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GUIDELINES FOR IMPROVING MOTIVATION IN TEAMS
By
Robert Zepp
A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
2008
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CERTIFICATION STATEMENT
I hereby certify that this paper constitutes my own product, that where the
language of others is set forth, quotation marks so indicate, and that appropriate
credit is given where I have used the language, ideas, expressions or writings
of another.
Signed
Robert Zepp
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! ABSTRACT
by
Robert Zepp
Motivation is a subject that has been studied for decades, however, its importance
and applicability to teams has been on the rise as organizations have been increasing
teams has revealed the importance of motivation and the need for it to be enhanced. As a
result, this study sets out to reveal which factors influence motivation in teams and
leadership factors and general factors that influence motivation in teams, team
(behavioural) processes, and outputs that are characteristic of motivated teams, as well as
contextual factors that influence all of these elements. From this information, a
members from the professional hockey organization EHC Eisbaeren Berlin and from the
sports and entertainment company Anschutz Entertainment Group. This data is analyzed
using Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis and is used to create a results model of the
The comparison and discussion of the models reveals minor differences as well as
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many consistencies between them. The differences suggest that context can influence the
leadership factors and motivational processes that are applicable to the team, while the
consistencies insinuate that some factors and processes are universally applicable.
motivation in teams and provides them with guidelines they can use to enhance the
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my advisor Elspeth McFadzean for all of her support and guidance.
Elspeth, you constantly went above and beyond what was required of you to lend me a
helping hand, for that I am truly grateful. I would also like to thank the members of EHC
Eisbaeren Berlin and Anschutz Entertainment Group who graciously participated in the
interviews. Last, but not least, I would like to thank my loving wife Melissa for all of her
support, encouragement, and patience throughout this arduous process. You helped to
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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6. V) LEARNING REFLECTIONS .................................................................................... 87
6. VI) SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS .......................................................... 88
APPENDICIES ............................................................................................................... 89
APPENDIX A: HERZBERGS DUAL FACTORS ......................................................... 89
APPENDIX B: THE EMPOWERMENT CONTINUUM ................................................... 90
APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW SEED QUESTIONS ........................................................... 91
APPENDIX D: LIST OF INTERVIEWEES AND DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION ........... 92
APPENDIX E: SAMPLE TRANSCRIPT USING INTERPRETIVE PHENOMENOLOGICAL
ANALYSIS (STEPS 1-3) .................................................................................................. 93
APPENDIX E: CONTINUED INTERPRETIVE PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANALYSIS- STEP 4
(LISTING OF THEMES) ................................................................................................ 100
APPENDIX E: CONTINUED INTERPRETIVE PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANALYSIS- STEP 5
(TABLE OF THEMES) .................................................................................................. 102
REFERENCE LIST ...................................................................................................... 103
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TABLE OF FIGURES
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TABLE OF TABLES
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TABLE 6.1 SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS85
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Its a little like wrestling a gorilla. You dont quit when youre tired- you
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Chapter 1 Introduction
1. I) Research Overview
!! Background Information
potential in people to achieve great things (Buhler, 2003). The importance and relevance
of motivation within teams has been on the rise as the use of team-based work is being
organizations realizing that working in teams makes better use of the skills available are
two reasons for the rise in team-based work (Cacioppe, 1999). The authors experience as
well as the need to enhance it. The theory supports this as Ellemers et al. (2004: 461)
motivation helps to energize people to work for the team as well as strengthen their
loyalty to it (Ellemers et al., 2004). The positive effects of motivation are important to
teams because they help to maximize individual and collective ability (Buhler, 2003).
This dissertation aims to ascertain how motivation can be enhanced in teams and to
This thesis will accomplish the above aim by collecting and analyzing theoretical and
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Research Question 1: What factors influence motivation in teams?
Answering this question will determine the factors influencing motivation in teams as
The research collected in regards to this question will result in a set of guidelines on how
Qualitative data collection and analysis in the form of individual, in-depth, semi-
structured interviews is used. Qualitative data collected from interviews will yield in-
depth, experiential information that increases the richness of the results. The research
sample consists of ten such interviews with team members from either the professional
hockey organization EHC Eisbaeren Berlin or the sports and entertainment company
Analysis (IPA). IPA provides a detailed, four-step approach to data analysis that helps
The validity and reliability of the research is ensured through four different
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1. II) Importance of this Research
This thesis is important because it investigates and provides answers to issues that
leadership and motivation in teams. The research conducted for this study will identify
the factors that influence motivation in teams and produce guidelines that can be used by
1. III) Synopsis
analysis of the theory on teams, motivation, and leadership is undertaken. From this, a
addition, the methods for ensuring validity and reliability are discussed.
processes that influence motivation in teams. The chapter also presents the team
processes, outputs, and contextual factors that are involved in the motivation of teams.
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Chapter 5 discusses the results and reveals how they relate to the existing
literature. The chapter also presents answers to the research questions in the form of a set
Chapter 6 summarizes the results and presents the answers to the research
questions. In addition, the chapter discusses the weaknesses of the research and describes
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Chapter 2 Literature Review
confirms ideas and knowledge of the subject, and identifies proven and contemporary
thinking on the subject of motivation in teams (White, 2000). Within this chapter, the
reader will find a discussion of motivation in teams, more specifically, the importance of
motivation in teams, and a definition of the terms: motivation and teams. This
chapter also contains a discussion of the importance of leadership for motivating teams,
contains a critical evaluation of (team) motivation models and how they are linked to
leadership. Finally, the chapter will culminate in the presentation and description of a
questions.
2. I) Motivation in Teams
Motivation is a subject that has been studied for decades, however, its importance
organizations have been increasingly shifting to team-based work (Ambrose and Kulik,
1999; Cacioppe, 1999). Cacioppe (1999) states that some reasons for this include:
organizational downsizing and organizations realizing that working in teams makes better
use of the skills available. Ellemers et al. (2004: 461) further support the increasing
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toward group-based systems, research on motivation within groups is increasingly
important. Ellemers et al. (2004) feel that gaining an understanding for this type of
motivation would energize people to work for the team and help workers sustain loyalty
to the team.
It is useful to define the terms motivation and teams so that it is clear what is
meant when they are referred to throughout this paper. Hughes et al. (2006: 243) state
that motivation is, anything that provides direction, intensity, and persistence to
behaviour, while Brenner (2007: 16) defines motivation as inspiring and encouraging
another person to, do a great job, to enjoy what they are doing, and to want to perform to
the best of their ability. Clearly there are many different scholarly definitions of
motivation, however, they all seem to identify motivation as something that inspires,
encourages, and maximizes potential in people to achieve great things and to perform to
the best of their ability (Buhler, 2003). The effects of motivation are important to teams
because these effects help to maximize individual and collective ability (Buhler, 2003).
A set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individuals
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In addition, work motivation recognizes the influence of environmental forces (reward
systems, nature of the work) and personal forces (needs and motives) of work-related
It is also essential to define exactly what a team is. Kozlowski and Ilgen (2006:
(a) Two or more individuals who (b) socially interact; (c) (possess) one or more
outcomes; (f) have different roles and responsibilities; and (g) are embedded in
Throughout this paper, any reference to teams that is made implies that the team satisfies
Motivating the team is an essential part of the leaders role. The leader must
motivate the team so that each person performs well individually and as a team.
According to Brenner (2007), teams cannot be successful without the guidance and
leadership of a member who is responsible for motivating the team. Ambrose and Kulik
(1999) validate the views of Brenner by stating that one of the greatest tasks facing a
leader is motivating their employees. The leaders ability to motivate followers is critical
to the morale and performance of a team (Hughes et al., 2006). Leaders who have
knowledge of various motivational theories and methods are better equipped and more
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likely to choose the right one to motivate their team in different situations (Hughes et al.,
2006). The above views demonstrate the importance that scholars place on leadership for
motivating teams. Scholars feel that it is the responsibility and function of leaders to
motivate their followers, but what is leadership? Leadership researchers have come up
with many different definitions for what leadership is. What can be learned from the large
factors. However, Hughes et al. (2006) feel that the definition provided by Roach and
Behling (1984) is a comprehensive one. Thus, for the purposes of this dissertation,
leadership will be defined as, the process of influencing an organized group toward
There are a multitude of motivation models provided by scholars, and there are
also an increasing number of team motivation models available since the use of teams by
organizations continues to rise (Hughes et al., 2006; USTA, 2004; Frey and Jegen, 2001;
Amabile, 1993; Amabile, 1997; Ilies et al., 2007). The study of (team) motivation and
motivation models has revealed four main factors that influence motivation in teams.
