape to groundwater or
providing favorable habitat for
wildlife and beneficial insects.
The presence of flowering
plants increases faunal
diversity and encourages bees
and other pollinators. Botanical
biodiversity is achieved by
An irrigation demonstration plot contrasts drought-stressed using cover crops and creating
vines (foreground) with healthy, irrigated vines (background). refuge areas containing shrubs,
berries and native plants.
29
C. Edson
to achieve these goals and
increase organic matter at the
same time. Combining
practices such as using cover
crops, mulches or other
organic amendments is a
desirable strategy to increase
biodiversity while enhancing
soil and water quality.
Cover crops. Soil erosion

threatens soil quality and can
Diverse vegetative cover Practices enhancing pollute water. Cover crops
increases the quality of plant biodiversity and prevent soil loss, help control
residues entering the soil. The weeds, gradually add organic
much more
continuous use of diverse matter to the soil, help retain
cover crops plus organic Soil management strategies nutrients near the root zone,
matter additions through traditionally have been and provide a firm surface for
manure or compost and developed to control weeds, equipment without jeopardizing
mulches increases reduce erosion, retain soil yields or plant health. Their
belowground diversity. Soil structure and decrease contributions to improving soil
microorganisms feed on the compaction. New integrated organic matter and fertility vary
organic materials entering the approaches designed to according to type and growing
soil. A more diverse food increase biodiversity allow us
source will benefit a wider C. Edson
range of soil organisms and

enhance soil and plant health.
Levels of soil organic matter
are affected by the diversity of
materials. Diverse systems are
more productive and
accumulate more organic
matter than less diverse
systems. Research in Michigan
cherries indicates that after five
years, systems using cover
crops, mulch or composted
dairy manure had 20 percent
more soil organic matter than
systems with bare ground.
A tart cherry orchard with a ground cover of white and red

clover, alfalfa and rye.
30
45 Nitrate-N leached beneath the root zone

in five cherry orchard management
40 systems.
conditions. Residues of 35
legumes such as clover or 30
vetch are high in nitrogen and
25
decompose quickly. They
contribute more as a nitrogen 20
source than as an organic 15

matter source. In contrast,
10
grass cover crops such as rye
5
or barley accumulate more
organic matter because they 0
Conventional Conventional Cover crop Cover + Compost
+ fertigation
have a much greater ratio of fertigation
carbon to nitrogen and Data are the average of four years (1996-99). For detailed management information,
refer to appendix at the end of this chapter.
decompose more slowly. The
best practical strategy to
enhance biodiversity, soil pesticide leaching. Production Mulching. Mulch is any
organic matter and nutrient practices relying on high rates material placed on the soil
availability is to maintain a well of fertilizers and pesticides surface to protect the soil from
balanced mix of legumes, threaten water quality and raise freezing, wind, rain and
grasses and non-legumes such concerns about elevated excessive water loss through
as crucifers or, in some cases, nitrate and pesticide levels in evaporation. Mulches help to
even weeds. drinking water. Leaching data reduce erosion and suppress
In fruit production, cover crops from five mature cherry weeds. In addition, organic
are sometimes avoided production systems show how mulches such as straw, leaves,
because they compete for orchard floor and supplemental sawdust or woodchips will
moisture. Most growers see the nitrogen management break down and contribute
benefits of having cover crops practices can have a organic matter to the soil. They
in the alleyway, but establishing tremendous impact on water improve soil aggregation and
cover crops in the rows is more quality. water-holding capacity, and
controversial. The main Incentives to look at C. Edson
challenge is to have as much alternatives for
coverage as possible while successful fruit
minimizing cover crop production are the
competition, especially in negative environ-
young plantings. mental impacts of
Much of the upper Midwests some synthetic
drinking water filters through inputs, increasing
the soil before entering energy costs and
aquifers. Coarse-textured soils, risk generated by
which are often used for fruit dependency on off-
production, are particularly farm inputs.
vulnerable to nutrient and
Hay mulch surrounds trees in this tart cherry
orchard. 31
moderate soil temperature, composition, can be applied Composting also reduces

reducing plant stress. Mulches near the time of maximum crop pathogen populations and
are obtained from imported uptake. Large amounts of toxicity to plants. The major
material and side-delivered nitrogen from manure can be disadvantage is that
from mowing the alleyways lost through volatilization considerable amounts of
cover crops. When mulch during untimely applications nitrogen and high-energy
contains high quality materials (such as on frozen ground), carbon are lost during the
such as legume residues, and excessive applications can composting process.
decomposition may also lead to serious leaching losses
provide significant amounts of or become toxic to plants. Impact of
nutrients such as nitrogen, management on crop
Composting raw materials such
potassium and phosphorus. In performance
as animal manure or municipal
orchards and vineyards, mulch
wastes has several In new plantings, vigorous,
can be placed around
advantages. During healthy vegetative growth is the
individual trees or vines, or in
composting, nutrients such as primary goal. In this building
the entire row. The area
nitrogen and phosphorus are stage, the fruit plant needs to
immediately surrounding the
fixed into more stable forms grow with minimum competition
trunk should be kept mulch-
that are less susceptible to from living ground cover
free to avoid disease, insect or
loss. Wastes are more easily (weeds or cover crop) near the
rodent problems.
handled because composting trees or vines. In new
Manures and composted reduces the volume and allows plantings, the non-
materials. If available, more even application. cover-cropped area should be
manures and composted
materials can be used as R. Perry
primary means of replenishing
organic matter. Like mulch,
they improve the soils water-
holding capacity, structural
stability and tilth.
Timely and proper applications

of manure also provide readily
available nutrients while
stimulating microbial activity.
Manure is more difficult to
manage than compost
because of its bulk and
because it may contain larger
amounts of mineral nitrogen
than plants can take up.
Limited amounts of manure,
determined by its chemical
In this new orchard, alfalfa hay mulch was placed in the tree rows.
32
protected with mulch.

Tart cherry yields as affected by orchard floor,
In a mature planting, this
nutrients and water management systems.
competitive effect is reduced
because the tree or vine root
Management systems tons/ acre
system can reach water and
nutrients from greater depths.
Recent data from a mature Conventional 14
Montmorency cherry orchard Conventional + fertigation 15
indicate that alternative floor
Cover crop 13
and nitrogen management
systems did not reduce cherry Cover crop + fertigation 14
yields. Instead, using supple- Mulch 17
mental mulch increased yields
Compost 14
an average of 20 percent.
Biosystem 13
Data are the average of six years (1995-2000). For detailed management
information, refer to appendix below.
Appendix for cherry research tables on pages 25, 27, 31 and 33.
Description of management systems at the Northwest Michigan Horticultural
Research Station.
Conventional: spring-applied simazine, postemergent herbicide as needed and full rate of

ground-applied nitrogen (110 lb/acre).
Conventional + fertigation: spring-applied simazine, postemergent herbicide as needed and

half of the full rate of nitrogen fertilizer (55 lb/acre) applied as fertigation.
Cover crop: ground cover (crimson clover, hard fescue, berseem clover), no herbicides, under-
tree mowing, ground-applied nitrogen as needed.
Cover crop + fertigation: ground cover (crimson clover, hard fescue, berseem clover), no
herbicides, under-tree mowing and half of the full rate of nitrogen fertilizer (55 lb/acre) applied as
fertigation.
Mulch: ground cover using supplemental mulch (rye straw and hay) plus side-delivered biomass
from alleyway, no herbicide and ground-applied nitrogen as needed.
Compost: ground cover maintained with side-delivery mower, mow under trees or postemergent
herbicide as needed, no supplemental nitrogen.
BioSystem (consultant-provided regimen): compost, no herbicides, ground cover

maintained with side-delivery mower, supplemental nutrition using alternative sources based on
supplemental soil tests.
33
Chapter 2. Managing the community

of pests and beneficials
Chapter of organisms, including a rich The inhabitants

array of pest and beneficial
questions insects, mites, microbes and
Of all the organisms that live on
a fruit farm, growers are often
Can I integrate ecological nematodes. These inhabitants
most familiar with the
pest management into my interact in a variety of ways
herbivores (organisms that
farm? forming a community. This
feed on plants) because of the
How does the way crops are chapter introduces the
economic damage they
managed affect pests and inhabitants and discusses the
sometimes create. Herbivores
beneficials? biological factors that make
may be vertebrates (deer,
fruit crop communities
How can weather information rodents, birds), invertebrates
complex. Understanding why
be used to predict pest (mites, insects, nematodes) or
some community members
development? microbes (bacteria, fungi).
become pests and others do
Can I design my fruit Many herbivores share crop
not is important for implement-
production system to better resources with growers without
ing more ecologically and
integrate non-chemical causing significant impact at
environmentally sound pest
approaches to pest control? harvest. It is only when
control and management
How can I tell whether herbivores reduce crop quality
strategies.
beneficials are helping
control my pests?
How do plants, pests and
beneficials interact in my fruit
farm?
Is the surrounding landscape
relevant to managing pests in
my fruit crop?
The
community
Larry J. Gut, Rufus Isaacs,
Annemiek C. Schilder and
Patricia S. McManus
An orchard, vineyard or berry

planting supports many kinds Some of the organisms in a fruit crop community.
34
or yield to a level affecting organisms in an orchard, Often these boundaries are

profit that they are called pests. vineyard or field reveals that somewhat arbitrary and are
Economic impacts can result many are simply visitors or fixed for convenience by the
from feeding on the crop or transients. Various kinds of ecologist, consultant or others
indirectly by their presence as adult flies, such as March flies, involved in pest management
a contaminant at harvest. gnats or mosquitoes, use the decisions. In describing a
Microbes are called pathogens crop for shelter, finding mates codling moth population, for
when they cause disease, or as a resting place as they example, a speaker may use
which is defined as abnormal move to other habitats. These the term population to refer to
functioning of the plant. visiting species are also all the codling moths in south-
important members of the western Michigan, those on a
Carnivores obtain their energy
community. Many are a particular farm within that
by consuming other animals.
significant part of the diet of region or those in a single
Hawks and coyotes are highly
generalist carnivores, such as orchard block on the farm.
visible carnivores that feed on
spiders, which are less
herbivores such as mice and Pest management decisions
selective about what they eat.
groundhogs. It is more difficult are often based on the density
to detect the many carnivorous and dispersion of a population
insects, mites, nematodes and
Species and in the field. Density is the
microbes. These beneficial populations number of individuals in an
organisms can play an Organisms that can reproduce area. Dispersion is the
important role in pest control and produce viable offspring arrangement of the individuals
because they primarily feed on are members of the same within the field. Individuals in a
herbivorous insects, mites and species. For example, plum population may be dispersed
nematodes. Carnivorous curculio is a species of insect randomly, in a clumped fashion
insects can be further separ- found in many kinds of fruit or uniformly. If an organism is
ated into predators and para- systems. The fire blight patho- randomly dispersed, then each
sitoids (insects that live in or on gen is a species of bacterium individual is as likely to be
the body of a host until it dies). that inhabits orchards. found in one place as another.
Management strategies may
Many of the organisms living in Populations are groups of be very different for pest
fruit crops receive less individuals of the same species populations with a clumped
attention than the herbivores living within specified versus random distribution. For
and carnivores. Some of the boundaries of time and space. example, apple maggot flies
least visible organisms feed on
fallen leaves, fruit and woody
material. These important
members of the community are
called decomposers and
include bacteria, fungi and
invertebrates such as earth-
worms. A broad survey of the
Random Clumped Uniform
Common dispersion patterns of organisms. 35

generally invade commercial Population genetics mix of genes in a population is

orchards from nearby infested called the gene pool. The
An individual organisms genes
hosts where the pest is not composition of the gene pool
determine its physical and
controlled. Consequently, they continually changes over time
behavioral traits. Genes are
are frequently in clumps within through a process called
made up of chemical
the orchard, with most natural selection.
messages or codes that dictate
individuals near the border.
which proteins a cell produces. With the help of plant breeders,
Appropriate management
Particular combinations of fruit growers have taken
strategies for apple maggot
these proteins and environ- advantage of the gene pools
may include placing all
mental cues determine what an natural variability in a process
monitoring traps along the
organism looks like and how it known as artificial selection.
border and treating only the
The first step in this process is
R. VanderPoppen
to identify desirable traits, such
as flavor, color, or tolerance or
resistance to a pest. Once
desirable traits are identified,
these can be incorporated into
new crop varieties through
conventional breeding or
genetic engineering. For
example, apples have been
bred to create a few varieties
that are resistant to apple scab.
Even without specific breeding
efforts, fruit crop varieties
display a natural range of
resistance to various pests and
Only the borders of this orchard are being sprayed for a pest diseases. When monocultures
that is found along the orchard perimeter. of single varieties are planted,
efficiency of production is
traded for diversity of
borders with insecticide.
behaves. When individuals resistance to pests.
In contrast, spores of grape
reproduce, they pass along
powdery mildew are easily Repeated use of the same
unique combinations of genes
dispersed over large areas by class of pesticides to control a
to their offspring. Different
wind, resulting in a relatively pest can cause undesirable
environments favor individuals
uniform distribution of disease changes in the gene pool of a
with different physical and
in a vineyard. Therefore the pest leading to another form of
behavioral traits. Individuals
entire vineyard needs to be artificial selection, pesticide
with genes that improve their
protected from this disease. resistance. When a pesticide
survival will be more likely to
is first used, a small proportion
pass along these genes than to
of the pest population may
the rest of the population. The
survive exposure to the
36
material because of their Some plant pathogens have

distinct genetic makeup. These also become resistant to Survival of the
individuals pass along the pesticides. Among fruit most resistant
genes for resistance to the next producers in North America,
generation. Subsequent uses apple growers perhaps have
of the pesticide increase the faced the most significant Insecticide
proportion of less susceptible problems with pesticide resistance
individuals in the population. resistance. Examples include
Through this process of streptomycin resistance in the Selection for resistance
selection, the population fire blight bacterium and can occur if a small
gradually develops resistance benomyl resistance in the proportion of the insect
to the pesticide. Worldwide, apple scab pathogen. population is able to survive
more than 500 species of Although the precise genetic treatment with insecticide.
insects, mites and spiders and ecological factors differ These rare resistant
have developed some level of among pests that have individuals can reproduce
pesticide resistance. The become resistant, in all cases and pass on their resistance
twospotted spider mite is a resistance is driven by one to their offspring. If an
pest of most fruit crops and is process selection. insecticide with the same
notorious for rapidly mode of action is repeatedly
developing resistance to used against this population,
miticides. an even greater proportion
will survive. Ultimately, the
once effective product no
longer controls the resistant
population.
t
Fungicide resistance
in Single-step pesticide
resistance arises suddenly in
the field. A single gene or
physiological function
changes so that an
individual becomes highly
resistant to the pesticide.
n With just one or two sprays
of the pesticide, the popula-
tion shifts from mostly
sensitive to mostly resistant
individuals. This is the
process by which popula-
tions of streptomycin-
resistant fire blight bacteria
Source: Michigan Field Crop Pest Ecology and Management
(continued on next page.)
37
carrying capacity. The

Survival of the most resistant (cont.) carrying capacity is different
for each species in each
environment depending upon
and benomyl-resistant strains of the apple scab fungus rapidly species requirements for
developed in commercial orchards. resources and the intensity of
their interactions with other
Multistep pesticide resistance arises slowly in the field over inhabitants of the community.
many years. Rather than having distinct groups of sensitive and
resistant individuals, the population consists of individuals with a Population growth generally
range of sensitivities to the pesticide. With each pesticide slows as a population nears its
application, those individuals at the more resistant end of the carrying capacity. If the
spectrum survive and reproduce. Over the years, the proportion carrying capacity is exceeded,
of the population that can survive a pesticide spray increases population density will decline
until that pesticide eventually becomes ineffective. This process as some individuals starve,
is underway in apple orchards where the sterol inhibitor (SI) migrate or produce fewer
fungicides have been used extensively to control scab. The shift offspring. The population
toward resistance leads to a gradual erosion of control. density of an organism
fluctuates around the carrying
Resistance management capacity. In fruit crops, where
food is plentiful, carrying
Growers can help delay the development of resistance by capacities of pest populations
applying pesticides only when they are needed, by rotating are often high enough to cause
between different chemical classes and by using rates of economic concern. One
pesticides within the labeled range. Integrating non-chemical response to unacceptably high
approaches such as pheromone mating disruption and cultural pest population densities is to
controls can also help delay resistance. apply a pesticide. This
intervention by the grower
temporarily lowers the carrying
Population growth primarily an organisms capacity by making the pests
and regulation capacity to reproduce and environment less suitable for
ability to invade new habitats survival. Certain natural
Fruit producers know that pest that determine the rate of enemies (predators, parasites
populations build rapidly when growth. The population will and pathogens) can lower the
food, water and space are crash when basic resources carrying capacity and keep
plentiful and environmental are depleted. pest populations below
conditions are favorable. For
In nature, however, interactions economically damaging levels.
example, a few aphids per tree
with other organisms usually Pesticide usage often removes
can become hundreds per
limit populations. The maximum natural enemies, however,
shoot in a matter of weeks.
number of individuals of the allowing the carrying capacity
Pathogens are even more
same species that can be to rise once the pesticide
prolific, producing thousands
supported indefinitely by any residue has degraded.
of spores in a single lesion.
Under optimum conditions, it is given area is called the
38
Orchard Pest Management, E. Beers
Single and multicycle under the right

pathogens conditions (line B
in diagram). These
Disease management may be diseases are more
guided by knowledge about a likely to be
pathogen's life cycle. Single- controlled through
cycle pathogens have one the use of
generation per year. They are fungicides or
limited by the amount of resistant varieties
overwintered inoculum that that limit the
exists at the start of the season, pathogen's rapid
resulting in steady disease reproduction.
progress until the pathogen's These pears have honeydew and russeting
food source runs out or the
Community from pear psylla, a pest that attacks only
weather becomes less pears.
structure and
favorable (see line A in
organization
diagram). Removal of
crop as a habitat. Individuals in
overwintered inoculum is a Three main factors play roles in
the community are bound
good control strategy for these shaping the community: the
together by biotic interactions
pathogens. Multicycle habitat, biotic interactions and
such as predation, feeding and
pathogens, such as powdery life history traits of the
competition. Life history traits
mildews and downy mildews, organisms. Many physical and
include dispersal capability
have several generations per chemical characteristics
and overwintering strategies.
year and can reproduce rapidly determine the suitability of the
The effect of crop