These factors are all linked to leadership and can be broken down as follows: personal
needs (compensation and opportunity); individual differences (job characteristics and job
design); cognitive; and achievement and recognition (Hughes et al., 2006; Ilies et al.,
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!! (PERSONAL) NEEDS
One factor that leaders can appeal to in order to motivate their teams is the
(personal) needs of their followers. Appealing to the needs of a team member will help
them to achieve the completion of the teams goals (Hughes et al., 2006). Needs are,
One popular needs theory is Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (1954). Maslow felt
that people are motivated by five basic needs that occur in a hierarchy. The needs as they
occur from the lowest-level needs to the highest-level needs are as follows: physiological
needs, security needs, the need to belong, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs
(Buhler, 2003). The level that happens to motivate a person at any time depends on which
needs have been satisfied. According to Maslow, lower-level needs must be satisfied
before a person can be motivated by a higher-level need (Buhler, 2003). Leaders can only
be successful in motivating team members if they have taken into consideration where
each member falls on the needs hierarchy (Hughes et al., 2006; Buhler, 2003). Leaders
must ensure the lower-level needs of followers are satisfied before they can move on to
motivate them (Buhler, 2003). Thus, leaders should do all they can to help followers meet
their lower-level needs because if a team members needs are not met, then they may
decide to undertake actions or behaviours that are not directed towards the
There are many different examples of personal needs that can be met, two of
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level need because compensation is used to fulfill the physiological needs of people.
Horowitz et al (2003). uses compensation as example of something that can appeal to the
lower-level needs of team members, but also to their higher-level needs by providing
Horowitz et al. (2003), compensation can include cash rewards, incentives, ownership
plans, and providing competitive pay in order to recognize the success of employees.
Horowitz et al. (2003) feels that ensuring room for professional growth and providing
employees with attractive career plans can increase their level of motivation. It can be
concluded that personal needs are a factor that influence motivation in teams since
compensation and opportunity appeal to the needs of team members (Horowitz et al.,
2003).
levels can vary from person to person (Buhler, 2003; Buckingham, 2005; Ilies et al.,
2007; Peterson, 2007). According to individual differences theories, leaders should only
select members who possess the right skills, have a high level of achievement motivation,
the right values, and who find the work to be intrinsically motivating (Hughes et al.,
2006).
been examined by many scholars (Amabile, 1993; Amabile, 1997; Frey and Jegen, 2001;
USTA, 2004). Major theories in psychology place emphasis on the intrinsic motives
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coming from within the person (Frey and Jegen, 2001; Amabile, 1997). Intrinsic
satisfaction, competence or control from doing it and the only reward the person receives
is the activity itself (Hughes et al., 2006; USTA, 2004; Frey and Jegen, 2001; Amabile,
1993). People are often intrinsically motivated when their job appeals to their values.
Those team members who are intrinsically motivated will be more determined and
motivated to accomplish the goals of the team (Frey and Jegen, 2001; Amabile, 1993).
the right employee is paired up with right job increases intrinsic motivation and
motivation as a whole (Chen and Klimoski, 2003). A job can be considered to have high
autonomy, and feedback (Chen and Klimoski, 2003). The same characteristics as above
also apply to the work that is assigned. Along the same lines as job and work
characteristics is job design. Job design is a key factor influencing motivation in todays
workplace (Gee and Burke, 2001). Ensuring that the employee is involved in decision-
making, has the opportunity to use different skills, and is involved in completing entire
tasks are key ingredients of job design (Gee and Burke, 2001). Selecting team members,
with the right skills that are conducive to the job characteristics and job design will result
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!! COGNITIVE FACTORS
Cognitive theories are based on the idea that leaders can motivate team members by
setting goals and increasing their beliefs in task accomplishment (Hughes et al., 2006).
One proven cognitive theory is the expectancy theory. The expectancy theory is based
on two main assumptions: (1) Motivated performance is a result of choice; (2) people will
do what they believe provides them with the highest rewards. The expectancy approach
indicates that people will be motivated to do a task if three conditions are met:
Since people are motivated by their expectations and values, leaders can influence
follower motivation levels by; articulating expected outcomes, clarifying links between
effort and rewards, providing training, coaching, and feedback to followers, and placing
leaders must have strong interpersonal communication skills, feedback, and coaching
skills if they want to successfully implement these theories (Hughes et al., 2006). It has
been shown that expectations and values of team members are not only influenced by
leaders, but are a factor that influences team motivation as well (Brenner, 2007; Gee and
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!! LEVEL OF EMPLOYEE ACHIEVEMENT AND RECOGNITION
achievement and recognition (Rantz et al., 1996; Basset-Jones and Lloyd, 2005). One
motivator factors and by hygiene factors (Bassett-Jones and Lloyd, 2005). Motivator
factors result in growth and satisfaction and are intrinsic to the job while hygiene factors
are extrinsic to the job and result in dissatisfaction and avoidance (Rantz et al., 1996;
Buhler, 2003; Amabile, 1993). Dissatisfaction factors will temporarily move employees,
but will not motivate them, thus, motivation/satisfaction factors must be employed (Rantz
et al., 1996; Bassett-Jones and Lloyd, 2005; Amabile, 1993). See Appendix A for a list of
employees. It is important to realize a motivated employee can work much longer than a
moved one on their own initiative (Rantz et al., 1996; Buhler, 2003). Herzberg believes
the only way to truly motivate all employees whether in a team setting or not, is to give
them challenging work and place them in situations that involve them assuming
A leader is more effective when they use many motivational techniques and team
members are more likely to have positive attitudes at work if they believe their work is
important (Hughes et al., 2006). Herzbergs Dual Factor Theory demonstrates that the
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2. III) Critical Evaluation of Leadership Models
leadership factors that influence motivation in teams. This section describes the
leadership factors and demonstrates how they are linked to motivation. The major
leadership factors influencing motivation are: the leaders ability to empower their
The leaders ability to empower team members is a major leadership factor that
influences the motivation in teams. Kirkman and Rosen (1999) define empowerment as,
increased task motivation resulting from an individuals positive orientation to his or her
work role. Brenner (2007) recognizes the positive effects that the leaderships
empowerment of employees can have. Brenner (2007) and Guzzo and Dickson (1996)
feel that employees can be motivated by asking for their input and help in the decision-
making process. According to Chen et al. (2007), Kirkman and Rosen (1999), and Chen
which includes:
A) Impact: The degree to which employees feel their work affects their organization.
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D) Choice: The perceived self-determination or autonomy at work (Chen et al.
(2007: 332) and the degree to which team members experience freedom,
performing team. The Empowerment Continuum (Hughes et al., 2006) provides the
Appendix B). The characteristics of empowered employees are much more conducive to
employees. Further, research at the team level reveals that leadership behaviours directed
towards the team impacts the level of team empowerment. It is expected that leaders who
create a more motivating environment through empowerment will forge more positive
relationships with team members (Chen et al., 2007). These members will be more likely
to trust and respect leaders who are able to delegate authority and important tasks
(Peterson, 2007). Since researchers such as Peterson (2007) draw positive correlations
between empowered teams and increased motivation in those teams, it can be concluded
that the leaders ability to empower their team members is an important leadership factor
Each member of a team finds different factors such as; job characteristics, rewards, or
job design motivating and each member handles and deals with situations differently.
Thus, it is important for a leader to know each team member (USTA, 2004; Chen et al.,
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2007; Buhler, 2003; Buckingham, 2005). Chen et al. (2007) and Buckingham (2005)
important leadership factor that influences motivation. Chen et al. (2007) and
Buckingham (2005) feel that leaders should realize the importance of recognizing
individualism in their teams as this recognition saves time, holds individual team
members accountable, and helps to build a sense of team. Peterson (2007) also feels it is
approach to motivation. Peterson (2007) states that individual differences between team
members can come from a variety of contextual factors such as an individuals culture,
that increase their personal motivation (Peterson 2007; Ilies et al., 2007). Since
it can be concluded that a leaders ability to take the individuality of team members into
teams.
!! COMMUNICATION
teams as it is vital to keep the team informed (Horowitz et al., 2003). Communication
helps to build the focus of team members and provides them with a clear idea of their
roles and expectations. Communication helps team members to understand and clarify
individual goals and team goals (Brenner, 2007). Regular communication according to
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Horowitz et al. (2003) and Spiers (2007) includes regular contact with staff, allowing for
staff decision-making, top leadership support for recognition of staff and decision-
making processes, as well as regular performance support. Spiers (2007) identifies the
important as verbal communication. Spiers (2007: 21) offers the following skills for
two-way dialogue, use non-verbal cues to stimulate revealing questions or answers, how
to use silence, and effective listening. The leaders ability to use such skills will impact
communication (Brenner, 2007; Horowitz et al., 2003; and Spiers, 2007) it can be
concluded that communication does influence motivation. Thus, the leaders ability to
communicate with their team members is an important factor that influences motivation
in teams.
!! LEADER-FOLLOWER INTERACTION
The ability of a leader to interact with their followers and the quality of those
interactions is another leadership factor that influences the motivation of teams. Leader-
follower interaction is a broad category that includes skills such as: the ability to inspire,
the leader as a role model, inclusiveness, and the social identity created for the team by
It is important for a leader to be a good role model and have a positive influence
over the team (Brenner, 2007). The leader should exhibit a strong work ethic, attitude,
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and behaviour, because these things are contagious for the team (Brenner, 2007). Leaders
will be able to enhance motivation if they boost the self-esteem of team members and
make them feel a part of the team (Brenner, 2007). By acting as a role model and being
an inspiring presence, leaders will have a positive influence on the motivation of the team
(Brenner, 2007).
Chen and Klimoski (2003) point out that research shows that team members who
believe their leader-member exchange have the following characteristics are more
motivated: the leaders ability to maintain high-quality social exchanges that exemplify
high levels of mutual trust, respect, and loyalty (Chen and Klimoski, 2003). Inclusiveness
is the aim of a leader to provide a culture that everyone feels they are a part of (Spiers,
interaction that influences motivation. Ellemers et al. (2004: 462) feel that, a concern for
the collective self provides a much broader and more powerful source of group-based
motivation. The leaders emphasis of the social identity approach can energize people to
work for the group and help workers to sustain their loyalty to the team while enhancing
motivation (Ellemers et al., 2004). The social identity approach occurs when people view
themselves as part of a collective, or as a team, and are motivated differently than they
are as individuals (Ellemers et al., 2004). When leaders take actions that cause
individuals to identify with the team, the members will be more motivated to focus their
energy on team tasks because those who identify with the team will constantly work for
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Effective leader-follower interaction in the form of being an inspiring leader and
role model, building trust and loyalty, and creating an inclusive, strong, social identity
has positive effects on the motivation of teams (Brenner, 2007; Chen and Klimoski,
2003; Spiers, 2007; and Ellemers et al., 2004). Thus, it can be concluded that leader-
factor influencing motivation in teams. Team incentives and reward systems are generally
considered to be necessary for optimal team performance and motivation (Hoffman and
Rogelberg, 1998; Cacioppe, 1999). If team work is not recognized by the leader and by
the organization, then members will not see their work as valued by either party
(Hoffman and Rogelberg, 1998). Rewards are one of the most clear ways leaders can
deliver messages about what is important (Cacioppe, 1999). Team-based rewards are
rewards given to the entire team or are divided equally between team members with
strategies to implement the rewards that are constantly monitored and adapted to stay in
line with business strategies, goals, and organizational culture (Cacioppe, 1999). The
systems help to motivate team members, enforce roles and behaviours that are needed,
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2. IV) Research Model and Research Questions
The research model (Figure 2.1) was developed from the above evaluation and
includes both general and leadership factors that influence motivation. It can be
concluded from the above discussion that the following general factors influence the
motivation of teams: personal needs, individual differences, cognitive factors, and the
level of achievement and recognition that team members receive. It can also be concluded
that the following leadership factors influence the motivation of teams: the leaders
motivated teams, outputs of teams, and some major contextual factors. These are
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FIGURE 2.1 RESEARCH MODEL
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TEAM: Behavioural Factors of Motivated Teams
motivated teams to understand some main ways motivation is reflected by the team.
and Rosen, 1999; Buhler, 2003; Cacioppe, 1999; Peterson, 2007). This list includes
behaviours that were prevalent in the literature and consistent with the authors
1.! Proactivity:
changes are made (Kirkman and Rosen, 1999: 62). Teams that are empowered, and
consequently motivated, are more likely to take action to solve problems, to improve the
quality of their work, and expend more effort than those who are not motivated (Kirkman
Research has shown that more empowered, and thus, more motivated teams
experience higher levels of job satisfaction at the individual level. The more meaningful
the team member perceives the job to be, the higher job satisfaction they will experience
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3.! Organizational Commitment
Organizational commitment is the level of loyalty that the employee has to the
organization, its vision, and its goals. According to Kirkman and Rosen (1999), more
commitment.
motivated teams. Cohesiveness occurs in a team when motivated members are linked by
the belief that their success depends on one another. Cohesive teams are likely to stick
together through difficult situations as well as in good situations and are much more
supportive of one another than non-cohesive teams. Also, a motivated team environment
fosters teamwork and collective initiatives which aid in the achievement of common
Now that some major behavioural factors of motivated teams have been
established, it is useful to examine some of the major outputs of teams. Four main team
outputs include: productivity, quality of customer service, project success factors, and
performance (Kirkman and Rosen, 1999; Ambrose and Kulik, 1999; Amabile, 1993;
teams, these outputs were prevalent in the literature and are intended to provide an
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1.! Productivity & Performance
productivity in teams (Kirkman and Rosen, 1999). Research has shown that employees
who are actively involved in decision-making and who find their jobs to be meaningful
Ambrose and Kulik (1999) and Amabile (1993), team performance is a function of ability
and motivation. Teams that are cohesive, motivated, and have strong support systems
experience enhanced productivity (McFadzean, 1997). Highly motivated teams are more
likely to achieve greater performance levels and success than teams with low motivation
levels.
Consistent links have been established between more motivated teams and higher
levels of quality and customer service. Motivated teams often take the initiative to handle
and resolve customer complaints with greater care, which leads to higher levels of
Motivation can have a direct impact on project success factors which include
whether or not the project is: on time, within budget, of a high quality, and if it meets or
exceeds customer expectations (Peterson, 2007). Motivated teams achieve project success
factors more frequently than low-motivated teams as they are more motivated to
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!! CONTEXTUAL FACTORS
Now that the main leadership and motivation factors influencing motivation in
teams have been described, and the behavioural factors and outputs of motivated teams
have been discussed, it is important to describe the internal and external contextual
factors that influence these variables. The list of contextual factors includes some factors
Four main internal contextual factors were identified during research: pay level,
job design characteristics, team structure, and teamwork (Horowitz et al., 2003; Latham
and Pinder, 2005; Amabile, 1997; Hart et al., 2004; Chen et al., 2007).
The pay level of a team member influences the general factors found in the
research model. Horowitz et al. (2003) feel that an employee with an already high level
factors.
Job design characteristics are another internal contextual factor. A team members
motivation can be low depending on whether the characteristics of a persons job, their
values, and their personality complement each other (Latham and Pinder, 2005; Amabile,
1997). If they do not complement each other, then motivation can be low, if they do
Team structure itself is an internal contextual factor because workers can engage
in social loafing when involved in team tasks (Hart et al., 2004). Social loafing is, a
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to either working individually or coactively (Hart et al., 2004: 984). Further, team work
is also an internal contextual factor because within teams motivation can be contagious as
individual members may be more motivated to perform when other members of the team
share the same enthusiasm (Chen et al., 2007). They can also be more confident to
perform their own roles if they believe in the capabilities of their team members (Chen et
al., 2007).