habitat on community
Organisms use the crop habitat
(the tree, vine or bush) in a
variety of ways, including for
food, shelter, mating or as a
place to spend the winter.
Some are highly specialized
and utilize a single kind of
plant. For example, the grape
berry moth feeds solely on
cultivated or wild grapes.
Powdery mildew strains
generally infect a single plant
Multicycle species. Other organisms have
a wider host range, favoring
similar kinds of crops. Plum
curculio feeds on the fruit of
39
apples, cherries, blueberries, due to internal pressure. The chemical characteristics of

peaches and plums. Some are Cultural practices and variety the crop, such as nutritional
even broader feeders, selection that reduce cluster quality or the presence of
consuming a wide variety of compaction can help avoid volatile substances, also affect
plants. The tarnished plant bug these problems. its suitability as a habitat. Ripe
has a particularly broad range strawberry fruit with high sugar
Shape and color of the leaves,
of suitable hosts and is an content provide an excellent
flowers or fruit may be
important pest of more than food source for sap beetles,
important in attracting bees for
100 annual and perennial which tend not to attack unripe
pollination as well as insect
crops. fruit. Apple maggot flies are
pests. Aphids and other
attracted to odors given off by
Plant characteristics may be insects tend to be attracted to
apple fruit.
favorable or unfavorable for the color yellow, which is why
potential community sticky boards used for The plant surface is home to
R. Perry numerous microbes, such as
yeasts, bacteria and fungi.
These organisms live off plant
exudates, pollen, aphid
honeydew and other food
sources on the plant surface.
Most microbes are harmless
and can even be beneficial if
they compete with pathogens
for space or food. Sooty molds
are fungi that use aphid
honeydew on plant surfaces as
a food source. Other than
blocking light, these molds are
harmless. The yeast
Saccharomyces, common on
fruit surfaces, is useful in
Apple trees with burr knots are more attractive to dogwood borers. winemaking. Some bacteria
Mounding soil to cover the burr knot creates a physical barrier that may also multiply on leaf
reduces borer infestation. surfaces until they have built
up sufficient numbers to cause
disease. Yeasts living on apple
inhabitants. Sometimes the monitoring insects are yellow. surfaces may be involved in
plants physical structure aids a Blueberry maggot flies are fruit russeting. Unfortunately,
pest. Grape cultivars with tight attracted to berries that are just not much is known about the
fruit clusters tend to favor turning from green to blue, microbes on the surface of fruit
Botrytis bunch rot because of which provide the ideal crops. Plant surface
the humid environment within substrate for egg laying. characteristics, surrounding
the cluster and berry splitting vegetation, nutrients and
40
R. Isaacs
pesticides can affect the nature
and abundance of these
microbes.
The plant roots make up the

belowground crop habitat.
Mostly hidden from view, the
root zone is home to a diverse
array of worms, insects, fungi
and bacteria. Although the
large majority of soilborne
organisms are beneficial or
neutral toward crop plants,
some cause serious problems
that can limit crop productivity.
In perennial plants, including

most fruit crops, complex
communities of micro-
organisms develop on roots. Most wine grapes have thinner skinned leaves than juice grape
While some root exudates are varieties, making them more susceptible to potato leafhopper
known to attract swimming damage, as shown in this photo.
spores of water molds such as
Pythium and Phytophthora,
plants also have the ability to more difficult for leafhoppers to signal predators when a pest
chemically promote the growth feed on the thick-skinned feeds on them. These odors
of beneficial bacteria and leaves of juice grape varieties help predators locate the pest
fungi. Some plant roots support than on the thin-skinned leaves and reduce pest abundance.
the growth of fluorescent of wine grape varieties. Plants
Some varieties, even though
bacteria that preferentially bind also produce many kinds of
attacked by pests as much as
iron, thereby making it defensive chemicals, such as
other plants, are less affected
unavailable to pathogens. toxins and enzymes, to ward off
and therefore considered
insect or pathogen attack. The
tolerant. For example, under
Host plant resistance chemical resveratrol, which
moderate insect feeding on
occurs in grape skin and may
Plants vary in their ability to leaves, native juice grape
be responsible for the human
defend themselves against varieties can still produce
health benefits of wine
pest attack, with some being acceptable yields and fruit
consumption, also provides
highly resistant and others quality.
protection against infection by
quite susceptible. Plant pathogenic fungi. Alkaloids in Growing pest- and disease-
defense mechanisms include certain plant varieties are resistant fruit varieties is an
physical weapons such as known to be lethal to insects. excellent way to reduce the
thick wax layers, tough skin, Some plants protect them- use of chemical or other control
thorns and plant hairs. It is selves by releasing odors that measures. It is often the
41
M. Ellis
been unsuc- Seasonal and long-
cessful. If term changes in
available, habitat suitability
cultivars
resistant to A plant is often susceptible to a
locally pest or disease only during a
prevalent certain period in its
races of development. Usually younger,
disease should succulent tissues are more
Red stele is evident in the strawberries at right,
be selected for susceptible to pest attack.
while those planted on the left are resistant to the
planting. In However, older tissues
particular race of the disease.
general, one sometimes lose the defense
should avoid mechanisms inherent in
simplest method of pest control cultivars that are highly younger tissues and then
because the plant does all the susceptible to the disease. provide fertile ground for pest
work. Unfortunately, some This problem is a bigger issue and pathogen activity.
pests can evolve to overcome with perennial plantings that The fire blight bacterium
plant resistance. Once this will be in place for many years. prefers to infect young, fast-
happens, resistant cultivars
can lose their usefulness. For
example, some strawberry
cultivars are resistant to
multiple races of the red stele
fungus, but none is known to
be resistant to all races. Efforts
to find more durable forms of
resistance to red stele have
A. Schilder
Rootstocks to the rescue
Ecological concept Europe from the United States in the 1860s, it

Host plant resistance reduces pest damage. nearly destroyed the French wine industry. The
vines were saved by imported American
Putting it into practice rootstocks, which are resistant to phylloxera.
Resistant rootstocks are still the primary
Use only resistant rootstocks when planting
method of phylloxera control. In the early
susceptible grape varieties.
1980s, however, a biotype with the ability to
Grape phylloxera is an aphidlike insect that colonize some resistant rootstocks appeared in
feeds on grape roots, stunting and sometimes California. This event has led to recent large-
killing vines. This pest is so damaging that scale replacement of vineyards with vines
when it was inadvertently introduced into grafted onto other resistant rootstocks.
42
A. Schilder
growing shoots. In contrast, the
fungus that causes gray mold Psylla
on many crops does not psychology 101
manifest itself until flowers or
fruit are senescing, sporulating
heavily on the dying tissues. Ecological concept
Insect infestations are also Habitat suitability influences pest
somewhat predictable. The abundance.
blueberry maggot fly starts
laying eggs on blueberry fruit Putting it into practice
only as it turns from green to Manipulate shoot growth to
blue, and climbing cutworms reduce pear psylla numbers.
prefer young grape buds.
The pear psylla can complete its With black rot of grape, the
The perennial growth of fruit development only on pear. This fungus can infect young
crops creates predictable long- important pest is very selective grapes for only a limited
term changes in the in choosing its host and suitable period of time. About three to
composition of habitats for sites for egg laying. Pear psylla five weeks after bloom, the
pests and other plant-feeding adults deposit most of their eggs developing berries of many
species. For example, young on young succulent foliage, and grape cultivars become
apple trees have smooth bark, hatching psylla nymphs feed on naturally resistant to infection,
while older trees may have new shoot growth. Management so fungicide protection is not
cracked and creviced bark. practices that affect the vigor or needed after that point.
Therefore, older trees provide period of new shoot growth will
excellent overwintering sites for affect the severity of pear psylla
many pests, including codling attack.
E. Burts
moth. The fungal pathogen that Reducing overall shoot growth
causes peach leaf curl uses also reduces pear psylla
cracks and crevices in older numbers. Carefully manage
tree bark to overwinter. horticultural practices to avoid
excess tree stimulation. Manage
Knowing the critical period
fertility to limit new shoot growth
when the crop is susceptible but still achieve the desired fruit
and which pests or pathogens set and size. Prune trees each
are present can help guide year to limit heavy shoot growth.
management activities and Pull water sprouts from scaffold
restrict pesticide applications limbs through the center of trees
to times when they are most to remove the tender foliage that
needed. psylla prefer. Pull the water
sprouts by hand, rather than with
loppers, to decrease regrowth.
It may also be possible to use
chemicals to reduce shoot Pear psylla young nymphs and
growth. honeydew on young
pear foliage.
43
are inherently prone to winter

Windows of opportunity injury and splitting when
branches are laden with fruit.
P. Wharton
Hail- and frost-damaged pear
Ecological concept
and apple shoots are
Host and pest development particularly susceptible to the
are synchronized. fire blight bacterium.
Harvesting equipment may
Putting it into damage fruit plants,
practice predisposing them to
infestation by wood-boring
Treat at the appropriate time
insects.
to avoid infection.
Prior attack by pests or
To survive, pests and
pathogens may also
pathogens have to time their
predispose plants to further
development to coincide with
attack by other pests. Grape
availability of susceptible
berry moth damage can
host tissue. They often have a
promote infection of grapes by
narrow window of opportunity
gray mold and sour rot
for infection. One good
A mummified blueberry organisms. Nematodes feeding
example is mummy berry
with apothecia. on strawberry roots can allow
disease of blueberry. This
entry of root-rotting fungi such
fungus infects and produces
as Pythium and Rhizoctonia,
spores on young succulent
in the spring to become which cause black root rot. In
shoots in early spring. These
active, similar to blueberry addition, strawberry plants may
spores in turn infect the
plants. Fungal activity be predisposed to infection by
flowers and the developing
coincides with early plant freezing or waterlogging of the
berries, which become
growth, so it is important to soil, soil compaction and
mummified. The fungus
protect the young succulent herbicide damage. Other
overwinters in the mummified
shoots and flowers from stresses, such as drought and
fruit on the ground. The
infection. nutrient deficiencies, can also
mummies require a chilling
render a plant more
period followed by a warmup
susceptible to pests and
diseases.
Factors that predispose plants to infection.

predispose plants Eutypa dieback infections of
to pest attack grapevines usually begin in
pruning wounds. Leucostoma
A variety of stresses can affect canker, a common disease of
the plants ability to defend peach, nectarine and sweet
itself against attack by pests. cherry, often develops in
Wounding, for instance, may narrow crotch angles, which
44
either the fruit or leaves, but the

A wound in sheeps clothing developing larvae require fruit
to complete their development.
Ecological concept infection is likely. Tying or Several other fruit pests over-
trellising the canes to avoid winter on wood in various life
Wounds predispose plants to
excessive movement by wind stages, later moving to fruit and
disease.
can also reduce wounding. In leaves to deposit eggs and
addition, applying fungicides feed. Some species spend the
Putting it following pruning will protect winter on the ground or in more
into practice the canes when they are most distant non-crop habitats such
Avoid wounding plants when vulnerable to infection. as woods and fields and must
pathogens are active. M. Ellis recolonize the fruit crop each
year.
The causal fungus of cane
blight can enter raspberry
Insect and
and blackberry canes only
mite life cycles
through wounds. The fungus
eventually causes cane The general life cycle of insects
death. The most common and mites includes egg,
entryways are wounds immature and adult stages.
caused by pruning, The immature and adult forms
mechanical harvesting, canes of mites and some kinds of
rubbing against each other insects may look the same but
and insect damage. It makes differ in size. These undergo
sense, therefore, to avoid gradual metamorphosis. The
pruning during wet periods in young are called nymphs and
the summer when fungus lack wings and reproductive
spores are plentiful and Evidence of cane blight. organs. Adults and nymphs
usually share the same habitat
and feed on the same host.
Life histories habitat only if they are adapted Aphids and leafhoppers are
to the available resources. two important fruit pests that
A life history describes
Organisms living in fruit develop in this manner.
characteristics such as the way
production systems often have
an organism develops, In other insects, the young and
a number of life history
reproduces and feeds. adult stages look very different
requirements. For example,
Individual life history and often live in different
codling moths overwinter as
characteristics, such as habitats. These undergo
mature larvae in cocoons on
dispersal ability and complete metamorphosis. The
the trunk and major scaffolds of
overwintering strategies, play a young are called larvae. The
apple and pear. After pupation,
major role in shaping the larvae of moths are caterpillars,
the adults may utilize fruit and
community. Species can fruit fly larvae are maggots,
sugars provided by ground
colonize and persist in a and beetle larvae are grubs.
cover plants. Eggs are laid on
45
Feeding and overwintering sites of some fruit pests and pathogens.
Insect or mite Feeding site Overwintering stage and site
Apple and spirea aphids Foliage - primarily apple Eggs on smooth twigs
Apple maggot Fruit - apple, hawthorn, cherry, plum, wild rose Pupae in the soil
Blueberry maggot Fruit - blueberry Pupae in soil under bushes
Cherry fruit fly Fruit - cherry Pupae in the soil
Codling moth Fruit - apple, pear, quince Mature larvae in cocoon under loose bark scales or in litter
Cranberry fruitworm Fruit - blueberry, cranberry Mature larvae in hibernacula in soil under bushes
European red mite Foliage - many fruit crops and ornamentals Eggs on small branches and twigs
Grape berry moth Fruit - grape Pupae in vineyard and woodlot leaf debris
Grape leafhopper Foliage - grape Adults in vineyard floor and surrounding habitats
Japanese beetle Fruit and foliage - many fruit crops and ornamentals Grubs in soil, especially under sod
Obliquebanded leafroller Foliage and fruit - apple, pear, cherry, peach, many wild hosts Young larvae in hibernacula on tree
Oriental fruit moth Fruit and foliage - peach, nectarine, apple, plum, cherry, pear, rose Mature larvae in hibernacula of silk in tree crevices or litter
Peachtree borers Woody tissues - peach, nectarine, plum, cherry Larvae in woody tissues
Pear psylla Fruit - pear Winter-form adults
Plum curculio Fruit - apple, cherry, plum, peach, blueberry and others Adults under leaf litter in woods, fencerows,
ditch banks and plantings
Potato leafhopper Foliage - many fruit crops Adults in southern United States
Strawberry sap beetle Fruit - strawberry Pupae in soil in woods and plantings
Tarnished plant bug Fruit - peach, strawberry Nymphs and adults under leaf litter in and around plantings
Tentiform leafminer Foliage - apple, pear, cherry, prune plum Pupae in fallen leaves
Twospotted spider mite Foliage - many weeds, ornamentals, vegetables, field Adult females in duff at the base of tree or
& forage crops, tree fruits, small fruits sheltered sites beneath bark
White apple leafhopper Foliage - apple, cherry, prune plum Eggs in newer wood
Disease/Pathogen Part infected Overwintering stage and site
Anthracnose - fruit rot Fruit, twigs - blueberry Mycelium in infected twigs

Colletotrichum acutatum
Anthracnose - Elsinoe veneta Primocanes, leaves - raspberry and blackberry Mycelium and fruiting bodies in diseased canes
Apple scab - Venturia inaequalis Leaves, fruit - apple Fruiting bodies in infected leaves on orchard
floor and mycelium in infected buds
Bacterial canker syringae, Tree trunk, branches, leaves, fruit - sweet and tart cherry, Bacterial cells in bark tissue at canker margins, apparently
Pseudomonas sp. plum, prune healthy buds and systemically in the vascular system
Black knot- Shoots - plum, prune, tart cherry Mycelium and fruiting bodies in knotty growths
Apiosporina morbosa on trunks, branches, twigs
Black rot - Guignardia bidwellii Leaves, fruit, canes - grape Mycelium and fruiting bodies in mummified
berries and infected canes
Brown rot - Monilinia fructicola Fruit, twigs - all stone fruits Mycelium in mummified fruit and in cankers
Cedar apple rust - Leaves, fruit - apple Mycelium in galls on eastern red cedar trees
Gymnosporangium
juniperi- virginianae
Cherry leaf spot - Leaves, fruit - cherry Mycelium in leaves on the orchard floor
Blumeriella jaapii
Downy mildew - Leaves, fruit - grape Oospores in dead leaves on ground
Plasmopara viticola
Fire blight - Erwinia amylovora Flowers, shoots, roots, fruit - apple and pear Bacterial cells in bark tissue at canker margins
and systemically in the vascular system
Gray mold - Botrytis cinerea Leaves, flowers, fruit - grape, blueberry, strawberry, brambles Mycelium and sclerotia in infected plant debris
Leather rot - Fruit - strawberry Oospores in fruit mummies and soil
Phytophthora cactorum
Mummy berry - Monilinia Young shoots and fruit - blueberry Pseudosclerotia (fruit mummies) on the ground
vaccinii-corymbosi
Peach rosette mosaic virus Entire plant - peach, grape Virus particles in roots and nematode vectors
Phomopsis cane and Canes, leaves, rachises, fruit - grape Mycelium and fruiting bodies in infected canes
leaf spot - Phomopsis viticola
Powdery mildew - Leaves, shoots, fruit - apple Mycelium in infected buds
Podosphaera leucotricha
Powdery mildew - Leaves, shoots, fruit - grape Fruiting bodies in crevices in the bark
Uncinula necator
46
Adults and larvae generally are depending on the weather pathogens of fruit crops. Root
adapted to consume different within a growing season. knot nematodes are sedentary,
resources. For example, moths feed internally and cause root
have sucking mouthparts and Nematodes galls, whereas root lesion
feed on nectar and pollen; as nematodes migrate throughout
Nematodes are microscopic
caterpillars they have chewing the root. Ring and dagger
roundworms that inhabit all
mouthparts and feed on fruit nematodes are ectoparasites
ecosystems. They have many
and foliage. The larvae go and feed without entering root
roles in fruit production,
through a series of stages, tissue. Dagger nematodes
including making nutrients
finally transforming into pupae vector the tomato ringspot
available to roots, causing
before becoming adults. Pupae virus, which causes stem
infectious diseases and
are usually inactive and serve pitting of cherry and union
vectoring plant viruses. These
as the overwintering stage for necrosis of apple. Peach
nematodes are microscopic
many insects. Insects may rosette mosaic virus, which
and live in soil or decaying
complete one generation (life causes a serious disease of
organic matter on the surface.
cycle) or more per year. In grapes, is also vectored by the
Most plant parasitic nematodes
some cases, insects have a dagger nematode. The
feed on root tissue. The root
constant number of Michigan grape root knot
knot, root lesion, ring and
generations, while others vary nematode is known to exist
dagger nematodes are
in the number of generations only in Michigan and is
Timing is everything
Ecological concept Some insects, such as codling young larvae, which are the
Each life stage interacts moth, do little damage in their most sensitive stages. For
differently with the crop. adult stage to their host plants, insects such as Japanese
but lay eggs directly onto the beetle, where the adult causes
crop. Later, these eggs hatch, most damage, targeting the
Putting it into practice
and larvae emerge and feed adult is critical for reducing
Knowing pest life cycles helps on the crop. In this case, to direct feeding damage to the
planning of effective pest optimize control insecticide foliage and fruit, while
control programs. applications should be controlling grubs can reduce
targeted to the eggs and the overall population.
The Japanese beetle life cycle consists of egg, larval, pupal and adult stages.
47
Z. Szendrei R. Isaacs R. Isaacs
G. Bird Nematology Laboratory