The literature review revealed three generic external contextual factors that influence
the variables in the research model: cultural factors, industry type, and person-context fit
(Latham and Pinder, 2005; Ambrose and Kulik, 1999; Horowitz et al., 2003).
Latham and Pinder (2005) point out that the cultural background of a person
systems)
Further, Silverthorne (Ambrose and Kulik, 1999) concluded that factors influencing
motivation can vary according to culture (Vecchio, 2006). Given these facts, it becomes
clear that culture is an external contextual factor affecting all facets of team motivation.
Horowitz et al. (2003) states that the ability to motivate team members and the
from different industries are motivated by different factors. Also, the person-context fit is
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a key external contextual variable. The relationship between individual variables (needs,
values) and the individual and organizational outcomes are reliant on various
environmental factors such as; the job, the organization, and the culture (Horowitz et al.,
2003).
!! RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Based on the theoretical model and that this dissertation aims to ascertain how
motivation can be enhanced in teams and to develop a set of guidelines for leaders, the
2. V) SUMMARY
and general factors influencing motivation, the main behavioural factors and outputs
associated with motivated teams, as well as the contextual factors that influence all of the
above variables. In order to properly answer the research questions, qualitative data in the
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Chapter 3 Research Design and Methodology
Now that a literature review has been conducted regarding motivation in teams
and a theoretical model has been developed, it is necessary to collect primary data and
use it to build a real-world, practical model for motivation in teams. Chapter 3 describes
the methodology used as well as the reasons for this. The chapter then proceeds to
describe the research methods and the research sample. The chapter also includes a
discussion of the analysis strategy and the methods that are used to ensure validity and
reliability.
3. I) Methodology
Qualitative data collection and analysis are used for this dissertation. Qualitative
data is the most applicable to this study because it gathers rich data in the form of the
attitudes, feelings, and motivations of the subjects (McDaniel and Gates, 2007). The
attitudes, feelings, and emotions of the subjects can yield in-depth, rich answers to the
two primary research questions: (1) what factors influence motivation in teams? And (2)
produces richer data than quantitative research making it more useful to the development
of a real-world, practical model. It is argued that no two situations are the same and
every phenomenon is unique (White, 2000: 28). Thus, the research is important because
and how they are best motivated (White, 2000). The experiential, in-depth and content-
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based research that is gathered from qualitative data provides the richness needed to form
Individual in-depth interviews are used to collect the qualitative data. These
individual interviews are semi-structured in the sense that a number of prescribed or seed
questions are asked (McDaniel and Gates, 2007; White, 2000). Once a seed question is
asked, the interviews assume a discussion form, with the interviewee directing the
2007).
The seed questions for the semi-structured interviews are developed based upon
the theoretical model that was formed in Chapter 2. These questions are created to draw
upon the four main areas of the theoretical model namely, general motivation factors,
leadership factors, team (behavioural factors), and output. The seed questions draw upon
the interviewees experiences in teams of high and low motivation as well as their
experiences of good and poor leadership (see Appendix C for a copy of the seed
questions). It was intended that the interviewees responses to the seed questions would
yield primary data to the four major categories of the research model.
The interviews take place in private, one-on-one settings which range from offices
to hotel rooms. Ten interviews are conducted and lasted from thirty minutes to an hour.
All of the interviews are recorded on a digital voice recorder so that they can later be
29 !
The interviewees are generally from two companies, EHC Eisbaeren Berlin and
Anschutz Entertainment Group. EHC Eisbaeren Berlins roots extend back to a time
when they were the 15-time East German Ice Hockey Champions Dynamo Berlin
(Eisbaeren Berlin, 2008). Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, the Eisbaeren have been one
of the few organizations from the East to establish themselves in Germanys top ice
hockey division. The Eisbaeren are one of the premier ice hockey clubs in Germany
having won the championship three of the past four seasons (Eisbaeren Berlin, 2008).
Anschutz Entertainment Group (AEG) meanwhile is one of the worlds leading sports
and entertainment presenters (AEG, 2008). AEG owns a collection of companies such as
the Staples Centre, O2 World London and Berlin, and ice hockey franchises such as the
leaders who are responsible for leading teams of athletes on the ice as well as leaders
leading work teams in the office. The captain, a player recognized by the team for
possessing strong leadership skills, and the coaches lead the athletes, while a CEO and a
general manager are responsible for leading the office team and hiring the players.
These subjects are chosen for their experience working in teams and their position
as either a team member or team leader. All of the subjects are involved in the
professional ice hockey industry in one capacity or another. See Appendix D for a
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3. III) Analysis Strategy
Analysis (IPA). This analytical approach is taken since the interviews are conducted in
order to gain insight into the world of the interviewees. IPA is useful in accomplishing
interview transcripts. The first stage is the transferring of the audio files into verbatim
transcripts. The second stage involves the reading and re-reading of the transcript and
associations, and interpretations of the data (Langdridge, 2007). The third stage is
comprised of recording the emerging themes on the right-hand margins. The initial notes
are transformed into more meaningful statements that are broader and more theoretically
significant (Langdridge, 2007). The fourth stage includes the listing of themes. Common
links are identified and reordered by the analyst in a more analytical and theoretical way
(Langdridge, 2007). The final stage involves the analysts creation of a table of themes
arranged in a coherent order. The relevant themes are named and linked to the originating
text while some themes may be eliminated if they are irrelevant or insignificant
(Langdridge, 2007). Once all of these stages have been completed for one interview, then
the analyst can move on to the next interview (see Appendix E for an example of IPA
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3. IV) Validity and Reliability
considers if the research design fully addresses the research questions and objectives of
The strategies that are used in this study to ensure the validity of its research and
findings are: triangulation, member-checking (Creswell, 2003), and memos (Strauss and
Corbin, 1998). Triangulation is the concept of examining evidence from different data
sources and using it to build justification of themes (Creswell, 2003). Data triangulation
is a form of triangulation that involves the use of some data collection from different
sources over different time scales. Since there is a nine month time restriction in which to
complete this dissertation, the use of differing time scales is not completely possible;
different stages of their careers as well as ensuring a 50/50 split between interviews with
leaders and interviews with followers. Thus, a form of data triangulation is one method
used to ensure validity. Member-checking is also used to ensure that information and the
resulting model makes sense to the interviewees and that they agree with it (Creswell,
2003). Finally, memos are used to create a paper trail of the thought and analysis used to
build the results model (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). Appendix E includes examples of this
paper trail as all five stages of IPA are recorded for each interview. These documents are
referred to during the construction of the results model and are used to ensure that the
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3. V) Summary
validity and reliability strategies describe the tools that are used to collect the primary
data and analyze it. Qualitative data yields rich, in-depth information while semi-
structured interviews allow for seed and research questions to be asked and for the
technique that ensures themes from the most obvious to the hidden are revealed while
data triangulation, member-checking, and memos are used by this study to strengthen the
validity of the research. Chapter 4 presents the results and builds a practical model based
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Chapter 4 Results
Chapter 4 presents the data on the leadership factors and general motivational
processes that influence motivation in teams. The chapter also discusses the team
processes and the output of teams that the primary data illustrated as being prevalent in
motivated teams. The internal and external contextual factors that affect the above
variables are also highlighted. Finally, Chapter 4 presents a results model based upon the
4. I) Leadership
The results show that leadership is a key element in motivating teams and is also
the foundation of teams. The primary data analysis reveals the major leadership factors
!! DEVELOPING TALENT
The interviewees suggest that talented teams produce expectations that need to be
fulfilled. The results suggest that talented teams are more likely to fulfill these
That (previous) year was a tough year for Mannheimthey went out and signed a
lot of the top players from around the league so my first year going there all the talk
was Mannheim was the team to beat, we had huge expectations and we performed
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The fulfillment of these expectations leads to celebration. In professional hockey,
celebration follows victory and takes the form of cheering, hugging, providing each other
with positive reinforcement, and re-living the excitement of the game with each other at a
team dinner. The positive feelings experienced during celebrations produces cohesion
and a boost in the spirit and attitudes of the team. As a former member of a talented and
cohesiveness and morale of the team, team members are left with the desire to win and
When you do it (win the championship) you wake up the next morning and say,
Thus, leaders who have talented teams will have teams that are motivated to
expectations of the team as the teams ability to fulfill high expectations is hindered by a
We hit a bump in the road, we lost a lot of talent in the team which is hard to
The acceptance of these lowered expectations and the inability to achieve high
35 !
environment. Team members become disgruntled and frustrated at one another and the
I was mad at the coach and the organization, I was frustrated and afraid, I did
not want to be there. The whole team, we played so bad, it was a nightmare.
Also, as team members are unable to rejoice victories and the achievement of common
If you dont have (the achievement of common goals) you have a team that is not
cohesive.
The lack of cohesiveness and loss of morale creates contentment and willingness of the
team to accept failure as they are no longer passionate about achieving goals. Since there
is very little to celebrate about, players adopt the mindset of there is always next year.
Leaders who have acquired a lack of talent have teams that are not motivated to
succeed.
!! COMMUNICATION
The interviewees suggest that leaders who effectively communicate with their team
members produce clearly defined organizational and individual expectations and roles.
The coaching staff (sat) down with each player individually and (told us) what (we)
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Clearly communicated expectations and roles provide team members with the clarity they
need to focus their energies on fulfilling them. When team members are informed of the
importance of their role and contributions to the team, feelings of worth are created
among the team members. For example, in professional hockey when a member of the
coaching staff informs a player either publicly or privately about their importance to the
team or compliments them on their attributes, team members feel a sense of pride, and
The guys took pride in their roles, there was no complaining, they just went out
Consequently, these strong feelings of pride, worth, and dedication among team
members lead to a boost in team morale and confidence as individual members become
increasingly sure of their abilities and the importance of their contributions to the team. It
can be concluded that leaders who clearly communicate will have teams who are
Conversely, leaders who do not clearly communicate with their team members do
not have clearly established expectations and roles. Team Coach 2 for example states,
When I reflect back... it was a lack of input from the coachI would ask what I
needed to do to make itone time when I went (and asked) they were offended.
These poorly defined expectations and roles produces uncertainty and a lack of focus
within team members. Professional hockey is an uncertain industry in which the careers
of players are quite often uncertain. If a team members role within the organization and
feelings of ambiguousness and a loss of value as they are left to ponder their future. It is
37 !
difficult for an individual to recognize within themselves what they need to improve upon
or how they can better fulfill their role within the organization. Team Coach 2 highlights
this by stating,
(Leaders) take it for granted that (individuals) have (an) understanding about
Leaders who do not communicate have team members that feel ambiguous,
disconnected from the team, and experience a drop in morale. In other words, a lack of
cohesiveness, a drop in morale, and decreased motivation are products of the negative
emotions that arise from a lack of communication. Therefore, leaders who ineffectively
!! DEVELOPING RESPECT
The interviewees suggest that leaders who gain the respect of their team members are
able to influence motivation through their actions. Leaders who take on extra work,
perform difficult tasks, and undertake the same duties as group members can inspire their
Our captain was the truest competitor; he was decently skilled, but worked harder
than anyone else on the teambecause of that, his words, his voice carried more
presence in the locker room. Anything he asked other players to do, he was doing
himself or morehe was a big reason for the success that the whole organization has
had.
In other words, by acting with enthusiasm and integrity, leaders are able to motivate their
team.
38 !
The interviewees also suggest that a leader who has the respect of their team has
the ability to inspire through their words. Leaders who are able to deliver inspiring
messages in a timely fashion induce feelings of passion and belief within the team. These
feelings of passion and belief increase the confidence, boost the morale, and motivate the
Motivational people, leaders, say the right thing to get the most out of people at the
right time. I have had leaders who have been able to do that at the right time.
Leaders who have gained respect will have a team that is inspired and motivated
Conversely, the interviewees suggest that a leader who is unable to develop respect
produces an uninspired and fractured team. A leader whose actions are self-centred and
who is inert is unable to develop the respect of their team. As Team Member 1 states,
The worst I have had is a leader who is lazy and selfish and should not be in that
roleLeadership is contagious you see your leader doing (something), then you
A hockey team that is uninspired lacks enthusiasm, is unwilling to take on extra work,
and does not perform the difficult tasks- such as; conditioning workouts, blocking shots,
or being committed to team defensive systems- that are required to accomplish team
goals. Team Member 3 was a member of an uninspired team and illustrates the above
points by stating,
I was not happy to be in the dressing room, it was the only time in my 15
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The above feelings and behaviours are products of a leaders inability to develop
respect. The presence of these feelings and behaviours can fracture a team. In other
words, by acting with a lack of both enthusiasm and integrity, leaders are unable to
motivate their team. It can be concluded that leaders who do not develop respect will not
!! DEVELOPING RELATIONSHIPS
The interviewees suggested that leaders who develop relationships produce a more
prepared and involved team. When players feel more involved, they also feel that their
contributions to the team are important, and as a result they take pride in their jobs and
When leaders develop strong relationships, their team members feel a greater
I sat down with everybody and listened to their stories and told everyone what I
expect and made it quite clear, most of the people wanted to join, not many people
wanted to leave.
business that can be quite cold at times. The feelings of pride, commitment, devotion, and
importance that result from a leader developing strong relationships unites team members
and increases their motivation. In other words, team members who feel a personal
40 !
connection to the leader and/or to the organization are more motivated to contribute to the
team.
Conversely, the interviewees suggested that leaders who do not develop relationships
produce a team that lacks commitment from individual members. Team Coach 1 for
example states,
As a coach I kept preaching the teamthat was a mistake that I made. I had to
understand every individual and understand how to pull their string and bring them
level, they feel like a commodity. Professional hockey is a competitive industry, thus, the
absence of a personal connection leaves team members with the feeling that they are
expendable.
When individual members feel expendable, they are not motivated to achieve
goals and are not happy about the success of a team that they feel does not care about
We had situations where I had to ask the guys to stand up and cheer when we scored
because guys we (were) not legitimately happy for each other when someone scored.
Leaders who do not develop relationships create a team that is not motivated to
The results indicate that motivational processes are key factors that influence the
motivation of team members. The primary data analysis reveals the major motivational
41 !
processes influencing motivation in teams are: intrinsic motivation, opportunity,
!! INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
The interviewees suggest that intrinsic motivation in a team produces dedicated and
satisfied team members. Team members are dedicated and satisfied when they are
intrinsically motivated because they truly enjoy what they do and gain satisfaction from
the work itself. These team members experience longevity in the business because they
are driven by factors such as; the opportunity to advance and improve oneself and the
If you play at a high level, any professional level, you cannot just play for the
money; otherwise you would not be there. Obviously when you are a kid growing up,
you are playing for the love of the game, you still need that as a professional. For me
personally, I have been a professional for fourteen years and I am still playing
In professional hockey, those who play the game because they love it, put in the
extra work to improve themselves and to achieve team goals. Team Member 2 illustrates
this by stating,
I think personally, (I) would not play this game if it was not funfun is why we
are in this gameI would have to put that at the top of my list. Internal
Team members who derive pleasure from the game itself are dedicated to
improving themselves and the team, and experience satisfaction from performing their
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roles. These behaviours and feelings create strong morale and motivation to improve
members will be disinclined and dissatisfied. For example, Team Member 3 points out,
In my job, one of the things I talk about concerning motivation and one of the things
I regret in my hockey career was that I was not able to motivate myself in that
situation. I was not able to show what I (could) do, I was so negative. I quitI just
quit! It was the first time in my whole life when I did not want to play, it was a
nightmare.
inability to perform and their loss of will to compete. In hockey, if team members are not
diminishes which contributes to poor results and feelings of resignation, defeat, and
I felt anger, I was afraid of making mistakesI was mad at the team and the way
they treated us, I was mad at the coach and the organization. I was frustrated, and I
was afraid, I did not want to be there. The whole team, we played so bad, it was a
nightmare.