G. Bird Nematology Laboratory
Root penetration
Adults
Root system
of healthy Nematode
plant penetrates
root
Juveniles and Invaded

adults attack Some nematodes tissues
roots leave the lesion and turn
attack other roots brown
Juvenile
stages
Nematodes reproduce
Above left, a plant parasitic and migrate within
the root
nematode (root-feeding) as viewed Egg hatch
Young roots may be
with an electron microscope. Above girdled and their tips
killed
right, a light microscope created this Eggs are laid in Reproduction
photomicrograph that allows us to soil Egg
see inside a nematode and view the

stylet used to feed on root tissue.
A nematode life cycle: root lesion nematode.
uniquely adapted to a northern some species, such as the root Plant pathogens
temperate climate. knot nematode, become
The life histories of plant
swollen and are unable to
In the life history of nematodes, pathogens are varied and
move. Nematode development
females or hermaphrodites often tightly intertwined with
is influenced by host, tempera-
produce eggs, which hatch as host development. In general,
ture and other ecosystem
juveniles. All nematodes have plant pathogenic fungi
factors. Nematode life cycles
four juvenile stages. Between overwinter as fungal threads
may be as short as 72 hours or
stages they shed their cuticle (mycelium), fruiting bodies or
as long as several years. Some
(molt) and increase in size. spores in previously infected
species have stages that are
Both nematodes and arthro- plant parts or in the soil. In the
designed to persist through
pods have this unique spring, spores are released
long periods of adverse
characteristic. In many and carried by wind or rain to
environmental conditions.
species, the adults resemble susceptible plant tissues. The
the juvenile stages. Females of fungus penetrates the plant
surface (either
directly or through
Powdery mildew wounds or natural
openings) and
A. Schilder
A. Schilder
B. Kendrick
starts to colonize
the underlying
tissues. In some
cases, the fungus
grows throughout
the entire plant,
which is called
Overwintering fruiting systemic infection.
Powdery mildew on Close view of over-
bodies of the powdery
grape leaf. wintering fruiting body.
48 mildew fungus.
e release Primary infection plant but can become

Germinating ascospore
secondary invaders when a
Ascospores Airborne
ascospore surface plant has been weakened by
another pathogen or environ-
ion
mental stress.
Conidium
Sc
Bacteria tend to overwinter in
Secondary lonization
infection plant
infected plants, in plant debris
ia
tissue on the ground or in soil. In the
Scab lesions
on lea
spring, they get splashed by
ction rain onto susceptible plant
Spore production tissues. They may first multiply
on the plant surface to build
verwintering in adequate numbers for infection
aves
ected leaves
and then gain entry through
Overwintering
Over
stage
Fire blight
A fungal life cycle: apple scab. P. McManus
After a certain period, in which Some pathogens obtain most

symptoms usually become of their nourishment from dead
evident, the fungus produces or dying plant material; others
fruiting bodies, which contain depend entirely on a living
spores. These spores can plant for their growth and
reinfect other plants or parts of reproduction. Weak pathogens
the same plant. cannot usually attack a healthy
Bitter rot
Apple shoot killed by fire blight.
A Schilder
A Schilder
P. Wharton
A. Jones
Bitter rot of Fruiting bodies of Spores of bitter rot

apple. bitter rot fungus. fungus.
Leather rot Bacterial ooze on infected

apple
A. Schilder
A. Schilder
K. Johnson
A. Schilder
Leather rot of Masses of sporangia Sporangia of the Close-up of Erwinia

strawberry. around seed. leather rot fungus. bacterium 49
wounds or natural openings

such as stomates. Once inside What goes around comes around
the plant, the bacteria start to
multiply and destroy plant
tissues in the process, after Ecological
which they ooze out of infected concept
plants. Rain, wind or insects Pathogens survive in
disperse the ooze to other plant debris.
susceptible plant tissues.
Putting it
Viruses usually overwinter in
into practice
stem or root cells of infected A. Jones
plants. Once the plant resumes Remove overwintering overwinters primarily in the
growth in the spring, the virus inoculum to reduce disease tree in fruit mummies, fruit
moves throughout the plant, pressure. stems and twig cankers.
especially to young growing Brown rot is an important Brown rot disease pressure
tissues. The virus tells the plant disease of apricot, peach, can become severe in
cell to make more virus nectarine, plum and cherry. orchards where fruit remain
particles and, in the process, The brown rot pathogen after harvest. Removing
disrupts the normal cell infects blossoms, spurs, sources of inoculum from the
functions. Sucking or chewing shoots and fruit. Infected orchard helps reduce disease
insects, nematodes and certain tissues become covered with pressure the following season.
soilborne fungi move viruses the fungus and then turn dry Growers must use a more
from plant to plant. Viruses can and hard by the end of the diligent control program if
spread via seed, pollen or season. The pathogen there is a large amount of
vegetative propagules, such as overwintering inoculum.
bulbs, corms and tubers. They
can also be transmitted
Biotic interactions interactions such as predation,
through plant sap on farm
parasitism, herbivory,
equipment, pruning shears, Individuals in a community are
competition and mutualism.
knives, hands and clothing. bound together by biotic
Because of these interrelation-
ships, each populations
Blueberry shoestring virus activities affect other
A. Schilder R. Isaacs J. Gillett
populations. Herbivores are
strongly influenced by
interactions with their food
plants but also compete with
one another for resources.
Furthermore, the abundance of
herbivores is strongly
influenced by the densities of
organisms that attack them.
Blueberry
Leaves damaged Blueberry
shoestring virus is
by blueberry shoestring virus
vectored by the
shoestring virus. particles.
50 blueberry aphid.
How pathogens
cause disease
Spore lands on
leaf surface.
cuticle
epidermis
Spore germinates when

there is sufficient moisture.
germ tube
Crown
gall
Infection cushion forms.
Root
ot ro
rot
Nematode
lesions
Fungus penetrates the Common disease symptoms of fruit plants.

plant surface using
pressure and enzymes.
penetration
peg Types of biotic interactions
Fungus invades Predation: When one Competition: The negative

underlying tissues. organism attacks another effects that one organism has
organism and consumes it. upon another by consuming
or controlling access to a
Parasitism: When an
limited resource.
organism gains food or
shelter from another organism Mutualism: A beneficial
Tissue breaks down at the other organisms relationship between two or
and dies. expense. more species that live close to
one another and rely on one
Herbivory: When an
another for survival.
organism feeds on a plant.
51
Competition occupying the habitat. For Blightban A506), which

for resources example, early season foliage competes for space and
changes caused by the nutrients with the fire blight
Competition occurs when feeding of apple rust mite bacterium on stigmas of apple
organisms of the same or result in the exclusion of and pear, resulting in biological
different species need the European red mites later in the control of fire blight.
same resources, such as food, season. Likewise, a virus-
water, shelter or light. Growers infected plant may be less Pest and natural
are well aware of some of the likely to get a fungal infection enemy interactions
potential effects of competition. because of lower humidity in
Fruit trees are planted at the canopy due to poor growth. Integrated pest management
certain densities to decrease Pest attack on a crop may also emphasizes the importance of
the effects of competition create changes in the habitat interactions between pests and
between trees and to optimize that facilitate colonization, the natural enemies that prey
resource use and yield. feeding and reproduction by upon them. When broad-
Growers use weed manage- other species. Large popula- spectrum insecticides are
ment to limit competition for tions of wood-boring pests may applied, pest and non-pest
water and nutrients between develop in trees that have been species are killed and the
crop species and weeds. severely stressed by defoliating
A Schilder
Some herbivores may compete pests. These indirect effects
directly for a potentially limiting are often difficult to see but can
resource, such as a fruit. An have large effects on pest
individual cherry is likely to development.
support the development of a A practical application of
single cherry fruit fly larva. To competition is to use beneficial
help avoid competition for this microorganisms to manage
resource, female cherry fruit certain diseases. The adage
flies mark the fruit with a first come, first served also
chemical after depositing an applies in the microbial world.
egg. Flies landing on marked Some microorganisms eat up a
fruits detect the chemical and food source so fast that other Sometimes microbes use
do not lay additional eggs. organisms starve. The fungus toxic substances to exclude
Community members Ulocladium is able to colonize other organisms that are
commonly compete indirectly and consume nutrients in dead competing for the same
leaf matter before Botrytis (the space or food source. For
through their effects on the
gray mold fungus) gets to instance, the biocontrol agent
habitat. Insect feeding may
Agrobacterium radiobacter
cause physiological changes in them. The result is a reduction
strain K-84 (sold as Galltrol)
the host plant that alter its in the Botrytis spore load.
makes a toxin that prevents
nutritional suitability or Another example is use of
infection by the crown gall
defensive chemistry. These Pseudomonas fluorescens pathogen, which has infected
changes affect other species (commercially available as this raspberry plant.
52
35
1983 1984
Selective
30
Standard
balance of the community is
Untreated
disrupted. For example, 25
pesticide use in pear orchards

20
to control codling moth can
also destroy the natural 15
enemies of pear psylla. In the

absence of its natural enemies, 10
pear psylla can reach high

5
densities and cause significant
damage to the fruit. Natural 0
May June July Aug Sept May June July Aug Sept
enemies are divided into two
main groups: predators and
Comparison of predator abundance in unsprayed versus
parasites.
sprayed pear.
Predators
larger and more powerful than wide range of pest species and
A predator lives by capturing
their prey. Many of the most help regulate pest population
and feeding on another
common predators in fruit densities.
species. Predators are usually
production systems attack a
Keep these killers on the loose

M. ONeal
Ecological concept highly toxic to mite predators are

Natural enemies help keep pest the pyrethroids and the
populations in check. carbamates. Biological control of
apple leafminers by parasitoids
Putting it into practice is common in Pacific Northwest
orchards and has potential in
Preserve natural enemies.
other areas. To conserve these
There is good potential for important allies, avoid using A syrphid larva capturing and
biological control of several fruit moderately and highly toxic feeding on an aphid.
pests if populations of predators insecticides from mid-June to
and parasitoids are preserved early July when adult parasitoids
are most active. early in the growing season,
and enhanced. For example,
before many natural enemies
biological control of plant-eating
Use control tactics that are the have become active or moved
mites is achieved in many fruit
least harmful to natural enemies. into the crop, tend to be less
production systems by
Avoid insecticides that are highly disruptive than those applied
conserving predatory mites, as
toxic to predators and later in the summer. Use spot
well as predacious beetles and
parasitoids. If one of these treatments or delayed applica-
bugs. To avoid killing natural
materials must be used, spray tions when it appears that
enemies of mites, pesticides
when natural enemies are least natural enemies might be able
must be selected carefully. Two
vulnerable. In general, broad- to provide control.
classes of insecticides that are
spectrum insecticides applied 53
E. Burts A. Howitt
Common predators and some of their prey
in fruit crops.
Predators Prey
Amoebae Soilborne fungi, bacteria
Anthocorid Predatory mites: Anthocorid bugs Spider mites, thrips, aphids, pear psylla,
nymphs feeding Agistemus fleschneri (left),
on pear psylla. Amblyseius fallacis (right).
young scale, various insect eggs
Bigeyed bugs Lygus bugs, aphids, leafhoppers,
A. Schilder K. Maredia
spider mites
Collembola Fungi
Ladybird beetles Aphids, scale insects, pear psylla,
mealybugs, other soft-bodied prey
Lacewings Aphids, scale insects, mealybugs, pear
psylla, leafhoppers, thrips, mites
Ladybird beetle. Lacewing
Mirid bugs Spider mites, aphids, leafhoppers, pear
psylla, scale insects
Mycophagous mites Fungi e.g., grapevine powdery mildew
Nematodes Soilborne fungi, bacteria, other nematodes
Predatory mites Plant-feeding mites
D. Mayer
H. Riedl
Spiders Pear psylla, aphids, leafhoppers
Bigeyed bug adult Syrphid flies or Aphids, scale insects
feeding on a lygus
nymph.
Syrphid fly flower flies
H. Riedl
Common parasites and some of their hosts
in fruit crops.
Parasites Hosts
Aphelinid wasps Aphids

Tachinid flies Caterpillars, beetles
Aphelinid wasps attacking woolly apple aphids
Trichogramma wasps Moth eggs
J. Brunner J. Brunner
Bacillus thuringiensis (bacterium) Butterfly/moth larvae
Pseudomonas fluorescens Fungi
(bacterium)
Polyhedrosis virus Butterfly/moth larvae
Beauveria bassiana (fungus) Many insects
Trichogramma adults
attacking leafroller eggs. Tachinid fly
Trichoderma harzianum (fungus) Many fungi
P. Schwaller P. Schwaller Ampelomyces quisqualis (fungus) Powdery mildew
Arthrobotris Nematodes
(nematode-trapping fungus)
Steinernema (nematode) Insect larvae
Pasteuria penetrans (bacterium) Nematodes
A normal redbanded leafroller eggmass on the left

54 and a parasitized mass on the right.
Parasites The emerging parasitoid often well known bacterium that kills
leaves behind telltale signs of insects with a potent toxin. Bt
A parasite lives in, on or with
its handiwork. When scouting must be eaten before it can kill
another organism and obtains
for pests, also watch for its host, so sprays should be
food and usually shelter at the
parasitoid pupal cases or timed to coincide with warm
hosts expense. Parasitic
emergence holes in insect periods when the target insect
insects and microbes are
bodies. Try to choose is most likely to be feeding.
important in the biological
management strategies that Once consumed, the Bt toxin
control of many pests. Plant
protect parasitoids, such as destroys the insects gut.
pathogens may be considered
using selective insecticides. Infected insects become leth-
parasites that cause disease
argic, stop feeding and die.
symptoms in plants. Parasitic microbes such as
fungi, bacteria and viruses can Parasites also keep pathogen
An insect that is parasitic on
cause diseases of insects. populations in check. For
other insects during its
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a instance, the fungus
immature stages but is free-
living as an adult is called a
parasitoid. Most parasitoids
are small flies or wasps.
Parasitoids are often common
in flowering plants such as fruit
A
crops and therefore are B
potentially very beneficial allies
of fruit growers. Some
parasitoids are specialists,
attacking one or a few host
species, while a few are E Parasitoid
generalists and use a wide life cycle
variety of other insects as
hosts. The free-living adults
often feed on the nectar
provided by flowers. The
female parasitoid finds a host
C
and lays eggs. The parasitoid
larva develops inside or on the
host. At first the larva feeds D
only on fatty tissues, allowing
the host to continue to grow
and develop. As the parasitoid Source: Michigan Field Crop Pest Ecology and Management. E-2704, 2000.
nears the end of its develop-

ment, it consumes the hosts A. A wasp lays an egg in a host (in this example, an aphid).
vital organs, killing it. The B and C. As the host feeds and grows, so does the wasp
parasitoid larva pupates and larva. D. The parasitoid kills, then pupates within the dead
later emerges as an adult. host. E. An adult parasitoid emerges from the dead host.
55
The good, the bad and the ugly

R. Isaacs
populations. Sampling monitoring pest populations.

provides information on the Higher pest densities can be
organisms present, their tolerated when populations of
stages of development, natural enemies are also high.
population densities and the For example, a mite spray may
ratio of pests to natural be warranted in apple when
enemies. A scout must know there are two or three mites per
how an organism develops leaf if there are no natural
because different life stages enemies, but a grower might
may be monitored in different wait until there are five or six
Ecological concept
ways. For example, you would per leaf if one predator mite
Many kinds of organisms sample fruit to look for grape per leaf is also present.
inhabit fruit production berry moth larvae but use Monitoring parasitoid
systems. pheromone traps to monitor populations can be tricky
adults. In addition, a single life often it is only the signs of their
Putting it into practice stage may move to different presence that can be readily
plant parts as the season detected. For example, aphid
Monitor both pest and
progresses. Oriental fruit moth parasitoids that feed within
beneficial species.
larvae attack terminal shoots their hosts cause the aphids to
A good scouting program is early in the season, feed in become puffy or mummified
key to making ecologically shoots and fruit in the middle and tan, golden or black.
sound pest management of the summer but infest only A round hole can be observed
decisions. The need for control fruit late in the season. where the wasp has cut its way
and the impact of any action out of the aphid mummy.
Sampling for predators and
are determined by monitoring
parasitoids is as important as
pest and natural enemy
Ampelomyces quisqualis Even more interesting are soil- Mutually beneficial

parasitizes powdery mildew inhabiting fungi that trap and relationships
fungi on several fruit crops. A devour nematodes with
commercial formulation can be specialized structures that Some parasitic fungi have
applied to slow disease resemble lollipops and lassos. mutually beneficial relation-
development by reducing vigor Bacteria are also known to ships with plants. For example,
and spore production of the parasitize nematodes. For mycorrhizae are fungi that live
mildew colonies. Also well example, the bacterium inside plant roots and generally
known are Trichoderma Pasteuria penetrans attacks the have a beneficial effect on the
species, which parasitize root knot nematode. plant. They use their extensive
soilborne pathogens such as threadlike mycelia to absorb
Rhizoctonia and Pythium. nutrients and water from the
56
W. Yang Some insects live together to produced by the diseased

benefit one another, and this can tissue. The spores, which are
make pest management more produced in a sweet sticky
challenging. Aphids can often matrix, easily stick to the bees
be found living in a mutually body and are delivered to the
beneficial arrangement with stigma where infection occurs.
colonies of ants. In this case, the Belowground, certain
aphids produce honeydew and nematodes are also vectors for
Mycorrhizael hyphae the ants harvest the sugary plant pathogens. The dagger
(the thin strands coming out liquid for food. Worker ants can nematode can transmit the
of the root) are very impor- be seen running between aphid tobacco and tomato ringspot
tant in blueberry, which has colonies and their nests in the viruses to various hosts,
no root hairs and relies on soil. In return, the ants protect including grapes. These
these fungi to increase the aphids from predators and may viruses cause a slow decline of
absorptive capacity of its even carry them to a better the grapevine.
roots. habitat if the plant starts to die.
This interaction can lead to rapid Alternative
increases in aphid populations food sources
soil, passing them on to the because natural enemies are
plant roots. In return, the plant prevented from regulating the Some predators and
provides shelter and nourishes aphids. parasitoids use alternative food
the fungus. Mycorrhizae may sources during the growing
also protect plant roots against season. These include prey or
Pathogen and vector
pathogen invasion. hosts other than pests, and
relationships
nectar-producing plants other
Another important interaction than fruit crops. If an alternative
among organisms in a fruit host is not available, the
crop is the role of insects in predator or parasitoid may not
spreading diseases. Blueberry survive or stay long enough in
aphids, which are pests in their the crop to control pests when
own right, can also vector needed. Predatory mites often
blueberry shoestring virus, feed on rust mites when their
which causes malformation of primary prey, spider mites, are
blueberry shoots and leaves absent or in low numbers.
and a decline in vigor and
Parasitoids may require an
productivity. The mummy berry
alternative host to complete
fungus forms a unique alliance
their life cycle. A small parasitic
with an insect that visits
wasp, Colpoclypeus florus, can
blueberry flowers daily. Bees
have a major impact on some
are fooled into thinking that the
leafroller populations in apple
T. Fox shoots covered with fungal
orchards. However, C. florus is
spores are actually flowers by
Ants tending aphids to often not present in high
the distinct UV patterns
benefit from the aphid-
produced honeydew. 57
parasitoid successfully
Mighty mites overwinter in this host on rose
and complete their develop-
ment early in the spring. They
Ecological concept then emerge and can fly to
colonize leafrollers in nearby
Predators often need an alternative food source.
orchards.
Putting it into practice Many natural enemies require