The lack of success and negative emotions lower the morale of a team, contribute to a
loss of confidence, a lack of cohesiveness, and decrease the motivation of a team. Thus,
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!! OPPORTUNITY
The interviewees suggest that ample opportunity within teams creates aspiration and
conviction within the members. In professional hockey, team members can be presented
with opportunity such as; being able to strengthen their reputation. For example, Team
For me coming over here (to Europe) there is not much known about (me) and its
(my) personal chance to create a name and identity for (myself) and I think thats
Other forms of opportunity that exist within the sport include; the opportunity to succeed,
Being my first year and not going to one of the top teams, that was my personal
motivation to say, hey there is a player that is playing for a mediocre, (non) playoff
team. To be able to move to a better team or make more money, or to win more, was
my motivation.
When presented with opportunities, team members aspire to capitalize upon them
and are confident in their abilities to do so. These feelings of conviction and aspiration
these opportunities.
of insignificance among the team members and makes them feel that their jobs are trivial.
In hockey, team members who are not provided with personal development opportunities
experience situations such as; a lack opportunity for advancement, not being able to
44 !
assume a larger role or not being presented with the opportunity to be successful and
advance in their work. Team Manager 3 for example, was involved in a situation where
team members were faced with a lack of opportunity. Team Manager 3 states,
You have to give people a vision or something that is worth striving for. It is not
about promotion or demotion, it is about how you can and what you do to achieve
something that is important to yourself and to the company and therefore creates
something that is worth striving for and getting out of bed for.
as employees are under the impression that their jobs are trivial. Teams that feel
insignificant and unimportant are not cohesive and are not motivated to contribute to the
!! ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORT
The interviewees suggest that organizational support results in teams that are talented.
In professional hockey, this support often takes the form of the organization contributing
to the team financially so that the team consists of talented members. Team Member 2 for
example states,
In Mannheim the players were quite motivated by the belief that we were equipped
to win a championship.
As mentioned earlier, talented teams produce expectations which are more likely to be
fulfilled due to the presence of talent. As a result, teams are more confident and
motivated in their ability to achieve goals. For example, Team Member 2 states,
45 !
I think that the organization equipping the team with the best players enhanced
this belief and created a strong, attainable goal for the team.
creating a first-class environment by; having a luxury arena and locker room, and having
an experienced and dedicated medical and training staff. This form of organizational
support creates feelings of significance and prominence within the team. As Team Coach
1 states,
The organization was very classy, we were treated first class. We felt like we
Team members that feel significant and prominent experience a boost in morale,
produces a lack of loyalty and commitment. Professional hockey jobs are notoriously
insecure. The competition is very fierce and the short-term nature of the contracts results
in high employee turnover. Thus, a lack of organizational support further diminishes the
To start the year we were in first then we lost a lot. The president and the coach of
the organization began to panic and started throwing guys off the team and putting a
This lack of support results in the team members being less committed to the organization
46 !
The team kind of broke and the motivation after that was really poor. Some
really good team guys got thrown off the team and were replaced by guys that we
Poorly committed teams are also less cohesive because they are not united by common
!! COMPENSATION
The interviewees suggest that well compensated teams produce expectations and
opportunity. Professional hockey contracts are performance driven. More often than not,
a player who makes more money than another player has performed at a higher level and
is expected to perform at a higher level. Team Members who are better compensated than
their colleagues are also usually the members with greater responsibilities such as; more
ice time, being on the ice at critical junctures in the game, and having higher expectations
Subconsciously...money does play a factor. Someone out there by giving you the
money is saying that you are supposed to perform better than this guy It would be
similar to a sales person having a sales quota and them getting a higher percentage
the more sales they get. Obviously it has to be a huge driving force for someone like
The statement that is made by the organization ensuring team members are well
compensated gives members confidence in their ability and boosts their morale. When
team members fulfill expectations, they are then rewarded with greater compensation and
a new set of expectations. In other words, high levels of compensation result in high
47 !
levels of motivation because team members want to continue to experience the feelings
inability of team members to satisfy their needs which leads to feelings of despair. There
are extreme cases of professional hockey teams that are unable to compensate their teams
in a timely fashion. Some reasons for this include; a lack of success on the ice, a lack of
of this by stating,
The motivation was low here when they didnt pay anybody. The Eisbaeren
didnt have Anschutz behind the club and it was run by people who didnt know
The inability to fulfill their needs and not being rewarded for their contributions results in
and a lack of motivation to contribute to an organization that is not fulfilling the needs of
its members.
The results reveal that the behavioural processes exhibited by teams include: their
48 !
!! PERCEPTION OF WORK
The interviewees suggest that high motivation produces gratification and satisfaction
within the team. Professional hockey team members that are motivated to perform their
roles and accomplish team goals gain a greater sense of satisfaction and gratification
I felt that it was easier to do your job especially if you are competitive and want to
win and will do anything to winAlso, you wake up in the morning looking forward
to going to the rink as opposed to not looking forward to going to the rink.
Motivated teams are united in their goals and are confident in their abilities which
creates a more positive and pleasurable work environment. As Team Member 2 states,
the feelings of unity, confidence, satisfaction, and gratification that they experience.
discontent and uneasiness within a team. Hockey teams that are plagued by low
motivation have little cause for celebration and get away from working towards common
goals. As a result, negative emotions such as discontent and uneasiness arise. For
Generally speaking, low motivation creates unrest and not being satisfied
neither with (oneself) or with the situation, nor with the job.
These negative emotions can quickly consume a team. As Team Manager 3 states,
49 !
It is usually that you cannot grab it, it is not one thing that bothers people, it is
The feelings of discontent and uneasiness that are produced by low motivation
contribute to a negative work environment and the teams negative perception of work.
!! COHESIVENESS
The interviewees suggest that high motivation produces dedication and confidence. In
highly motivated hockey teams, players are confident in, and dedicated to achieving team
were so motivated, everyone work(ed) together and nothing (could) stop (us).
Witnessing the commitment, focus, and sacrifice of other team members instills the
confidence that they are contributing to team goals. These feelings, which are products of
commonality. Often, hockey teams are able to build a sense of togetherness through
planning off-ice activities such as team dinners. Teams who successfully build
Our leaders off the ice tried to make sure that we did as much as
possible(together) and I think that affected us on the ice, we played for each other
50 !
These feelings unite team members both on and off the ice and they become more
Conversely, the interviewees suggest that low motivation produces hostility and
frustration. Frustrated hockey teams quite often engage in finger pointing which causes
I think that everyone felt the same. A lot of negative talk towards everything,
coaches, each other, behind peoples backs, they were turning on each other.
Negative feelings of frustration and hostility decrease the morale and cohesiveness of the
team.
The interviewees also illustrate that a lack of cohesiveness produces a lack of kinship
and brotherhood. A hockey team is less able to overcome adverse situations when
It is always easy when you are winning, but when (we) start(ed) to loose a fewIt
just killed us, we didnt have the team (unity) to pull us out.
The inability to overcome adverse situations results in a teams lack of success. This lack
of success decreases the morale of the team and the teams motivation to achieve
collective goals.
!! CONFIDENCE
The interviewees suggest that high motivation produces commitment and focus.
When hockey teams are motivated, they channel their physical and mental energy
towards achieving those goals. As team members witness each others dedication and
commitment, their belief in achieving those goals grows. As Team Member 5 states,
51 !
(High motivation made us feel) a confidence and a cockiness that is
contagious,even if you doubted it, you started to believe that it was going to
happen.
As the belief of team members increases, they become more confident that they will
cohesiveness. Professional hockey teams that suffer from a lack of cohesion do not work
together to achieve common goals. In other words, individual interests take over. As
The confidence was low because of the negative energy from within the team. It
did not seem we were playing for each other, it was not a fun year at all.
!! COMMITMENT
The interviewees suggest that high motivation produces satisfaction and gratification
within a team. Professional hockey teams that have members who are more satisfied and
receive gratification from their work are more willing to do what it takes to achieve team
We had a lot of guys filling in roles they were not used to, (to) do whatever it took to
In other words, highly motivated teams are more committed to achieving team goals.
52 !
Conversely, the interviewees reveal that low motivation produces detachment and
become increasingly individualistic in their focus and are distracted by influences such
as, the media and the fans; that they otherwise would not be distracted by. For example,
(In situations of low motivation, teams) fall apart in terms of team thinking and
concentrating on the task at hand, and (by) outside factors (that) influence
motivation.
organizational goals.
4. IV) Output
(statistics) and how successful the team is (wins, losses, and championships). The
interviewees suggest that productivity and success are outputs that are either influenced
!! PRODUCTIVITY
commitment. Motivated and committed professional hockey teams have a high level of
desire to accomplish goals and are very intense. This commitment results in higher
53 !
There were a lot of great (individual) seasons that year. We had three first-team
In other words, as a result of their commitment and desire, highly motivated teams are
productive.
commitment and apathy. Poorly motivated professional hockey teams are not committed-
in terms of their actions and emotions- to achieving team goals. This apathetic behaviour
In sports teams (productivity) is a lot easier to measure, you dont score goals
!! SUCCESS
The interviewees show that high motivation produces desire. Teams who are
motivated have the desire to achieve collective goals. It is this desire that results in their
belief and commitment to team systems. As the team begins to perform actions that are
necessary to achieve team goals, they achieve success. Team Manager 1 for example
states,
playing against the national programs from other countries and won it all. It was the
first and only time, (in) 99 years of the Spengler Cup that the Americans won.
As the team begins perform the actions that are critical to achieving team goals, they
54 !
Conversely, the interviewees suggest that poorly motivated teams produce
conflict. Teams experiencing conflict also experience emotions such as frustration and
anger. Teams who feel this way are less motivated to achieve team goals. As Team
Member 3 states,
The motivation was not thereWe gave up and quit, we did not come back in
Teams that are less motivated to achieve team goals often experience a lack of success.
Confident teams believe they will succeed and often do succeed. As teams begin to
experience success, the morale on the team increases along with the motivation to
We won the whole thing and we knew we were going to and that was the big
differenceIn the playoffs we were down 3-0and we came back and won.
focus. When teams struggle to win hockey games their focus on collective goals waivers
because they are no longer confident in the teams ability to succeed. For example, Team
Manager 1 states,
(Due to our lack of success) the focus suffered, (we lost) track of what (we) were
there for.
Along with this loss of confidence and belief, teams are less motivated to work towards
collective goals.
55 !
4. V) Internal Contextual Factors
The results suggest that reward systems and expectations are internal contextual
!! REWARD SYSTEMS
The results suggest that strong reward systems produce unity. Professional hockey
teams often establish team reward systems. These rewards are distributed equally to the
team for achievements such as; wins or championships. For example, Team Coach 1
states,
We were all rewarded the same, with the same amount of money after each game.
These team rewards build cohesiveness as members unite their efforts to achieve rewards.
Teams that unite around strong reward systems are also more motivated to continually
achieve them.
that have weak reward systems indirectly communicate to their team that expectations are
low. As a result of these low expectations, teams are not motivated to achieve higher
success partially because they will not be rewarded for it. For example, Team Member 4
states,
The motivation would have had to come from management making a monetary
(commitment) to the team above what the players had because we were not a team
56 !
Thus, teams with weak reward systems are poorly motivated.
!! EXPECTATIONS
The interviewees suggest that expectations produce confidence. Hockey teams who
have high expectations have a strong disposition that is geared towards achieving those
(In teams with high) expectations, goals are different and (the) mentality going into
In other words, high expectations result in confidence and motivation to celebrate the
Teams that have low expectations become complacent once they have fulfilled them.
That is part of the reason that we did not do well going into the playoffs, it was
our lack of expectations and motivation towards (the) goals that we should (have)
had.
In other words, teams are not motivated to achieve higher expectations than the low ones
The results reveal that cultural differences and competition are external contextual
57 !
!! CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
from Europe and North America. These diverse teams contain varying inclinations. Team
In Canada there are so many kids fighting for a small number of jobs that when you
dont make it, you dont blame the coach, you look at yourself and wonder what you
can do better. There is that sense of (competition). In Germany, there are not the
same number of people competing for jobs. When they get into competition they point
fingers. There is not that mentality (that) when you are in a competition you have to
Since team members possess varying inclinations, they are motivated by different factors.
In other words, teams that are culturally different will have varying levels of motivation.
!! COMPETITION
The interviewees suggest that strong competition produces a yearning for more. In
I think the highest motivation was the year after we lost in the finals. It was very
tough to sit on the ice and watch the other team lift the trophy. The next season we
probably had 90% of the players back and when we got to the same point, motivation
was so high, nobody was going to take that, nobody was going to put themselves
58 !
The yearning and desire to succeed motivates teams to triumph over the competition.
Conversely, the interviewees suggest that competition can also produce resentfulness.
A great deal of internal competition exists in professional hockey as players vie for more
ice time or the opportunity to play at top levels. This fierce competition can produce
There was jealousy over why certain players got called up and this would result in
for instance, guys not passing the puck because they wanted to score so that they
Resentfulness and envy prevent a team from being cohesive and from being motivated to
The results model (Figure 4.1) was developed from the primary research and is
based upon the leadership factors and motivational processes that influence motivation in
teams. It can be concluded from the above discussion that the following leadership
factors influence the motivation, behavioural processes, and output of teams: developing
organizational support, and compensation. The model also provides the behavioural
processes of teams that are influenced by motivation and influence output (perception of
work, confidence, and commitment) and cohesiveness, the behavioural process that is
59 !
affected by and affects motivation and output. The two-way relationship between
this chapter and is illustrated by arrows running between the variables in the Results
Model (see Figure 4.1). The model demonstrates the output (productivity) that is
influenced by motivation and behavioural processes and the output (success) that is
relationship between success and motivation is supported in the success section of this
chapter and is illustrated by arrows running between the two variables in the Results
Model. The model also reveals some major internal contextual factors (reward systems
and expectations) and external contextual factors (cultural differences and competition)
60 !
FIGURE 4.1 RESULTS MODEL
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4. VIII) Summary
The results model illustrates the leadership factors and motivational processes
influencing motivation, the behavioural processes and outputs associated with highly and
poorly motivated teams, as well as the contextual factors that influence motivation in
teams. Chapter 5 discusses the results, shows how they relate to the existing literature,
and presents a set of guidelines and implications for leaders regarding how motivation
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Chapter 5 Discussion
Chapter 5 provides a discussion of the results and their relation to the existing
literature. There are many similarities as well as some minor differences between the
results model and the theoretical model. It was expected that there would be some minor
differences between the models which can be largely attributed to the context in which
the results were gathered (these details will be elaborated upon in this chapter). In this
chapter important and interesting findings and similarities are discussed and related to the
model. Further, this chapter includes a set of guidelines for enhancing motivation in
There are two parts of the results model that are different from the theory, these
!! Empowerment/Developing Talent
The literature does not identify talent as being necessary to or having a strong
influence over motivation in teams. However, it does point to the leaders ability to
empower employees as being a critical factor influencing the motivation in teams because
motivation in teams (Kirkman and Rosen, 1999; Chen et al., 2007; Chen and Klimoski,
2003; Peterson, 2007). The literature suggests that when leaders delegate, ask for and use
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employee input and enhance the sense of personal control within team members, they are
more likely to experience, meaning, input, and autonomy in their work due to an
increased sense of responsibility (Kirkman and Rosen, 1999: 60). This sense of
Kirkman and Rosen, 1999; Chen et al., 2007). While the literature does not identify talent
necessary not only for increasing motivation, but also for increasing team performance
(Peterson, 2007).
influencing motivation, which may be a factor that is specific to sports teams. If a sports
team member is empowered by receiving more ice time, or with more on-ice
result of their increased role, the role of another member of the team is decreased and
their motivation will likely be as well. Thus, contrary to Chen et al. (2007), who states
that empowering the team also empowers the individual, in professional sports, when an
The goaltender we had was mad that the General Manager didnt have the
confidence that he was good enough to do the job and brought in (another
Contrary to the literature, the results identify developing talent as being necessary to
motivating teams. This is specific to sports teams where talent plays a major role in the
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success of a team. A team may initially be motivated and not talented, but as the season
progresses, they will not achieve results, which as the interviewees suggest, will
You can have a highly motivated team that is not talented and doesnt go
anywhere.