Manage orchard diversity to sustain E. Beers more than one kind of food to
predatory mites. develop normally and sustain
their populations. Syrphid fly
Predatory mites are among the most adults supplement their diets
effective biological control agents in by gathering and eating pollen
fruit crops. When present at the right from flowering plants. Where
time and in sufficient numbers, natural enemies have access
predatory mites can prevent harmful to pollen and nectar, there is
species of mites from reaching often more predation and lower
Zetzellia mali are
damaging levels. The most econo- abundance of pests. Similarly,
predatory mites that
mically damaging species of mites in feed on European parasitic wasps supplement
apple are collectively referred to as red mite. their diets by feeding on nectar,
spider mites, including the aphid honeydew and other
twospotted spider mite and the
European red mite. Another kind of mite, the apple rust mite, can
J. Brunner
become a pest of apple but also plays a beneficial role as an
alternative food source for predatory mites. This is a critical
component of mite biological control because it allows predatory
mites to survive when spider mite densities are low.
Rust mites should be controlled only if densities are too high.

Moderate populations of apple rust mite do little damage.
Control measures for rust mites as foliage feeders can be
withheld until 50 to 100 mites per leaf are detected. Even if
populations build to 200 to 300 per leaf in the summer, the
benefit of conserving rust mites as an alternative food source
may outweigh their potential to russet fruit or reduce yield.
numbers early in the season development. Another leafroller

because none of the leafrollers host of this parasitic wasp Parasitoid larvae of
in the orchard overwinter as overwinters as a large larva on Colpoclypeus florus
late instar larvae, the host size wild rose, found in wild habitats attacking a leafroller.
required to complete its around orchards. Larvae of the
58
sources of sugar. For example,

Trichogramma species are tiny Remember rotation
wasps that parasitize the eggs
of moths, such as codling
moth. Planting a cover crop
Ecological concept
that includes flowering plants is
a good way to provide nectar Rotating crops disrupts pathogen life cycles.
sources for these beneficial
insects, but care must be taken Putting it into practice
in selecting a cover crop that is
not a host for other pests. Rotate to reduce soilborne diseases of strawberry.
Some pathogens also need to Rotating crops for pest and disease management is not
find alternative hosts when a common in perennial fruit production except for strawberries,
fruit host is unavailable. For which are replanted more often. The disease Verticillium wilt is
example, the root knot difficult to control in strawberries. The best way to get rid of the
nematode can also reproduce pathogen is to starve it by rotating to a non-host crop such as
on dandelions in vineyards. oats or wheat. The field should not be planted to strawberries
This weed can also serve as a or any other susceptible crops, including tomatoes, peppers or
host for viruses that are potatoes, for three to five years to bring the pathogen
vectored by the dagger population down to non-damaging levels. For red stele,
nematode. Weed management however, the length of the
A. Schilder
is essential to reduce these rotation would need to be
types of risk. Cover crops that much longer because the
suppress weeds and nema- pathogen may persist in the
todes have been used in fruit soil for more than 10 years
systems and are likely to play after a strawberry crop.
an even more important role in
the future. Verticillium albo-
J. Landis
atrum, a soilborne fungus that
causes a severe wilt in straw-
berries, also attacks the roots
of many other hosts, especially
solanaceous crops such as
tomatoes, peppers and
potatoes. Growers are advised
not to plant strawberries after
Verticillium-susceptible crops.
59
Management The number of trees planted New tools are being developed
influences on the per acre has increased to manage fire blight on
community dramatically. This means that susceptible varieties in high-
fire blight can move more density plantings. For example,
Management practices change easily from tree to tree. there are a few size-controlling
the dynamics of the community rootstocks that are relatively
of pests and natural enemies More acres are being planted
resistant to fire blight. Certain
within the crop. The positive to highly susceptible
plant growth regulators reduce
effects, such as reduced pest cultivars, including Braeburn,
vigorous shoot growth and
numbers and increased yields, Fuji, Jonathan and Rome.
thereby reduce shoot
are obvious. Certain Size-controlling rootstocks, susceptibility to fire blight.
management decisions, many of which are highly Also, larger trees planted at
however, can have unintended susceptible to fire blight, are lower densities will not have the
impacts on the community. used to achieve high-density production potential of the
plantings. more modern orchard systems,
Impact of cultural but they will be more likely to
Trees are being pushed to
practices survive fire blight long enough
bear earlier, and training
to yield a crop.
Fire blight of apple and pear systems are being adopted
was once considered a that are very
sporadic disease that usually different from the P. McManus
could be managed by way apple trees

combining cultural and grow in nature.
chemical methods. Since the These modern
early 1990s, however, fire blight orchards have a
has plagued apple growers to high density of
a degree previously unknown. apple tissues such
Indeed, modern fire blight as flowers and
epidemics have been an young shoots that
economic disaster. are very susceptible
to fire blight.
The new face of fire blight
Traditional, low-
has resulted from several
density orchards
changes in the apple crop
also have
habitat. Genetic, physical and
susceptible tissues,
cultural factors have interacted
but they are
to create ideal conditions for
interspersed with a
growth and spread of the fire
lot of older, woody
blight pathogen:
tissues that are
much less favorable
to the growth of the
fire blight pathogen.
Fire blight on Honeycrisp.

60
Pesticide impacts on However, if black root rot predators can be helpful in

the community pathogens are reintroduced in keeping aphid populations
fumigated soil with infected from reaching damaging levels.
Although pesticide sprays are planting material, the disease The broad-spectrum
generally targeted against one comes back with a vengeance, insecticides that are used to
or a few pest populations, they presumably because control key pests are highly
often influence other pest and competitive organisms in the toxic to these predators. As a
non-pest species. Some soil have been eliminated by result, applying one of these
insecticides are very toxic to the fumigation. insecticides often leads to
predators and parasitoids. secondary outbreaks of aphid
Destroying these natural A secondary pest outbreak
populations. Pesticide
enemies often results in target occurs when a pesticide that
applications can also affect
pest resurgence or secondary was applied to control one pest
beneficial microbes, leading to
pest outbreaks. Some kills the natural enemies that
increased plant disease
pesticides have a greater were keeping a second pest
problems.
impact on the natural enemies population in check. For
than the target pest. Target example, a complex of
pest resurgence can result
when the unfavorable ratio of
pests to natural enemies
permits a rapid increase or
5 Orchards using mating disruption
resurgence of the pest for codling moth control
Leafroller larvae per 40 shoots
population. For example,

biological control of twospotted Orchards using broad-spectrum
4 insecticides for codling moth control
spider mite by predatory mites
is common in many fruit crops.
Insecticides that are applied
3
for control of pest mites and
insects are often highly toxic to
predatory mites. Some pest
2
mites survive the spray, but
most predators are killed. The
population of twospotted
1
spider mites is able to
rebound quickly, reaching
economically damaging levels
0
before its natural enemy can
1991 1992 1993
recolonize from unsprayed
Year
areas.
Source: Gut and Brunner. 1998. J. Agric. Entomolo. 15:307-405.
Preplant fumigation of the soil
is often used for control of Effects of codling moth control on a secondary pest
black root rot in strawberry. (leafrollers).
61
Secondary pest problems are Environmental Microclimate

not always associated with the
destruction of natural enemies.
effects on insects Microclimate refers to
Control of codling moth by and diseases weather conditions over a
distance of less than half a
mating disruption entails
Annemiek C. Schilder, Rufus mile. It includes climate effects
releasing enough sex phero-
Isaacs, Larry J. Gut, Jeff A. from the orchard or vineyard
mone into orchards to interfere
Andresen, Patricia S. McManus down to the microscopic scale.
with mate location, reducing
and Nikhil Mallampalli The endless combinations of
reproduction and subsequent
R. Isaacs characteristics such as crop
larval infestations. However,
canopy structure, topography
using this highly specific tactic
and soil type can create unique
in place of broad-spectrum
microclimates. Often micro-
insecticides can also have a
climates are understood only
significant impact on other
after years of observation.
potential pests. In disrupted
orchards, leafrollers that were Air temperature within crop
kept at non-damaging levels by canopies is not usually uniform
broad-spectrum insecticides but varies with height, depend-
are now suppressed only by ing on the architecture of the
natural enemies. Unless natural crop, time of day and cloud
controls provide sufficient cover. When the sun is shining,
suppression, leafroller popula- the highest temperature occurs
tions will increase, sometimes in the top of the canopy. Under
reaching damaging levels. overcast skies, temperatures
tend to be relatively uniform
In similar fashion, minor
A worker checks weather within crop canopies.
diseases that are not normally
data and insect traps in a
a problem can become Different rates of heating from
vineyard.
important when major diseases varying exposures to sunlight
are controlled. Because can greatly affect temperature
pathogens often compete for Weather and climate strongly in a small area. In a Michigan
space and nutrients, removing affect how organisms function forest, researchers recorded
one pathogen with a fungicide within an ecosystem. These temperatures inside gypsy
may benefit other pathogens effects include the rate at moth egg masses placed
that are not affected by that which organisms grow and 3 feet above the ground on four
particular fungicide. An develop and how some insects sides of an oak tree. Tempera-
example of this is the increase and pathogens are spread over tures were recorded at various
in Alternaria infections of time and space. Crop times on a clear fall day.
blueberry fruit in fields that managers can use weather Simultaneous temperatures on
have been treated with a data to help predict when the same tree varied as much
fungicide against anthracnose insect pests and pathogens will as 40F because of differences
fruit rot. be present and most in the amount of sunlight
vulnerable to control measures. shining on the egg masses.
62
Such differences lead to

significant variations in the rate
that organisms develop during
the growing season. In this
t us g
case, the date of egg hatch as ure
differed as much as three
weeks the following spring. ea
Many pest-plant interactions

take place on the plant surface,
so it is important to consider
that leaf temperature may vary
from air temperature because
of solar radiation or convective
cooling. The surface of a sunlit
leaf is commonly 8 to 15F
warmer than the surrounding
air. At night under clear skies,
leaves can cool to 8 to 15F
lower than the air temperature.
80
Air
Snow cover can also North
significantly modify surface or 70
South
West
soil temperatures by insulating
60
the ground from extreme cold
and fluctuating temperatures. 50
Snows capacity to insulate
overwintering crops depends 40
on its depth, age and density.
30
In a study of vineyard micro-
climates in Michigan, research- 20
ers observed daily maximum
and minimum temperatures at 10
various heights above and
below the soil surface. The 0
0 6 a.m. Noon 6 p.m. 12 a.m.
snow pack at the experimental
Time
site was approximately
16 inches deep. On a clear
February day, the coldest
minimum temperatures were the air temperature at 5 feet importance of snow cover for
observed at the top of the snow above the ground and 43F survival of vegetation and
pack near the coldest, densest colder than the soil surface insects that overwinter in or on
air. Temperatures at the snow temperature. This indicates the the soil.
surface were 11F colder than
63
Snow as an insulator
Air temperature 5 ft.
Maximum and minimum above soil: 0
temperatures were measured climate, understanding how
at various heights in a snow- environmental factors affect
covered vineyard on Feb. 14, crop pests and pathogens is
1997, in Mapleton, Mich. The
essential when developing
minimum temperature at the
snow surface was 11F colder effective control strategies. The
than the air temperature at physical environment strongly
5 feet above the ground and affects the life cycles of pests
Snow surface
43F colder than the soil
surface temperature.
16 in. above and pathogens as well as other
soil: -11 organisms in the community.
Soil surface: 32 The seasonal abundance and
activity of organisms are mostly
due to changes in climatic
80 conditions.
Min
Max Temperature is the most
60 important environmental factor
for insects because it deter-
mines their rate of growth. Daily
40 light and dark cycles regulate
the timing of flight and other
activities, and the long-term
30 changes in day length through
Snow surface
the seasons serve as a signal
Soil surface for some insects to start or end
20
dormancy. Typically, insects
will enter dormancy as the day
length shortens in the fall by
-20
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 developing an overwintering
Temperature (F) stage able to withstand cold
temperatures. The insect will
emerge in the spring as the
Moisture in the crop canopy smaller. In a transpiring crop, temperature rises.
occurs as humidity (water the water vapor pressure close The environment can have
vapor in the air) or water due to to the leaf surface where either a direct effect on
rain or dew. Relative humidity pathogens grow may be close pathogens or an indirect effect
can be significantly different to saturation. by influencing the health and
within the canopy and in the air growth of the crop. For foliar
above the crop. During the day, Environmental effects pathogens, the microclimate of
relative humidity in the crop is on the community the plant surface plays a
generally higher because of dominant role, while the
transpiration by the crop. At Although there is usually little
physical and chemical nature
night, the differences are we can do to control or
of the soil is important for
manipulate the crop micro-
64
A. Schilder
soilborne pathogens. Moisture, can stop development, but
temperature, wind and light these conditions are rare in the
affect pathogens throughout Midwest region of the United
most phases of the disease States.
cycle.
Insect feeding activity is also
greater on warm days, so
Temperature insecticides that need to be
Microbes, whether fungi or eaten by larvae (such as Bts or
bacteria, have minimum, growth regulators) are most
maximum and optimum effective when temperatures
temperatures for growth, remain above 70F. Pollination,
infection and sporulation. mating and flight are also
These requirements differ for dependent on temperature.
each organism, although most This environmental factor is
are not active below 40F or important for insect-related
above 95F. Sometimes aspects of pest management.
diseases develop when As the weather cools in the fall,
temperatures are less favorable development slows and
for plants than for pathogens, generations take longer to
Spores of the Eutypa
thereby giving the pathogens develop.
dieback fungus are able to
an advantage.
infect pruning wounds at
temperatures just above
Moisture
Some pathogens need a
chilling period, just like their freezing when the grape- Moisture is a key factor for
hosts, to break dormancy. The vine is dormant and wound fungal and bacterial pathogens
mummy berry fungus likely healing is slow. Eutypa and beneficials because they
needs at least 1,200 hours of dieback symptoms are are mostly unprotected in air
temperatures below 45F for visible in these Concord and on plant surfaces and can
the mummies to germinate in grape leaves. easily dry out. Most require
northern climates. This fungus high humidity and need free
is able to synchronize its increase above the minimum water for a certain length of
germination with blueberry bud temperature threshold. Growth time to germinate or infect.
break to an uncanny degree. is faster on hot days than on Grape downy mildew spores
cold days, and so insect life can germinate only in free
Most insects will grow and
cycles are accelerated during water, making infection most
develop when a minimum
the summer compared with the likely after dew or rain. In
temperature is met. This critical
cooler spring and fall. This contrast, powdery mildew can
temperature is different for
results in rapid multiplication of be a problem even in areas of
each insect species and may
insect pests during warm low rainfall because its spores
vary for different life stages of
periods, especially in aphids, may germinate in low to
the same species. Dormancy is
which can reproduce asexually. moderate relative humidity.
broken and growth begins in
Some very high temperatures Bacteria also need a film of
the spring when temperatures
65
Adapted Mills Tablea
Approximate wetting period required for primary apple scab

water on the plant surface infection at various air temperatures and time required for conidia
to enter natural plant to develop.
openings.
Wetness requirements vary Average air Wetting period (hr)b Incubation

by fungus and temperature Light Moderate Heavy periodc
temperature. The closer to F C infection infection infection (days)
the optimum temperature 78 25.6 13 17 26
for fungal growth, the 77 25.0 11 14 21
shorter the period of leaf 76 24.4 9.5 12 19
wetness needed for 63-75 17.2-23 9 12 18 9
infection to take place. At 62 16.7 9 12 18 10
70F, the apple scab 61 16.1 9 13 20 10
fungus needs 9 hours of 60 15.6 9.5 13 20 11
wetness to cause infection, 59 15.0 10 13 21 12
whereas at 40F, 29 hours 58 14.4 10 14 21 12
of wetness are needed. 57 13.9 10 14 22 13
The Mills Table describes 56 13.3 11 15 22 13
the minimum 55 12.8 11 16 24 14
environmental 54 12.2 11.5 16 24 14
requirements for apple 53 11.7 12 17 25 15
scab infection. 52 11.1 12 18 26 15
Moisture is also important 51 10.6 13 18 27 16
for fungal sporulation and 50 10.0 14 19 29 16
bacterial multiplication. 49 9.4 14.5 20 30 17
Leaf-infecting fungi require 48 8.9 15 20 30 17
high relative humidity for 47 8.3 15 23 35
sporulation, although 46 7.8 16 24 37
powdery mildew can 45 7.2 17 26 40
sporulate under widely 44 6.6 19 28 43
varying humidity levels. 43 6.1 21 30 47
For those fungi that require 42 5.5 23 33 50
free water for sporulation, 41 5.0 26 37 53
the duration needed is 40 4.4 29 41 56
often longer than that for 39 3.9 33 45 60
infection. Intermittent dry 38 3.3 37 50 64
periods often enhance 37 2.7 41 55 68
sporulation. 33 - 36 0.5 - 2.2 48 72 96
Moisture is rarely a limiting a Adapted from Mills, 1944; modified by A.L. Jones.
factor for insects in humid b The infection period starts when rain begins.
regions. Larvae and adult
c Approximate number of days required for conidial development
after the start of the infection period.
66
A. Schilder
is restricted, such as in dense spores are released at an
canopies and behind wind- optimal time. The Phomopsis
breaks. Airflow can be fungus in grapes needs light
increased by pruning, canopy to produce fruiting bodies, so
management, wider plant they tend to occur on plant
spacing, proper training surfaces where spores are
systems and avoiding over- likely to be dispersed.
fertilization. Good weed Alternaria species need a
control can also reduce the period of light followed by
humidity within a crop. darkness to produce spores.
This ensures that the spores
Light are mature in the morning and
ready to be dispersed when
The causal agent of leather Light and darkness are
the wind picks up during
rot needs only a half hour important in regulating
midday. Apothecia of the
of wetness to infect sporulation in fungi so that
blueberry mummy berry
strawberry fruit.
insects can gain water by

Humid hideout
eating plant tissue or sucking
A. Schilder
plant sap, and adult moths
might suck water from Ecological concept
dewdrops. If there is a
Reduce humidity to reduce
prolonged drought, insects
disease.
such as Japanese beetle
grubs that live underground
and need moisture for part of Putting it into practice
their life might be affected. Midseason leaf removal
Fruit fly emergence is reduces Botrytis bunch rot in
impeded by dry weather and grapes.
activated by rain. Growers can
use weather predictions and The fungus that causes Botrytis
trap counts to predict the risk bunch rot of grapes thrives in
of attack by these flies in humid environments. Disease is
blueberry, cherry and apple more severe in lush canopies.
plantings. Removing the leaves around
grape clusters exposes them to
Using cultural methods to airflow and reduces the
reduce moisture in the crop humidity, slowing disease
canopy helps avoid disease development. Leaf removal has other benefits, including even
outbreaks. Relative humidity ripening from increased sun exposure and improved
and wetness duration are coverage by pesticides.
generally higher when airflow
67
P. Wharton
fungus grow toward the light, air or water) and deposition (by
which helps them emerge from gravity, impaction or rain).
soil and dead leaf layers on the Some fungi have active release
ground. Light, unfortunately, is mechanisms. The fungus that
difficult to manipulate, except causes brown rot of stone fruit
in greenhouses. forcefully ejects ascospores,
sometimes up to an inch, from
Insects are affected by light in
its apothecia. Active release is
two ways. The daily light and
frequently triggered by
dark cycles determine when
changes in humidity,
insects are flying, feeding and Two swimming spores of temperature or light.
mating. Many moths are the downy mildew fungus
nocturnal, while bees and other inside a sporangium. Wind can also remove spores
insects are most active during by blowing them from plant
the day and rest at night. surfaces or by shaking foliage
Insects also use day length as moisture. Flooding and surface and flowers. Wind speeds tend
a signal to begin dormancy. As runoff are important in to be lower within the crop
day length shortens in the fall, dispersing these soilborne canopy, so gusts are thought to
pupae that develop at this time organisms over larger areas. be important in getting spores
of year are adapted to survive There are three phases of into the air layers above the
through the cold winter months. pathogen dispersal: release crop for dispersal over greater
(active or passive), travel (by distances. Mummy berry shoot
Pest dispersal strikes in blueberries caused
Most adult insects move in P. Wharton
search of food and sites for

reproduction. They are most
likely to fly at particular wind
speeds and temperatures that
allow successful dispersal, but
they are inhibited by rain.
Pathogens tend to be more
passive, depending mostly on
wind or rain to get from plant to
plant or from field to field.
Exceptions are nematodes,
which can swim, and soil-borne
pathogens such as
Phytophthora and Pythium,
which produce swimming
spores. However, these can
move only short distances even
when there is enough soil
Blueberry mummyberry apothecia disperse spores by puffing
them into the air.
68
Wind:
Prevailing dispersed
wind Uniform in
by ascospores are direction direction distances between plants
of prevailing
typically more numerous wind. are smaller. Some
downwind from a source. pathogens use both
Fruit infection caused by tactics. The grape black
bee-dispersed conidia rot fungus uses
tends to be more severe windborne ascospores
Rain:
upwind, because bees Prevailing dispersed produced on fruit
wind clumped.
tend to fly upwind while direction mummies to get from the
foraging. In some cases, ground into the canopy.
soilborne pathogens can Then conidia produced
be dispersed by wind- on leaf lesions are
blown soil. Insect: splashed by rain to the
dispersed
uniform, developing fruit. The
Rain or overhead Prevailing
sometimes
wind dispersal mechanisms of
irrigation can splash direction upwind if
dispersed insects are similar to
fungal spores and by bees.
those of pathogens, but
bacteria from plant
wind has greater impact
surfaces or wash them off
and rain has less.
in runoff water. Splash Machine:
dispersed
droplets can be thrown down the
Pathogens can also be
more than a meter from row in the dispersed by farm equip-
direction of
the point of splash, but equipment ment. For example,
most travel only a few movement. blueberry mechanical
centimeters. Soilborne harvesting machines
pathogens are often have been shown to
dispersed by water How pathogens are dispersed. Disease move the blueberry
flowing through soil. distribution in a field varies with method aphid and the shoestring
of pathogen dispersal from a diseased virus it transmits from
Dispersal distances are source plant. Above, red dots indicate infected to uninfected
usually smaller for rain location of source plant; green dots plants down the row.
splash-dispersed indicate locations of infected plants. Washing the harvester
pathogens than for
between fields is a
windborne pathogens,
simple way to reduce
except in the case of
transfer of this virus from
wind-driven rain or splash
field to field.
droplets that form
aerosols in the wind.
Rain-dispersed
pathogens also tend to This aerial view of a
spread more readily blueberry field indicates
along the rows than that machinery spread
across rows because the blueberry shoestring
virus down the rows.
Amer. Phytopath. Soc.

69
R. Isaacs
Using weather and day, the GDD total for that day
climate information is added to the previous total to
to predict pests create a cumulative number of
and diseases GDDs. Pest managers can use
the GDD total to predict
We can forecast pest develop- emergence, egg laying and
ment using mathematical other important events based
models because pest on the amount of heat
development is closely linked accumulated in the vineyard,
to weather conditions. Because field, bed or orchard.
of the close relationship
between temperature and Models have been developed
insect growth, crop managers that link GDDs to the stage of
can predict when many insects A laptop computer downloads development of some key
will be active by recording weather data collected at a pests and, to a lesser extent,
temperature data. Sometimes fruit farm for pest monitoring. beneficial insects. Using a
more than one environmental maximum-minimum thermo-
variable is needed to create an meter, preferably placed in or
effective model. When natural enemies, there are also near the crop, growers can
predicting fungal infection low and high temperature track the development of
periods, temperature, humidity thresholds for development. insects on their farm. One
and leaf wetness need to be degree-day is accumulated
Because temperatures may when the average temperature
considered. Models are
vary widely from year to year, for a day is one degree over
designed to be simple to use
pest management strategies the lower limit (base temper-
but accurate at predicting pest
may not be effective if control ature) needed for develop-
events under most
measures are based on ment. A base temperature for
environmental conditions.
calendar dates rather than on each organism is used in the
insect development. Often the calculation because very little
Growing degree-day stage of insect development growth occurs below the base
models for insect can be tied to the growth stage temperature. Growth rates also
information of the crop because plant are reduced when tempera-
Because insects are cold- growth is also driven by tures exceed the upper
blooded, the growth of adults, temperature. A widely used threshold, and so the maximum
larvae and eggs is driven by tool for predicting insect growth is set to this value if
temperature. As the tempera- is the growing degree-day temperatures become hotter.
ture fluctuates within these (GDD) model. These models
calculate the number of GDDs There are many sophisticated
limits, development speed
or heat units that are methods for estimating GDDs
changes, with faster growth
accumulated between the based on more than maximum
typically occurring at warmer
minimum (base) temperature and minimum temperatures.
temperatures. For all insect
threshold and the upper For example, computer
pests, diseases and their
threshold. At the end of every programs can be used to keep
70
track of GDD accumulation counted from a specific period. Often optimal timing for
based on hourly temperature biological event, called a biofix an insecticide application is
data. However, for most uses, the date when the first adult during egg hatch because this
the method below provides is captured in a pheromone or is when the insect is most
sufficient ability to predict other trap, provided additional vulnerable. At a set number of
major events in insect adults are captured on two GDDs after biofix, sprays
development. successive trapping dates. aimed at the pest can be
This may be called the first applied to target the
The start point for accumulat-
sustained capture. Using a appropriate stage of the insect.
ing GDDs can be decided in
biofix is usually more accurate For many of the apple and
two ways. Either GDDs are
and means that the GDDs have cherry pest insects, the
counted from a set date, such
to be counted for a shorter number of GDDs from first
as March 1, or they are
How to calculate growing degree days
To calculate the number of GDDS accumulated per day, you need to know:
1) The upper threshold temperature (T high) and lower threshold (T low) for development of the
organism you are interested in.
2) The minimum daily temperature.
3) The maximum daily temperature.
The method below enables easy tracking of GDDS with a simple max-min thermometer.
The following examples are for an insect with a lower threshold of 42 and an upper threshold of 86.
When this method is used for other insects, their threshold values should be used in the equations.
Growing degree days (GDD) = (T max +T min)/2 T low
Where T max is maximum daily temperature and is set to the upper threshold when temperatures
exceed it. T min is the minimum daily temperature and is set to T low when temperatures fall below
this value. T low is the base temperature for the insect.
1. Temperatures within insects development thresholds.

A day with a low of 50 and a high of 78: (78+50)/2 - 42 = 22 GDD
2. Temperature drops below insects lower threshold.

A day with a low of 30 and a high of 70: (70+42)/2 - 42 = 14 GDD
3. Temperature goes outside both the higher and lower thresholds.

A day with a low of 28 and a high of 88: (86+42)/2 42 = 22 GDD
71
sustained catch to egg

hatch is well known. GDDs are better than a Ph.D. for
Keeping track of the controlling this pest
number of GDDs after
biofix makes it possible to
determine the optimal Ecological moth is
timing for control concept predicted to
measures. It is therefore occur around
important to check traps Temperature is a
1200 to 1250
often near the start of adult major driver of
GDDS after
emergence. insect growth.
biofix. The
model predicts
Above all, remember that Putting it ARS, USDA many other key
degree-day accumulations
into practice biological
should be used only as a
Use a degree-day model to time events, such as the end of first
guide for making
codling moth sprays. and second generation activity,
management decisions.
which are expected at 1000 and
Ultimate decisions should
The codling moth is the key pest 2100 GDD, respectively.
also be based heavily on
of pome fruits in most parts of
frequent scouting of the Use of a degree-day model can
the world. For over 15 years, a
crop for the presence of substantially improve the timing
degree-day model based on
insects or insect damage. of insecticides for codling moth
maximum and minimum
temperatures has been used to control. Researchers at
help time insecticide sprays for Washington State University
Disease
this pest. The lower and upper compared the accuracy of the
prediction models
thresholds for codling moth are degree-day model and a
Disease prediction models 50F and 88F. The codling moth calendar approach for predicting
usually predict one or more degree-day model begins with first egg hatch or fruit entry in
critical phases in epidemic the first consistent catch of apple. In each of 10 years, the
development, such as the moths in pheromone traps degree-day model predicted
presence of primary or (biofix). The degree-day total is larval entry within two days of the
secondary inoculum or an set to zero at this time. Control actual event. In contrast, the
infection period. Infection sprays are applied in calendar approach predicted
periods are times when the accordance with biological egg hatch on average a week
minimum environmental events that are predicted by the early, and in three of 10 years, it
conditions have been met model. Broad-spectrum contact was off by two weeks. Applying
for infection to take place. insecticides are timed for control an insecticide well before egg
Environmental data such as of young larvae as they hatch hatch can result in poor codling
temperature, relative from eggs and before they enter moth control and increase the
humidity and leaf wetness the fruit. So, the first spray is number of sprays required for
are typically needed to run applied at the predicted start of seasonlong protection.
disease prediction models. egg hatch, which is 250 GDDs
Research in Michigan after biofix. Egg hatch for the
second generation of codling
72
indicates that leaf wetness can Because temperature primarily In practice, most apple scab
vary significantly over short determines when ascospores prediction systems assume
distances and heights in a mature, models rely on the that inoculum is present in the
crop, especially late in the accumulation of GDDs. The orchard and focus on
growing season when the counting of GDDs for apple predicting infection. The leaf
canopy is most dense. The use scab prediction generally starts microclimate in particular,
of models, such as for apple at the green-tip stage of apple temperature and duration of
scab, that predict disease fruit bud development because wetness is monitored. If the
severity on the basis of leaf the first mature ascospores and temperature and wetness
wetness may be complicated bud break happen at about the conditions required for infection
by the variations in micro- same time. Ascospore are met, an infection period
climate. For models that predict maturation usually peaks just has occurred. Following an
infection periods, fungicides prior to bloom. Of course, infection period, a grower can
are generally applied after the mature ascospores are a threat prevent further fungal growth
fact, which means that only if they are discharged, and disease development by
growers have to use curative, and this requires rain. Heavy applying a curative fungicide
systemic fungicides. Models dew can trigger discharge but with postinfection or kickback
and curative fungicides are not not as effectively as rain. activity.
available for all diseases. Most
models are based on current or
past weather data but can also
be run using predicted weather 3
data. Those based on predic-
fection
tions, however, are less

accurate. 2
Degree ofi in
Predicting apple scab 1

infection periods
Springtime means scab season 0
9
for apple growers in moist, 7
Se
temperate climates. 5
nso
Researchers have developed 3 Aug 26

r
1 Aug 7
several apple scab prediction July 18
Disease inside June 28
models that help growers use the canopy June 8
Date
fungicides more efficiently. Disease outside
the canopy
These models are focused on
two key events in the life cycle
of the scab pathogen: Predicted degree of apple scab infection at nine locations within a
maturation and discharge of Benton Harbor, Mich., apple orchard (2000 growing season).
ascospores, and infection by Disease predictions were calculated from leaf wetness measure-
ascospores and conidia. ments using the Mills table as modified by Jones (see page 66).
73
Start of Petal
bloom fall
80
Predicting fire blight 70 F
Average temperature
Percent of threshold
infection Threshold
60 100
Several fire blight prediction
models have been developed 75
50
to help apple and pear growers
50
manage this potentially
40
catastrophic disease. None of Predicted Erwinia 25
amylovora population
the models actually involves
30 0
trapping and counting the fire Days from start of green tip
blight pathogen, Erwinia
amylovora, in the manner done
for insect pest models. Instead,
In the MARYBLYT predictive model for fire blight, the risk of
the population is estimated
blossom infection is based on the occurrence of high pathogen
from cumulative heat units:
populations on plant surfaces during bloom when rain or dew is
degree-hours and degree-
sufficient to facilitate infection. In the accompanying graph, the
days. Growth of the pathogen
horizontal red line represents the threshold above which there is
on flowers and subsequent
a risk of infection. The golden-shaded zone marks the risk
infection that leads to blossom
period, beginning with first bloom and ending with petal fall.
blight are key stages in the
The gray line shows the average daily temperature. The blue
disease cycle. Even if blossom
line represents the predicted population of E. amylovora on the
blight causes little direct dam-
basis of cumulative degree-hours and degree-days. The
age or yield loss, it allows the
dramatic spikes and dips reflect the explosive growth of the
pathogen to become estab-
pathogen during warm weather and stalled growth in cool
lished in apple and pear trees.
weather. Blossom infections are predicted when the gray line
and the blue line are above threshold and there is rain or dew.
How could long-term (Figure adapted from MARYBLYT users manual.)
climate change affect
pest management?
changes in pest pressure that growing degree-day totals and
The climate across the Great
could be of equal or greater daily temperature data under
Lakes region during the next
importance to crop perform- historical and projected
several decades is projected to
ance and management conditions. Temperature data
become warmer and wetter, so
options. for the decade 2090-99 were
scientists are beginning to
taken from a model that
explore what this means for One study has examined the
predicts future climate
pest management. While potential impacts of a warmer
conditions. In the table, the
potential direct impacts of climate on Great Lakes apple
results are given at five
climate change on crop yield production by looking at
locations across the region
and carbon dioxide enrichment codling moth data. In this
comparing differences
have been explored, few research, the life cycle of the
between the recent and future
studies have addressed the pest and the apple crop were
decades. Seasonal GDD
indirect impacts such as simulated using seasonal
74
accumulations were predicted Influence of commonly based on the area

to increase as much as 648 inside these crop borders.
units over past totals, an
surrounding However, fruit crops exist within
increase of 25 percent. The landscapes on larger ecosystems that can be
warmer seasonal conditions pest management described as local, regional,
would result in an increased continental or global. These
number of codling moth Rufus Isaacs, Nikhil ecological units can signifi-
generations at most locations. Mallampalli, Larry J. Gut, cantly affect the productivity of
Under this future scenario, new Annemiek C. Schilder, the crops within them. Of the
management strategies to Patricia S. McManus larger ecological scales, the
control the third generation of immediate landscape and the
In referring to fruit crops, we
codling moth close to harvest region are the most relevant for
often speak of the orchard,
would need to be available. planning pest management
vineyard, bed or field.
strategies. In this context, one
Management decisions are
can think of the landscape as
Potential climate change effects on codling moth
Simulated impacts of climate change on the number of codling moth generations for historical
(1960-89) and projected future (2090-99) periods. The future conditions were generated using a
general circulation model, the UKMO/Hadley Centre Model. The changes are expressed as
differences between the projected future climate and historical conditions.
Parameter Scenario Sturgeon Bay, E. Jordan, Eau Claire, Harrow, Fredonia,

Wisconsin Michigan Michigan Ontario New York
Seasonal GDD 1960-89 2176 2162 2786 2644 2561

accumulation1
2090-99 2622 2659 3241 3260 3209
GDD increase +446 +497 +455 +616 +648
Number of 1960-89 2 2 3 3 2
generations
per season 2090-99 2.5 3 3 3 3
Increase in +0.5 +1 +0 +0 +1
generations
1Seasonal GDD totals were calculated using the Baskerville-Emin methodology for base and upper
threshold temperatures of 50F and 88F, respectively, and accumulated each year from March 1
through the simulated beginning of insect diapause during the following fall.
75
being the area immediately insects, such as Japanese predatory insects and mites.
surrounding the crop. By beetle on sassafrass, that then Predatory animals such as
understanding the influence of move to the fruit crop. Weed foxes and hawks may gain
landscape-level and regional seeds can be carried into the shelter in woods and can help
effects on the community of crop from surrounding habitats to keep vertebrate pests under
organisms within fruit crops, by wind and animals. control. Living hedgerow
growers can tailor pest Neighboring woods and barriers can reduce
management decisions to the windbreaks may promote immigration of pests into
ecology of the larger system. disease development by orchards. Recent studies in
Michigan peach and apple
production systems revealed
that barriers around the
orchard perimeter reduced the
number of aphids and moths
moving into orchards. In
addition, treating the outside
Planet Region
Farm/Orchard
hedgerow barrier with
repellents or low rates of
insecticides may repel or
irritate many pest species that
frequently invade orchards
from outside sources. The
challenge for growers as
Parasitoid
guardians of rural lands is to
R. Isaacs
Positive and reducing airflow and increasing

negative effects humidity in the crop or by
creating shade that promotes
Surrounding landscapes have leaf wetness. Vertebrate pests
both positive and negative such as deer, raccoons and
impacts on pest management fruit-feeding birds can seek
in crops. Negative impacts may shelter in woods.
involve a disease or insect pest
moving into a crop from wild On the positive side, surround-
hosts in surrounding woods. ing habitats can shelter crops
For example, chokecherries in from wind, greatly reducing the
surrounding woods can harbor risk of crop damage during
X-disease, which can be storms. They can act as
brought into a peach or cherry refuges for predators,
orchard by various species of pollinators and parasites, and
leafhoppers. Some plants may may provide pollen that acts as
also be attractive hosts for a nutritional resource for some
This strawberry field flourishes
beside some pines.
76
balance these positive and blotch inhabit diverse woody Enhancing biological
negative impacts of plants, especially brambles. control through
surrounding habitats on their During spring rains, spores are habitat management
fruit production while blown into orchards from
maintaining a profitable adjacent forests, woodlots and Biological control, also called
business. hedgerows. Growers who use biocontrol, can be a powerful
protectant fungicides in early tool that growers can harness
cover spray programs to to keep pests from reaching
Managing local manage scab will also reduce economic thresholds. As Carl
landscape effects primary infection by the Huffaker, one of the founders of
flyspeck/sooty blotch insect biocontrol studies, once
The overall ecology of fruit crop
pathogens. However, if primary said, When we kill off the
systems is most often affected
infections are not controlled, natural enemies of a pest, we
by what happens within the
disease pressure will increase inherit their work.
landscape nearest the crop.
Many landscape effects from inoculum in wild reservoirs Maintaining an active population
happen at predictable times in and within the orchard in mid- of beneficial organisms in a fruit
the growing season and so are to late summer. It is not crop requires some planning
more manageable for the fruit practical to destroy all wild because broad-spectrum
grower. Some pest insects and hosts of flyspeck/sooty blotch, insecticides and fungicides are
diseases develop on weed but it would be wise to remove generally quite toxic to them.
hosts early in the season and bramble species adjacent to Choosing pesticides with more
then move into the crop as it commercial apple and pear selective modes of action is a
matures. Such interactions can plantings to reduce the risk of first step, but biocontrol agents
be managed by enhancing flyspeck problems. will be more effective if
biological control activity in the overwintering habitat is also
weed host habitats, by provided. Placing appropriate
removing weed hosts where host plants near a crop for
possible and by planting parasitoid overwintering means
appropriate cover crops. In
addition, pest movement into A. Jones A. Jones
the crop from wild habitats can

often be predicted, and
appropriate controls can be
planned to target their most
susceptible stage if they do
move into the crop.
Flyspeck and sooty blotch are

two diseases that often occur
together on commercial apple
and pear fruit. The fungus that
causes flyspeck and the The fungi that cause sooty blotch and flyspeck on apples
multiple fungi that cause sooty inhabit brambles and other woody plants.
77
overwintering success of these

Waifs from the woods natural enemies, increasing
early-season parasitism of
leafhopper eggs.
Ecology Concept
Planting appropriate ground
Pests move from native hosts to cover in or around a fruit crop
agricultural crops. can also enhance natural
enemy abundance and
Putting it into Practice success. For example, in apple
orchards, using buckwheat or
Target controls only to areas
faba bean as a ground cover
where pest is present.
has been shown to increase
Wild grape plants are common the number of parasitoids
in woods throughout eastern attacking leafrollers. In other
North America and are the only orchard studies, border
wild host for grape berry plantings of flowering cover
moths. Vineyards planted near crops such as barley, rye and
woods are at high risk from this common vetch provided
pest, and damage is usually additional nectar, allowing
greatest at the vineyard edge R. Isaacs
beneficial insects such as
next to woods. ladybird beetles, lacewings
and syrphid flies to flourish
To combat this pest and to determine whether vines are most at
near fruit crops throughout the
risk at the edge, grape growers can monitor for grape berry
growing season.
moths using pheromone traps and by sampling fruit during key
times in July and August. This information can be used to decide
whether management is necessary and if spraying only the
Some benefits
vineyard border is possible. Determining that damage is limited of cover crops
to the border rows can help save on the cost and time of treating Planting cover crops provides
the whole vineyard. Targeted spraying can also have a positive many benefits to a fruit grower if
effect on the activity of natural enemies that attack grape berry they are used appropriately.
moth larvae. Fertilizer costs can be reduced,
fewer pesticides may be
needed, and the health of the
more wasp and fly parasitoids A well documented example is soil can be improved. The lower
will be available in the spring to that of parasitic wasps that levels of soil erosion compared
decrease pest populations. attack the grape leafhopper in with bare ground and the
These alternative habitats need California vineyards. These improvement in moisture
to be close to the crop for wasps overwinter in prune retention under cover crops
maximum benefit because most trees, which are often not can help minimize the impact of
parasitoids are not strong fliers. present near vineyards. fruit production on the
Planting vineyard borders with ecosystem. Cover crops can
French prune trees improved help reduce pests by creating
78
C. Edson
production Long-range insect and
systems. pathogen movement
Current
research Most insects can fly short to
conducted in medium distances, but some
Michigan pests travel hundreds or even
cherry, apple thousands of miles on strong
In the foreground, a ground cover of white and blueberry winds. Much less is known
and red clover, alfalfa and rye surrounds tart plantings aims about the long-range transport
cherry trees. to better of beneficials, although they
understand have been found at great
the complex heights. Winds generally
an unfavorable habitat, such as increase in strength with height
effects of ground cover
marigolds for nematode in the atmosphere, and most
management on pest and
suppression, or by increasing long-range transport occurs at
beneficial insects and the
the activity of natural enemies heights above 3,000 feet.
productivity of fruit systems.
with flowering plants. Many
insect natural enemies require
pollen or nectar to survive, and
this resource can be scarce in
A fix for whats bugging you
some crop monocultures.
Providing a ground cover that Ecological hosts in the orchard
supplies these resources floor, adult activity
concept
means that natural enemies can and fruit injury
survive periods when pests are Non-crop habitats
within the tree are
scarce so that pests can be influence pest
often influenced by
attacked when they are abundance.
ground cover
present. management.
Putting it A. Howitt
The suitability of a cover crop High populations of
into practice
for the field and crop needs to tarnished plant bug usually
be determined before planting. Manipulate ground cover to occur in orchards where
For example, some plant reduce tarnished plant bug flowering broadleaf weeds are
species are tolerant of acid numbers. abundant. Eliminating these
soils or shade, while others will hosts through good weed
The tarnished plant bug is a
not establish in these control is an effective tactic for
general feeder found on many
conditions. Some cover crops minimizing this pests
herbaceous plants. Among
may enhance the habitat for abundance and damage.
the preferred hosts are
pests, but this can be offset by Careful selection of an orchard
mullein, alfalfa, clover, vetch,
increased abundance and ground cover can aid in
chickweed and dandelion.
diversity of natural enemies. reducing tarnished plant bug
Only adults are found on fruit
We are only beginning to problems. Choose grasses
crops, attacking buds, flowers
understand how to integrate that are highly competitive and
and fruit. Because of the
cover crops into fruit minimize the establishment of
intimate link with alternate
broadleaf weeds.
79
Insects may reach the higher, of the atmosphere and back to carried northward up the
stronger winds through flight or the ground. Otherwise, they Mississippi Valley, and when
be lifted by turbulent winds return to the surface by choice the winds decrease or
during daytime hours. Viruses (as when detecting a potential precipitation knocks the
may hitch a ride with vector host species on the ground), leafhoppers from the air, they
insects that travel on prevailing by gravity or by fatigue. are deposited onto the ground.
winds. Fungal spores of some These storms can lead to a
A well studied example of long-
species have been detected in sudden increase in the number
range movement of insects is
the atmosphere at heights of of leafhoppers in fruit and other
the potato leafhopper, a pest of
1,500 to 3,000 feet and also crops. The potato leafhopper
most fruit crops in the Midwest.
have the potential to be damages plants as it feeds,
In spring, it develops on pines
dispersed over long distances. creating hopper-burn from
and then on legumes in the
the toxins in its saliva. It can
The likelihood of long-range southern states. When
also transmit virus diseases of
transport increases with sufficient energy reserves are
fruit crops.
turbulence and the frequency built up, large populations can
of frontal passages. Precipita- take flight on winds headed
tion can pull the organisms out north. The leafhoppers are
Wind
Long-distance
movement
Short-range
movement
Distant farm
or natural area
Regional
Your farm movement
Neighbor's
farm
Pests and beneficial organisms can arrive at a farm by moving from nearby or distant fields and
natural areas. Understanding how movement of various pests is influenced by weather conditions
enables growers to plan appropriate monitoring and management.
80
Frequent fliers
R. Isaacs
Ecological concept
Insects can migrate over long
distances.
Putting it into practice

Monitor for potato leafhopper
when spring weather
conditions are appropriate for
their arrival.
By regularly monitoring
susceptible fruit crops after
spring storms, growers can
determine when potato leaf-
hopper has arrived. From then
on, frequent monitoring and
pest management tactics can
be directed toward maintain-
ing the population below an
economic threshold.
Cloudbursts such as the one pictured can deposit huge

numbers of leafhoppers and other airborne pests onto
fruit crops.
81
Chapter 3. The human setting
Chapter and extends to the families and

Production
employees on whom growers
questions rely, the communities where and marketing
How can ecological fruit is grown, distributors and strategy: How
management offer fruit processors who establish
growers special marketing intermediate markets, the best to grow
opportunities? consumers who buy the fruit fruit depends
and the diners who eat it. The
How can non-farm neighbors
human setting also includes
upon who will
become valued customers
and allies of farming? the organizations that research buy it
and advise on all these stages
How can a grower attract and
from farm to table, as well as
retain the skilled workers Scott Swinton, Michelle
the government agencies that
needed for ecological fruit Worosz, Craig Harris,
regulate various aspects of
management? Vera Bitsch, James Nugent
growing and processing fruit.
and Larry Mawby
Fruit growers operate within a To fruit growers interested in
human setting that affects their ecological management, this
In the supermarket produce
production choices as much as setting offers special
department, large, perfect,
the natural setting. The human challenges as well as special
individual apples sell for
setting begins with the grower opportunities.
double the price of the
A. Schilder medium-sized bagged apples
across the aisle. Organic
apples sell for even more. The
first price difference arises
because most consumers
prefer large, good-looking fruit
to smaller, less striking fruit.
The organic apples attract a
still higher premium from
consumers who perceive them
as a healthier choice.
The growers who produce the

three classes of apples follow
different marketing strategies.
The bagged apples are a
commodity and cost the least
to produce. To make a profit,
82
their growers keep costs as low market. Many value-added Health and nutrition.
as possible while meeting features are added in Convenience.
grade standards. The large, processing, but some originate Flavor and texture.
perfect apples are a broad on the farm. Labels and brands Appearance.
market value-added product provide a way for value-added Cost.
that requires more effort and producers to make sure
Notice the first four traits are all
cost to produce. Their growers consumers perceive benefits
perceived benefits. Although
strategy is to attract a higher that might otherwise be
various customers view
price by offering extra features invisible. The accompanying
benefits differently, cost
that certain consumers desire. table illustrates a spectrum of
matters to almost everyone.
The organic apples are a niche farmer marketing strategies for
How a consumer views value
market value-added product fresh and processed fruits.
is a balance between
that appeals to consumers with
Think about fruit consumers. perceived benefits and cost:
distinct preferences. Organic
Some care most about health
growers aim to earn a higher
while others focus more on Perceived Benefits
price by catering to those Consumer Value =
feeding a big group for as little Cost
preferences.
money as possible. Market
The same marketing strategies researchers have identified the There are two ways to increase
are open to fruit growers who traits that most consumers care consumer value. Producers
produce for the processed about in food. They include: who follow a value-added
Examples of fruit marketing strategies

Value-added
Level of Broad market
processing Commodity Niche market
On-farm value Off-farm value
Fresh Bagged fruit Gift baskets Supermarket Farm & farmers

Tray pack fruit in Eco-label fruit fresh-cut fruit markets
bulk display Organic-labeled fruit
Best-seller varieties U-pick orchards
Food service fruit Agritainment
(e.g., for school Heritage varieties
lunches)
Processed Juices and sauces: IPM-label Nutraceutical pills Organic dried and
Supermarket canned fruit Recognized brands canned fruits and
brand Estate-bottled Fruit-filled baked juices
Processor brand wine goods Farm-processed for
Slices for industrial Baked goods farm market sale
canning, freezing Jams and jellies Canned baby food
and baking Kosher products
Family-farm-produced
83
strategy will focus on Consumers buy fruit in various vegetarian restaurants than are
increasing the perceived ways. The diagram below other types of consumers. But
benefits. Those who follow a illustrates the channels by even the green consumers
commodity strategy will focus which fruit products flow to do the majority of their
on reducing cost. consumers, as well as other shopping at supermarkets.
important links in the human Many supermarkets now
Most growers who want to
ecology of the fruit system. In designate and publicize fruit
make ecological management
1997, U.S. consumers that has been produced in
pay will want to follow a value-
purchased more than 98 environmentally friendly ways.
added strategy. Who are the
percent of fresh produce from
kinds of consumers who A striking change from the mid-
retail stores, restaurants or
appreciate fruit grown under 1900s is that consumers now
institutional food services.
ecological management? spend more on food bought
Only 2 percent was directly
Where do they buy food? How through institutional channels
marketed from farmer to
does a grower reach them and such as food services and
consumer. Consumers who
make sure they perceive the restaurants than from retail
care about family farming or
benefits that the grower is stores such as supermarkets.
lower pesticide residues are
offering? Will they pay extra for Yet these institutions rarely buy
more likely to buy at direct
fruit that costs more to grow? fruit directly from growers.
markets, food co-ops and
Non-farm
rrural residents
Food
and civic orgs.
ailers
Fruit farms
and
food services
Processing
84 Linkages in fruit distribution and social networks.

U.S. organic foods and beverage retail sales

9.00
8.00
7.00
A 1997 Food Marketing Institute
6.00
study of U.S. food consumers
5.00
found that more than half are
4.00
environmentally concerned,
3.00
but fewer than 10 percent
2.00
would pay extra for
1.00
environmentally friendly food.
0.00
Although green consumers 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
still represent a niche in the
Source: Organic Trade Assn. 2001.
overall food market, this is
changing rapidly. In the decade successfully established First, growers need to be
since the 1990 Organic Foods national brands to win certified, indicating that their
Production Act, retail sales of recognition of their value- production practices meet the
organic foods and beverages in added products. Some have requirements for a special
the United States rose at a even arranged with producers label, sometimes referred to as
compounded annual growth in other areas to provide a an eco-label or green label.
rate of 23 percent. More than year-round supply of fruit to These labels may certify that
40 percent of the organic foods supermarket clients. integrated pest management
market is fresh produce. Juices practices were followed, or that
New demands are emerging
and processed fruits further the fruit was produced on a
for ecologically produced fruit
expand that share of the family farm. As of 2002, a major
marketed through packers and
market. Just as pizza moved new certification label is USDA
supermarket chain buyers.
from an urban niche market 40 Organic. Market research on
Particularly in Europe,
years ago to a broad market apples has shown that
supermarkets are increasingly
food today, so could fruit consumers recognize the
requiring traceability.
produced under ecologically organic label more readily than
Traceability refers to the ability
based management, including any other eco-label.
to trace a fruit back to the field
organic.
or orchard where it was grown
Growers who want to market and to certify how it was grown
ecologically produced fruit and handled. Ecological fruit
must find a way to reach the farmers use the right
consumers who care to buy it. production practices to reach
Apart from direct marketing, these markets. But ecological
other strategies include direct practices alone are not
contracting for seasonal sales enough. Buyers also make
with supermarket or restaurant stringent demands for
outlets or sales to specialty computerized record keeping
processors and food that ensures traceability for
manufacturers. Though costly each fruit. Developing such an To display the USDA seal,
and far from easily done, information system can organically produced products
farmer cooperatives have represent a major investment. must have been produced
and handled by operations
certified by a USDA-
accredited certifying agent.
85
Participating in an eco-label
program has the advantage
Community The same Great Lakes waters
that moderate the climate for
that a third-party organization relations: fruit production also attract
does the certifying, so the Getting along people seeking recreation and
grower does not need to invest natural beauty. Many tourists
in establishing a brand. Being with the and neighbors find fruit
certified does not assure neighbors production picturesque. They
higher prices for the fruit, but it like to see rolling orchards in
sometimes opens doors to Michelle Worosz, Scott bloom or heavy with colorful
retailers who demand eco- Swinton, Vera Bitsch, Craig fruit. They enjoy access to
labels. For both fresh and Harris, James Nugent and U-pick operations, on-farm
processed fruit products, an Larry Mawby stores and stands, and wine
eco-label may offer a useful tasting rooms. Many who enjoy
way of distinguishing fruit Non-farm neighbors are vacationing eventually buy a
grown under special becoming the norm for most piece of land, increasing land
management practices. fruit growers. Farm households prices and becoming
now make up less than permanent neighbors of local
The right marketing strategy is
2 percent of the U.S. farmers.
a key part of making ecologi-
population. Even in rural areas,
cally based fruit production Tourists and non-agricultural
farm families now account for
work, but consumers and food neighbors may also be
only 9 percent of the people.
marketers are not the only concerned about growers
Living cheek-by-jowl with non-
important parts of the human production practices. They
farm neighbors, ecologically
setting. Just as the natural worry about noise late at night
oriented fruit growers may be
ecology of an orchard, or early in the morning from air
better placed than conven-
vineyard or field depends on blast sprayers. They see
tional growers to develop
the local community, so does pesticide applications and
friendly ties.
the human ecology. wonder about the possibility of
T. Cline drift and environmental
contamination. They may worry
about transient migrants being
attracted to the community as
laborers. Ecologically oriented
fruit producers can turn what
may look like a lemon into
lemonade by finding
productive ways to engage
their non-farm neighbors.
Lake Michigan is appealing to both these homeowners and

the cherry grower whose orchard borders their homes.
86
Working with local how a farm family views successful outreach is to make
governments and property rights or how some it fun, packaging education into
other community farm operations are carried out. agritainment. Farms engaged
groups Ecologically oriented fruit in community-supported
farmers have a reassuring agriculture (CSA) are
Many concerns about farming message for non-farmers, especially well placed for
practices get played out in so connecting with them is outreach because they often
local and county governments. important. have community members
Getting involved in local contributing labor to the farm
government can make a The most direct way to reach
as well as paying in advance
difference. Although local out to non-farmers is to bring
for shares of the harvest.
governments may have no them to the farm. Roadside
official authority over agricul- stands or U-pick operations are Fruit growers who produce only
tural production practices, their in a good position to fill this for the wholesale market can
decisions about zoning, road need. One of the keys to also find ways to teach others
maintenance and similar issues
C. Edson R. Isaacs
may directly affect the welfare
of fruit producers.
Both through their participation

in local governance and
through their involvement in
non-government activities, fruit
growers contribute to shaping
the development of their
communities. Religious groups,
community groups and schools
create opportunities for fruit
growers and their employees to
share ideas with other rural
residents about values,
community and education.
Growers can also meet with
one another to discuss
innovative solutions to
problems.
Many people are curious about farming and can appreciate
Grower outreach principled efforts to manage farms ecologically. To grasp how a fruit
farm fits into the local ecosystem may come as a pleasant surprise.
Many sources of friction Many non-farmers are learning that ecosystem services from fruit
between non-farm residents farms stretch far beyond bees and pollination. There is a whole new
and fruit farmers occur when world of habitat for beneficial insects and ways to reinforce crops
neighbors know little about natural defenses against plant diseases. Above left, a hawk house is
farming. They may not grasp installed to encourage hawks that will deter small, fruit-eating birds.
At right, a lady beetle searches for prey on a pear bloom.
87
about agricultural
production. One grower Farming and marketing
produced a video that was on the urban fringe
shown to local service
organizations; others offer
school tours and speak to Until the late 1990s, there were
various groups about nine fruit farms along Van Dyke
farming. Working together, Road in Romeo, Michigan, just
growers can use north of the metro Detroit area.
brochures, Web sites and By 2001, there were six. One of
other resources developed those remaining is Westview
by farm organizations and Orchards, which has been
commodity groups to operated continuously by one
educate the public about family since 1813. Keeping
Westview viable has called for J. Landis
how farms work.
savvy marketing, consumer including pies, apple bread,
education and political activism. cherry-apple and peach-apple
Farmland
cider, and donuts, all of them
protection Current owner-operators Abby
advertised on its Web site.
Jacobson and her sister, Katrina
Another stress on
Schumacher, have succeeded Agritainment, however, has
community relations
by parrying the threats and become central to the marketing
occurs when an influx of
seizing the opportunities of operation Its the only way
non-farm residents causes
farming on the urban fringe. we can make it in this area.
land values to rise. Higher
Amid expanding suburbs, Visitors are treated to a wide
land values often mean
Westview Orchards is in closer variety of activities designed to
higher taxes, which can
and closer contact with non-farm create what Westviews Web site
overwhelm a farmers
neighbors. These neighbors are calls Fond Family Memories.
budget. This pressure is
sometimes uncomfortable with Westview has a U-pick operation
less acute in states with
farming practices, but they are that starts early in the summer
laws that tax agricultural
potential customers, political with cherries, moves on to
land based on the
supporters and friends. peaches, plums, pears and
agricultural value.
vegetables, and ends with
Rising land values can Direct marketing apples and pumpkins in the fall.
endanger fruit farms, but The new cider mill is in full swing
We are not just growers, were
they also create from Labor Day through the end
marketers, Abby says. I love to
opportunities. Higher of October. During the late
work with the customers; my
prices raise the value of summer and early fall, children
favorite spot is in the market.
the land asset on a can enjoy a wide variety of
The farm market that Westview
farmers balance sheet. activities including hayrides, a
Orchards opened in 1930 is now
This increase creates new play area, a farm animal petting
open nearly every day from July
borrowing capacity, which zoo, a corn maze and a restored
to the end of March. Besides
can facilitate new invest- 1869 schoolhouse.
fruits and vegetables, it sells a
ments. New investments
variety of value-added products
88
Farming and marketing on the urban fringe (cont.)
J. Landis
Direct farm marketing is not is to find fun ways to educate
easy. Its a challenge...and both students and the public
growers must be sensitive to about the relationship between
needs and concerns of the growing food and consuming it.
consumer about their food.
But faced with rapid
Abby observes customer buying
suburbanization, the family
habits and notes that they see
believes that education alone is
the size and color of the produce
not enough to protect the future
first; next they inspect it for
The restored Sikes School of Westview Orchards.
blemishes and firmness. For
produce to look attractive, takes visitors back to the
early 1900s with authentic Political engagement
Westview must keep insect and
school desks, slate boards,
disease damage at bay.
old school books and antique Abby has served on the local
Ensuring that fruit and items commonly found on planning board for two decades
vegetables look attractive is a early 20th century farms and and has attended the board of
challenge, and it is doubly homes. Westview Orchards review, which assesses property
difficult as consumer tastes school marm greets school taxes. Being politically involved
move away from some of the children and talks about gives her opportunities both to
modern orchard operations.
more disease-resistant fruit explain farming and to learn
varieties. Westview Orchards early about other residents
uses ecological pest environmental stewardship. concerns about it.
management methods that Its important that they Political engagement does not
include responsible use of understand what it takes to end at the township line. As a
pesticides. Abby notes, produce a high quality product. grower, Abby has served on the
Customers do ask about We must take care of the Michigan Apple Committee and
pesticides, and they need to be environment, thats how we the Michigan Apple Research
taken seriously. make our living. Otherwise its Committee. She currently serves
not going to take care of us, or on the boards of the Michigan
Educating consumers future generations. To Agricultural Cooperative
and neighbors communicate this message, Marketing Association and the
Westview provides school and Michigan State Horticultural
To consumer inquiries about group tours to teach people Society. Working with these
pesticide use, neighbors add about scientific farming groups has shown her how the
concerns about pesticide drift practices, including ecological larger industry operates, letting
and early morning spraying. pest management. They show her learn from other growers as
Abby finds that many customers visitors that fewer and fewer she helps to shape the future of
and neighbors know little about pesticides are being used and the industry.
farming and may doubt farmers those pesticides that they must
commitment to responsible use are safer products. The goal
89
could be on the farm, perhaps transformed to non-farm uses, Several non-profit organiza-
to try out an ecological fruit growers have successfully tions also work toward land
management practice or to partnered with non-farm trusts and conservation
plant a new crop or variety, neighbors who also care to easements, all of which curtail
capitalizing on a potentially protect farmland. Such development and help to
favorable market niche. Or the alliances led to the purchase of preserve farmland. The
investments could be off the development rights in Old accompanying table identifies
farm, in cooperatively owned Mission Peninsula of successful producer strategies
processing facilities or northwestern Michigan, an for addressing a variety of
establishing a brand for approach that has been concerns from the non-farming
ecological management. repeated elsewhere. public.
Where land is rapidly being
Public concerns about fruit production
Public concerns Relevance to fruit Conflict reduction Comments

production strategies
Pesticide residue on Pesticides are often Production The average consumer is

fruit or contamination needed to meet demonstrations unaware of:
of the environment quality standards Participation in Basic production
Legislation restricting environmental practices
pesticide use may stewardship Regulations that
increase programs growers follow
Production costs in
relationship to market
prices
Roadside pesticide Increase public Few options the Signs aim to limit worker
warning signs awareness and law requires worker exposure to pesticides
possibly concerns protection signage rather than protect the
about pesticide use general public
Night noise Use of sprayers at IPM tours Neighbors may not realize
night reduces Lectures that night spraying
pesticide drift Production videos minimizes pesticide drift
Retaining rustic Grower access to Participation in land Cooperation with non-

agricultural view suitable fruit- use community farm residents can
producing sites organizations protect their views and
growers access to land
90
S. Deming
Human
resources:
You cant
raise fruit
alone
Vera Bitsch, Scott Swinton,
Michelle Worosz, Craig Harris,
James Nugent and
Larry Mawby
Farm employees and

consultants form another
important part of the
community setting. These
people contribute the added delicate crop. Most temporary treatment matter as much as
labor and skills a farmer needs fruit workers travel from outside appropriate compensation.
to produce good fruit. county lines. Because they are
Employees want to be proud of
Ecologically based fruit away from home, many of
their place of work. When they
management calls for special these workers need housing,
wear their farms cap into town,
skills. Finding and retaining which must comply with state
they like to see people nod with
good employees is key to any and national regulations.
approval. Their employers
business. Turning a farm
Cultural backgrounds of these good reputation makes a differ-
business into an attractive
fruit farm workers are chang- ence. It is likely that they will
place to work requires getting
ing. Growing shares of them talk about their positive exper-
the whole human system
are Spanish speakers. Farmers ience and will return next year.
working in harmony very
may view these
much like the ecological
workers as
management of an orchard,
different
field or vineyard. A farm known
because of their
in its community and that of its
culture or
employees as an extraordinary
language. But
workplace is likely to have local
on farms that
support, including a secure
successfully
workforce for the future.
attract the same
Few fruit farmers today can employees year
completely rely on the local after year, the
workforce, especially those managers
growers who have a short recognize that
period to harvest a large and respect and fair
A. Schilder
91
Employees in the orchards and neighbors all around
Ann and Don Cherry Bay

Gregory live in the Orchards offers
center of Cherry an employee
Bay Orchards, stock ownership
surrounded by 800 plan (ESOP) for
acres of tart all year-round
cherries, 200 employees and
acres of sweet some temporary
cherries, 400 staff. An owner-
acres of apples ship attitude is
and another 350 the key to
acres of non- success in farm-
bearing trees. With ing, Don
that much fruit, observes. The
they rely heavily on farm has to be done. Then we help ESOP is a big motivator, giv-
employees. Amid the surging them find an efficient way to ing employees a sense that
population of northwestern do it. what I do makes a
Michigan, they also come into difference. It works like a
The Gregorys guiding
contact with plenty of retirement plan, but the funds
principles are to be sincere, to
neighbors and tourists. So accrued can also be used for
communicate and to be
people are a big part of major life expenses such as a
flexible. Both full-time and
keeping Cherry Bay Orchards down payment on a house. As
temporary workers are
a commercial success. owners, the ESOP members
involved in regular staff
are expected to attend and
meetings. Flexibility is
Keeping satisfied participate in regular meet-
important to many employees,
employees ings. Apart from the ESOP,
and the Gregorys seek to
employees also receive year-
accommodate needs for
Cherry Bay Orchards employs end bonuses, profit sharing
childcare, attending school
13 workers year-round and and basic healthcare
functions and recreation. One
about 50 temporary workers coverage.
area in which they are not
for summer harvest. Their key
flexible is safety. The one Cherry Bay Orchards also
employees have been on staff
good reason for firing views employee training and
for more than 10 years. Don
someone, Don says, is a development as part of its
Gregory explains: We view
safety violation. Safety mission. It supports training
ourselves as a team. We
bonuses paid in cash reward for pesticide applicator
dont tell them how to do their
careful employees. certification and English
job. We tell them what
language proficiency.
92
Employees in the orchards and neighbors all around (cont.)
Like many fruit farmers, the Getting along Bay Orchards. Here again,
Gregorys still find they must with neighbors the key to keeping satisfied
work hard to attract temporary neighbors is being
workers, manage housing and More than 200 neighbors abut sympathetic and responsive.
keep up with legal the more than 100 blocks of The Gregorys allow neighbors
requirements. In fact, one orchards managed by Cherry and tourists to use their land
reason for adding the S. Deming in considerate
apple acreage to their ways. Walkers,
tart cherries was to horseback riders
offer more work to and children at play
migrant families. are welcome in the
Favorable word of orchards, as well as
mouth from past hunters who have
employees has helped obtained a permit.
to attract workers. The
After 27 years of
Gregorys pay
living in the same
particular attention to
community, the
understanding the
family has strong
priorities of their
ties that reduce
temporary workers,
doubt about how
which includes finding
they run their
work for each family
operation. Com-
member who wants it.
munity members
Each year they host a
have also come to
barbecue where they
realize that viable
wait on their
fruit orchards are
employees.
one key to preserv-
ing the open land-
Communication and education are as scape they so
important with neighbors as with employees.
prize.
Although the mandatory use of pesticide
application warning signs has raised
concerns among their neighbors, it has also
offered a chance to discuss why plant
protection is important. Cherry Bay Orchards
insect traps (such as this yellow sticky trap)
and hawk boxes have elicited neighbor
interest and highlighted the farms interest in
ecological pest management.
93
R. Isaacs
time employees, more and
more fruit growers rely on
professional scouts and
consultants. Consultants and
scouts invest in their expertise,
keeping up with new develop-
ments during the off-season.
As farming becomes more
knowledge intensive,
consultants are increasingly
important for many farmers.
Overall, human ecology plays a

key role in how humans
manage the fruit system.
Scouts and consultants join growers in discussions at an on-farm
Marketing strategies and
update session.
government regulations dictate
the quality standards that
Occupational health and safety employees get special training. shape production practices.
are important to any employee. When possible, training should Neighbors and employees
In fruit operations, some be scheduled well ahead of the shape what practices are
pesticides are a known source actual need for the skills so that acceptable and which bring
of risk from exposure. The law employees can develop and special satisfaction. The
requires compliance with practice what they have challenge of ecological fruit
pesticide labels that specify learned without too much management is to unite the
safety requirements, such as pressure. Once trained, highly principles of production
proper protective clothing and skilled employees can be ecology with the principles of
reentry intervals. Fruit growers harder to keep on the farm. effective business
who follow ecological Aside from pay raises, management. Ecologically
management principles will employees appreciate knowing oriented fruit growers who can
usually be able to reduce the how they are doing and how fit these pieces together will be
employee risks associated with much value is placed on their able to capitalize on the new
agricultural chemicals. willingness to learn, to change opportunities created by
and to contribute to the farm. consumers who care about
Ecological fruit management
Listening to employees what they are eating and also
requires growers to build a
suggestions and involving how it was grown.
different knowledge base than
them in decisions on future
practices such as calendar-
changes can win their loyalty.
based pesticide spraying
require. Moving to ecological Where skilled employees are
management with the same hard to find or the farm is not
workforce will likely require that big enough for specialized full-
94
Chapter 4. Where do we go from here?
Richard H. Lehnert, Joy N. Farming requires a holistic When making changes,

Landis, Jose E. Sanchez and approach. Consider these balance the old and the
Larry Mawby guidelines for designing, new. Trying to change too
managing and evaluating an much too quickly may be
The preceding chapters ecologically based production counter productive.
described the main elements system: Constantly build your
that drive fruit ecosystems for knowledge base.
Design a fruit production
sustainable production. Its Ecologically based
system in harmony with the
important to understand the management requires
larger landscape. A healthy
natural, managed and processing more information
farm benefits the larger
socioeconomic environments than using approaches such
community.
and how these interrelated as calendar-based pesticide
pieces change and influence Increase biodiversity to
spraying. Read, visit farm
the fruit enterprises goals, improve system health.
demonstrations and attend
objectives and outcomes. The Biodiversity can be managed
workshops.
successful fruit grower to improve nutrient cycling
and soil quality and to Remember your employees,
manages the dynamic balance
provide habitat for beneficial neighbors and customers.
of the fruit ecosystem; changes
organisms. Pest outbreaks Fruit growers operate within a
elements after careful
may become less frequent. human setting that affects
consideration of the present
their production choices as
state of the system and the Watch for changes in the
much as the natural setting.
desired goal of the proposed community of pests and
change; observes effects natural enemies resulting Strong communities are
before undertaking another from changes in always better prepared to
round of change; and modifies management practices. face challenges. Join others
production systems by a series to share ideas and find
Monitor weather and
of incremental changes. answers to mutual concerns.
geographical factors that
affect crop and pest
development.
A. Schilder A. Schilder
95
How will fruit producers who Some growers believe that are less susceptible. He
adopt ecologically based adopting ecologically based maintains a 1.5-acre test
management principles be fruit management can pay off orchard on his farm and is
better equipped to survive and by directing their fruit toward evaluating 150 new varieties
prosper in the fruit business? more profitable markets. The that are more resistant to fire
Many issues challenge fruit optimistic producers talk about blight and apple scab. While
production today. Using marketing strategies as well as some evidence suggests that
ecologically based manage- production techniques. consumers are looking for
ment is not a silver bullet, but it novel tastes in apples, history
Apple grower Kevin Winkel
does offer sustainable options. says it takes years to establish
saved his orchard during the
a market for a new apple.
Apple producers, for example, Michigan fire blight outbreak of
currently face poor prospects 2000. He used information from Winkel continues to use
because of worldwide his own weather station plus ecologically based principles.
overproduction and low prices. disease development He spent years establishing a
In addition to weak markets, information from a computer good environment for
they have suffered weather- model. Winkels orchards were predatory mitesseeking them
related disasters such as sprayed when a critical out and transporting them from
windstorms, drought and fire combination of open blossoms, abandoned orchards to his
blight epidemics. They need warm temperatures, free water own. Since 1999, he has used
lower costs if they are to and threshold levels of bacteria no miticides, not even dormant
continue as commercial coincided. We saved the oil. He uses his weather station
commodity producers. orchards, but it took time, effort and information on growing
Management strategies that and money, he said. degree day accumulations, his
control insects or diseases with own scouting and reports on
Winkel had limited plantings of
fewer pesticide applications regional trap catches to time
the newest varieties, such as
can lower costs. sprays accurately.
Gala, Fuji and Jonagold, which
are most susceptible to fire
blight. He grows mostly Red
and Golden Delicious, which
R. Isaacs R. Perry R. Perry
96
But the future of the possibly brandies distilled from Todd DeKryger from Gerber
commercial market is a big fermented fruit, much as the Products Company works with
concern to him. Can Winkels Europeans have done for growers to help them produce
farm survive in the new world centuries. organically grown fruit for baby
market in which new countries foods. Our goal, he said, is
Consumers are unwilling to
suddenly emerge as major to continue to work with our
accept blemishes on fresh fruit,
producers? long-standing growers by
Koan said. But organic
helping them change
Grower Jim Koan sees similar consumers are willing to pay a
production methods. The
challenges. He is changing premium for both fresh and
organic market is growing. For
some of his 100 acres of processed fruit. Lower pack-
producers to share in this
apples over to vegetables and out rates on organic fruit are
growth, they must comply with
other fruits such as peaches, offset by a better market for
the standards of Gerbers
plums and raspberries, juices and sauces.
certifier. Gerber provides
switching from wholesale to
Hes remaking his orchard. Do support of university research
retail sales through his Al-Mar
I use fewer chemicals? No, I with organic apples and pears,
Orchards farm store, and
use more, but theyre different. including MSUs new variety
shifting to organic production
I use mild materials that have trials at the Clarksville
methods.
subtle effects. Instead of curing Agricultural Experiment Station.
I was a commercial grower problems, I need to keep
Pears seem to be the best
who cursed the roadside stand problems from happening.
candidate for organic
and all its problems, he said. That means spending more
production in Michigan,
But thats now the road Im time monitoring fields and
DeKryger said. He works with
taking. orchards and concentrating on
several fruit growers, including
broader issues, such as basic
His strategy is to sell retail at a Gene Garthe, who is making
soil health. Hes increasing
higher price, diversify what he the transition to organic
biodiversity, shifting some
grows and sells, and develop production in his orchards.
acres from apples to veget-
other products that Garthe uses organically
ables and to crops he calls
complement the retail program. approved chemicals, parasitic
predator foodmeadows,
He intends to sell fermented wasps, and mating disruption
sunflowers and buckwheat.
apple juice (hard cider) and that affects codling moths and
C. Edson R. Isaacs K. Stepnitz
97
some other insect pests. One It seems to me, growers are Part of the challenge for
product, called Surround, affected by many forces growers is to change
made from kaolin clay, compelling change. Society production methods. Mawbys
provides a protective layer of demands that we perform family began growing fruit more
film that discourages insects. under tough rules about how than 100 years ago, when
we treat labor, the environment, growers produced many kinds
DeKryger says the processing
our neighbors, and how much of fruit, vegetables and berries
market offers potential for
risk to present to consumers. If to spread the workload and
growers to use disease-
growers cant produce cheaply reduce risk. They had to
resistant varieties. Several pear
within the rules, American devote some land to growing
varieties bred at the Harrow
consumers will buy from grain and hay for their horses.
research station in Ontario are
somewhere elseperhaps Biodiversity came naturally.
fire blight-resistant. We have
someplace where our rules
tested and can use some of Over the years, the forces of
dont apply.
these varieties, he said. mechanization and
Similarly, several scab-resistant Mawby, who was a pioneer in specialization resulted in a
apple varieties bred in the using integrated pest monoculture that changed
Purdue-Rutgers-Illinois management, estimates he orchard biology and required
cooperative program process spends 70 percent of his time more pesticides. Growers
well. on marketing, 20 percent on changed in what seemed to be
making wine and just 10 sensible ways, like using
New varieties should also have
percent growing grapes that calendar-based spraying
fresh market potential, he said.
generate most of the sparkling based on expert advice rather
Growers who do not have the
wine he produces and sells. than their own information and
option of roadside marketing
experience. We ended up
want varieties that are broadly It all comes down to
going too far down a road that
acceptable in the commercial marketing, and growers must
was not sustainable, and now
fresh or processing markets. find their own opportunities,
we need to get back, he said.
he said. They just cant do
The most critical part of the
what most have been doing in At our vineyards, we have not
fruit business is marketing,
the past. The shortest road to yet learned how to grow fruit
says winemaker Larry Mawby.
ruin in agriculture is to grow a without pesticides. I do things
commodity. now that I feel are not
A. Schilder R. Isaacs C. Edson
98
sustainable, but they are the future challenges. For example, A key to the success of the IFS
best things I know now. Im the Integrated Fruit Systems Think Tank is that its
aware of the things I dont like (IFS) Think Tank is a group of participants come from a broad
and I work to change them. innovative fruit growers, range of disciplines. This
consultants, horticultural venue for interaction helps
Larry works with a broker to sell
researchers and MSU Extension redefine paradigms that will
some of his wine in Europe.
personnel located near Traverse serve the fruit industry in the
There are lessons to be
City, Michigan. They look at what future. University personnel
learned there, he says.
local horticultural industries are benefit from the groups
European winemakers
doing, what they could be doing identification of critical
compete for markets by selling
and how they might change to research and extension needs.
the uniqueness of their
become more sustainable in Through their experience with
product.
their production practices. this group, growers become
Mawby likes Koans idea of better innovators on their
The IFS Think Tank meets
selling complementary farms. Such community efforts
periodically to discuss critical
products. If I were an apple will speed development and
production and pest
grower, Id try a similar adoption of sustainable fruit
management issues and how
strategy. I would try marketing production practices.
best to make progress. Fruit
fermented hard cider or
growers have already made A final thought: This publication
sparkling apple juice,
significant strides in improving is not intended to provide
something with a unique flavor
the management of many key recipes to solve specific
spectrum. That might allow
pests through the implementa- problems. Instead, it explains
use of disease-resistant
tion of sound IPM strategies. ecological principles driving
varieties that dont sell well in
These strategies require a fruit production systems and
the more demanding fresh
basic philosophical shift that provides some tools for
market.
emphasizes decisions based managing the ecology of a fruit
In addition to agronomics and on real-time information and an farm. Growers need to
marketing issues, collaboration extensive knowledge about determine how to apply these
among members of the pest and beneficial populat- tools to their unique situations
agricultural community is a ions, their habitats, life cycles and needs.
positive step toward facing and economic thresholds.
R. Isaacs S. Deming R. Isaacs
99
Index
A C Fertigation 29, 33
Abiotic soil components 21 Cane blight 45 Fertilizer 29, 30
Active carbon 24, 26-27 Carbon transformations 25 Fire blight 37, 44, 46, 49, 52, 74, 96
Active nitrogen 26-27 Carnivores 35 Flower bud initiation 16
Agritainment 83, 87, 88 Carrying capacity 38 Flyspeck 77
Agrobacterium radiobacter Climate change 75 Foliar pathogens 64
strain K-84 52 Climate 8-12, 62, 64-65, 70, 75 Forecast pests 70-74
Air temperature 62 Codling moth43, 45, 46, 47, 53, 59, 61, Frost 12, 16, 18, 20
Alternaria 62, 67 72, 75 Fruit development stages 16-17
Alternative food sources 57 Colpoclypeus florus 57, 58 Fruit distribution and social networks
Ampelomyces quisqualis 54, 56 Commodity 82, 83, 84 84
Anthracnose fruit rot 62 Community 34, 35, 38, 39, 45, 50, 52, Fruit enterprise 5
Ants 57 59, 60, 75, 95 Fruit system dynamics 5
Aphids 38, 40, 45, 46, 54, 56, 57, 65, Community relations 86-90 Fumigation 61
76 Community-supported agriculture 87
Apple maggot 36, 40, 46 Competition 39, 50-52 G
Apple rust mite 52, 58 Compost 19, 24, 27, 29 Generation 39, 45, 72, 75
Apple scab 36, 37, 46, 49, 66, 73 Consumer education 88 Genetics 36
Artificial selection 36 Consumer value equation 83 Global energy 9
Consumers 82-86 Grape berry moth 39, 44, 46, 56, 78
B Cover crops 20, 24, 26-27, 29-31, Grape black rot 69
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) 54, 55 59, 77, 78 Grape phylloxera 42
Bacteria 49, 60, 69, 74 Crown gall 52 Grape powdery mildew 36
Bacterial canker 20 Gray mold 43, 44, 46, 52, 60
Bees 40, 57, 68, 69 D Green consumers 85
Belowground food web 23 Dagger nematode 47, 57, 59 Ground cover 27, 30, 32
Beneficial microorganisms 52 Decomposers 35 Grower outreach 87-90
Beneficial organisms 35, 51, 52-59, Development rights 90 Growing degree-days 16, 70-72
61, 77 Direct marketing 88-89 Growth/survival curve of plants 14
Biocontrol52, 77 Disease cycle 39, 49, 65, 74 Gypsy moth 63
Biodiversity 29-31, 95, 98 Disease severity 73-74
Biofix 16, 71, 72 Disease symptoms 51 H
Biological control 52, 53, 55, 58, Dispersal 35, 45, 68-69 Habitat 38, 39-43, 45-46, 52, 57, 58,
61, 77 Dogwood borers 40 60, 76, 77, 79
Biosphere 3 Dormancy 16 Habitat suitability 42, 43
Biotic interactions 39, 50-51 Downy mildew 46, 65, 68 Herbivores 34, 50
Biotic soil components 21, 22 Host plant resistance 41
Black root rot44, 62 E Human ecology 84, 86, 94
Blueberry aphids 57 Eco-label programs 83, 85 Human resources 91-94
Blueberry maggot flies 40, 43 Ecosystem services 13, 24, 29 Humidity 64, 66-67, 70
Blueberry shoestring virus 50, 57, 69 Ecosystem 8, 13-14, 20, 21, 29 Hydrological cycle 10
Border spraying 36 Ectodormancy 16
Botrytis bunch rot 40, 67 Employee stock ownership plan 92
Botrytis cinerea 43, 44, 46, 52 Endodormancy 16 I
Broad market value-added 83 European red mite 46, 52, 58 Infection process 51
Broad-spectrum insecticides 52, 53, Eutypa dieback 44, 65 Insect life cycles 45, 47, 65
61, 77 Integrated Fruit Systems Think Tank
Brown rot 46, 50, 68 F 99
Buckwheat 78 Integrated pest management 52
Faba bean 78
Burkholderia cepacia 25 Irrigation 28-29
Farm employees 91-92, 95
Farm markets 88-89, 97
Farmland protection 88, 90
Feeding sites 46
100
Fruit Crop Ecology and Management: Index
J P S
Japanese beetle 46, 47, 67, 76 Paradormancy 16 Sap beetles 40
Parasites 38, 53, 54-56, 76 Secondary pest outbreaks 61
L Parasitic microbes 55 Single-cycle pathogens 39
Landscape effects 77 Parasitoids 35, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, Site selection 18
Larvae 45 61, 77 Snow cover 64
Leaching 31, 32 Pasteuria penetrans 54, 56 Soil organic matter 24, 26, 27, 30, 31
Leaf spot 39, 46 Peach leaf curl 43 Soil quality 24
Leaf temperature 63 Pear psylla 39, 43, 46, 53, 54 Soil-borne organism functions 23
Leaf wetness 66, 70, 72, 76 Pesticide impacts 61, 62 Soil-borne pathogens 68
Leafhoppers 41, 45, 54, 76, 80-81 Pesticide resistance 36-38 Sooty blotch 77
Leafroller 46, 57, 62, 78 Phenologic stages 16 Sooty molds 40
Leather rot 46, 49, 67 Phomopsis cane and leaf spot 46 Sour rot 44
Leucostoma canker 44 Phomopsis, grapes 46, 67 Species 35
Life history 39, 45 Photosynthesis 4, 11, 14, 25 Spider mites 54, 57, 58, 61
Life stages 46, 47, 65 Phytophthora cactorum 46, 49, 67 Supplemental fertility 28
Light 67-68 Phytophthora 41, 46, 68 Syrphid fly/larvae 53, 54, 58, 78
Planetary boundary layer 11-12 Systemic infection 48
M Plant growth regulators 60
Plant pathogenic fungi 48 T
Manure 24, 27, 30, 32 Plant spacing 19 Target pest resurgence 61
Marketing strategy 82-86, 97, 98, 99 Planting design 19 Temperature 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16,
MARYBLYT 74 Political engagement 89 21, 28, 31
Mating disruption 37, 61 Population density 35, 38 Thinning 1, 17
Microclimate 62-64, 73 Populations 35-38 Tillage 24, 25, 26, 27
Mineralization 26-27, 29 Potato leafhopper 46, 80-81 Tobacco ringspot virus 57
Mite life cycles 45 Powdery mildew 36, 39, 46, 48, 54, Tolerant 41
Moisture 65-67 56, 66, 67 Tomato ringspot virus 47, 57
Mulch 12, 20, 26, 27, 29, 31-33 Predacious beetles, bugs 53 Traceability 85
Multicycle pathogens 39 Predators 35, 41, 53, 54, 56, 57, 61, 76 Tree planting 19
Mummy berry 44, 46, 57, 65, 67, 68 Predatory mites 53, 54, 57, 58, 61, 96 Trichoderma species 54, 56
Mycorrhizae 56, 57 Prediction models 70-74, 96 Trichogramma 54, 59
Processing market 83, 90, 98 Twospotted spider mite 37, 46, 58, 61
N Production strategy 82-86
Natural enemies 39, 52, 53, 56, 57, Pruning wounds 44, 65 U
59, 61, 77, 78, 79 Pruning 15, 16, 18, 19, 20
Natural selection 36 Ulocladium 52
Pseudomonas fluorescens 52, 54
Nematode life cycle 48 Urban areas and farming 86-89
Pseudomonas syringae 20
Nematodes 21, 22, 23, 44, 46, 47-48, Public concerns 90
50, 54, 56, 57, 59, 68, 79 V
Pupae 45, 68
Niche market value-added 83 Pythium 41, 44, 54, 56, 68 Varieties 96, 98
Nitrogen management 26, 28, 33 Vector 47, 50, 57, 59, 80
Nitrogen transformations 26 R Vegetative growth 15-16
Nymphs 45 Verticillium albo-atrum 59
Recruiting/retaining employees 91-93
Viruses 47, 50, 55, 59, 80
Red stele fungus 42, 59
O Reproductive growth 16
Organic food 85, 97 W
Resistance 36-38
Organic seal 85 Resveratrol 41 Water cycles 9
Overwintering 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, Rhizoctonia 44, 54, 55 Water quality 30, 31
63, 65, 77 Root knot nematode 25, 47, 48, 56, 59 Weather 8-10, 12, 18, 47, 62-75, 80,
Rootstock selection 18 81, 95
Rotation 59 Weed 52, 59, 67, 76, 77, 79
Rust mites 57, 58
X
X-disease 76
101
Try these MSU Extension
field resources
for IPM scouting
E-2720, A pocket guide for IPM scouting
in Michigan apples
and
E-2840, A pocket guide for IPM scouting
in stone fruits
Printed on moisture-resistant stock, these scouting guides are

3 1/4 X 5 to fit in your pocket for easy use in the orchard. Color
pictures and full descriptions will help you identify insect and
disease pests, pest damage and beneficial species. They also
offer guidelines for insect monitoring and thresholds.
The guides are a field supplement to more comprehensive

references like NCR-63, Common Tree Fruit Pests by A.J. Howitt,
and NCR-45, Diseases of Tree Fruits in the East by A. Jones and
T. Sutton. They were compiled and edited by David Epstein, MSU
IPM Tree Fruit integrator; MSU Entomologist Larry J. Gut, and MSU
Plant Pathologist Alan L. Jones.
To view sample pages from the guides, visit the publication section
of the MSU IPM Program website at: www.msue.msu.edu/ipm/
Available from your county Extension office or:

MSU Bulletin Office
10-B Agriculture Hall
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI 48824-1039
Phone: 517-355-0240
Fax: 517-353-7168
Also available in 2003 from MSU Extension:

A pocket guide for IPM scouting of grapes in
the North Central States
E-2839, A pocket guide for IPM scouting of woody
landscape plants

E2759 Fruit Crop Ecology

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Michigan State University Extension Bulletin E-2759 New December 2002

Fruit Crop Ecology

Fruit Crop Ecology and Management

Introduction: An ecological approach to growing fruit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Chapter 1. The agricultural ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

The natural environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Chapter 2. Managing the community of pests and beneficials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Chapter 3. The human setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Production and marketing strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Chapter 4. Where do we go from here? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Introduction: An ecological approach

What is fruit crop

Growers and consumers have

about chemical residues and Understanding which to make decisions.

We hope this books readers

The fruit enterprise and its environments.

Nursery Site System Young Young

stock selection & establishment non-bearing bearing

selection preparation system system

System Aging Mature

removal system bearing

Fruit system dynamics.

A guide to reading Fruit Crop Ecology and Management

We filter the information in

Chapter 1: The agricultural ecosystem

Chapter light, mineral nutrients and

resources? In fruit production ecosystems,

ecology of the landscape,

and the movement of energy

Jet streams occur in both the

During photosynthesis, plants

Blueberry leaves show red fall color. Daily cycle of the

The balance of energy

balance on a global scale,

and from matter, as by:

The typical daily pattern of the

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

temperature extremes and in Conserving biodiversity is

and marshlands. They provide example, lady beetles that prey

contributes to the local

hydrates (sugars and starch),

The fruit plant

The fruit plant is a constantly

Life depends on energy

The first pruning after planting

T. Cline, Photair Inc.

Apple bud phenologic growth stages

If the balance goes

Fruit growers have a variety of

grafting compatibility that will Planting design

Species Low Plants Moderate Plants High Plants

Apple 10-15 x 20 145-217 6-10 x 12-18 242-605 3-6 x 8-16 454-1,815

Abiotic soil components

Biotic soil components (continued)

Produce compounds that give soil its distinctive aroma.

Help accelerate decomposition when they graze on bacteria, fungi and

Soil passage through guts increases aggregation and nutrient cycling.

Interactions in a belowground food web.

Functions of some soilborne organisms

Photosynthesizers (plants, algae, bacteria) Add organic matter to soil

Decomposers (bacteria, fungi) Feed on organic matter originating from plants

Mutualists (bacteria, fungi) Two organisms living in beneficial association

Bacterial grazers (nematodes, amoebas, Feed on bacteria