Developing talent is necessary in sports because as the results show, talent increases
!! Empowerment/Developing Respect
Another interesting difference that occurred between the models involves empowerment
and developing respect. Peterson (2007) suggested that empowered employees are more
likely to trust and respect leaders who are able to delegate. According to the theory,
empowerment enhances motivation because it creates the feeling among employees that
their work affects the organization, is important to the organization, creates the feeling of
autonomy, and makes employees feel important (Chen et al., 2007; Kirkman and Rosen,
Employees develop respect and trust for leaders who empower them and they are
more motivated to perform their duties as a result of the above feelings that are created
through empowerment. This can be attributed to the roles in professional hockey being
clearly defined and that there is little room for the delegation of authority and important
skills. A leaders ability to take on extra work and perform difficult tasks can inspire
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employees to follow them. The results suggest that a leader who acts with integrity and
enthusiasm develops the respect of their team through their actions and motivates the
team as a result.
Despite the differences discussed above, there are many similarities between the
theory and the results model which include: communication, intrinsic motivation, reward
!! Communication
the interviewees as being influential in the motivation of teams. Brenner (2007) and
informed, building their focus, and clarifying their roles and organizational expectations.
(As a result of effective communication) the guys took pride in their roles.
The above examples illustrate that the theory and the interviewees suggest effective
communication results in the clear definition of roles and expectations which increases
feelings of pride and satisfaction in team members and motivates them to do their job.
aware of what job they do, how their performance impacts the team, and the expectations
the organization has for the team. These factors are important so that the team member
can better harness their energy and use it in a more focused way. Without this
communication, players can have difficulty fulfilling their roles at a high level and
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It is hard to see yourself from the inside.
Thus, the theory and the results reveal that communication is an important factor
!! Intrinsic Motivation
motivational process that influences motivation in teams. Frey and Jegen (2001) and
Amabile (2003) suggest that team members who are more intrinsically motivated will
also be more motivated to accomplish the goals of the team. The comments of Team
Member 1 link the importance the interviewees placed on intrinsic motivation with the
theory,
I have been a professional for fourteen years and I am still playing for the love of
the game.
The literature is consistent with the theory because motivation is important within the
context of professional hockey as it is with any job because a person will perform at a
higher level if they gain satisfaction from doing it (Hughes et al., 2006; USTA, 2004;
Frey and Jegen; 2001; Amabile, 1993). Intrinsic motivation encourages people to
undertake tasks with greater effort. For example, a professional hockey player who is
intrinsically motivated will work harder during off-ice training, practicing, and in games.
In elite competition, this greater effort provides an edge that can be the difference
between a goal and a save or a win and a loss. Intrinsically motivated team members are
also encouraged to undertake the more unpleasant tasks that are vital to success. For
example, in professional hockey this may involve fitness training, on-ice conditioning, or
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video analysis sessions. While these tasks may not be enjoyable, they are critical to the
and exert greater effort because of their love for what they do. Also, the level of
satisfaction that a team member is experiencing has a direct impact on their motivation to
accomplish the goals of the team (Frey and Jegen, 2001; Amabile, 1993). Thus, it can be
concluded from the theory and the results that the intrinsic motivation of team members
!! Reward Systems
The theory and the results were consistent in terms of reward systems. The key link
between the literature and the results is the importance of organizations taking a team
We were all rewarded the sameit took away a lot of the jealousy and
individualism.
Reward systems are important in professional hockey because if created and applied
correctly, they provide team members with a goal to unite around and to be motivated to
achieve (Cacioppe, 1999). In other words, they can provide extra incentive for employees
Both the literature and the results suggest that reward systems designed to have
team-based incentives help to enforce team roles and behaviours (Cacioppe, 1999;
Hoffman and Rogelberg, 1998). Thus, it can be concluded that reward systems influence
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!! Cultural Differences
Interestingly, the theory and the interviewees are consistent in their views that culture
influential (Latham and Pinder, 2005). Culture is just as prominent in the context of
coaches, and players from Europe and North America. Culture is very influential in the
motivation of a team (Ambrose and Kulik, 1999). Team Coach 1 demonstrates the role
culture plays in the motivation of teams by illustrating differences in the reactions of two
When they get into competition, they point fingers. There is not that
!! Opportunity
The theory and the interviewees revealed a link in the influential role opportunity
plays in the motivation of teams. The literature reveals the importance of opportunity
when discussing the needs of team members. Horowitz (2003) identifies opportunity as a
motivator that appeals directly to a persons needs through providing opportunities such
as room for professional growth and attractive career plans. Similarly, the interviewees
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For me coming over here (Europe) there is not much known about you and its
This statement reveals that the results are consistent with the literature in the sense that
opportunity creates aspiration and conviction within hockey team members. Opportunity
is important within professional hockey because players and coaches are hoping to
advance themselves to higher levels of play, pay, and/or to better teams. As Team
Member 4 states,
To be able to move to a better team or to make more money, or to win more, was
my motivation.
Team members motivated by opportunity work harder to achieve team success which
I definitely feel that if your team succeeds then as an individual you will also
succeed.
It can be concluded from the above discussion that opportunity influences the motivation
in teams.
The second research question asked; How can leaders enhance the motivation in
teams? The following discussion reveals a set of guidelines for how leaders can enhance
motivation in teams which were developed from the theoretical and results models.
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!! THE ABILITY TO HIRE
The interviewees suggest that since strong talent enhances motivation, the leader of a
team needs to ensure that the organization recruits the necessary talent. Thus, the ability
to hire becomes critical. This ability can be developed in a number of ways. First, it is
important to hire team members of good character and talent. These talented and
character people are characterized by traits such as; intrinsically motivated, honest, and
You only look for guys that have character, have pride, have desire, talentyou
A second way to develop the ability to hire is to ensure the organization possesses
a strong recruiting staff that assists in finding the desired people. For example,
professional hockey teams have scouting crews who are responsible for identifying
potential team members. A leader who utilizes the expertise of such a staff is another way
We have the L.A. scouting crew that we use, that way you dont have an agents
paper coming over the fax saying, skates well, shoots well, passes well, should
Third, a leader must focus upon the needs of the team and ensure these needs are
addressed through hiring. This way the talent required to fill specific roles will be
The most important thing as a leader is picking the right people to work for
youI know exactly what I need for each position and I make sure I...find the
right people.
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By hiring talented people of strong character, utilizing a recruiting team, and
addressing team needs through hiring, a leader can enhance the motivation of their team.
Since developing a strong sense of respect enhances motivation, the leader needs to
ensure they lead their team by example. The literature and the results suggest that this
ability can be developed by empowering employees and being conscious to do and say
the right things. First, leaders are able to gain the respect of employees through
empowerment (Chen et al., 2007). Empowered team members are more likely to trust and
respect a leader who delegates authority and important tasks (Peterson, 2007). In this
sense, the leader is setting a good example for team members by showing they are
Secondly, the ability of a leader to lead by example can be developed through doing
and saying the right things. A leader who is able to inspire team members through their
words and deliver leadership and success through their actions has a strong ability to lead
(The leader) found a way to read situations. They said the right things at the right
time (and) did the things that needed to be done for the team.
A leaders ability to survey the environment and then act in a way that sets a good
example (working hard, doing things people dont want to) inspires and motivates others
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!! PROMOTE INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
Since strong intrinsic motivation enhances motivation in teams, the leader needs to
promote intrinsic motivation so that it remains high. Thus, promoting intrinsic motivation
among team members is important because those who are intrinsically motivated strive
2004). A leader can promote this intrinsic motivation in a number of different ways
this may include allowing team members to make decisions regarding practice and
systems.
3. Ensuring goals are realistic and tied to performance and not only to outcome. This
A leader who effectively promotes intrinsic motivation through methods such as the
ones listed above will enhance the motivation of their team (Frey and Jegen, 2001;
Amabile, 1993).
Since effective communication enhances motivation, the leader needs to ensure that
they effectively communicate with their team, thus, the leaders ability to communicate
becomes critical (Horowitz et al., 2003; Brenner, 2007; Spiers, 2007). This ability can be
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developed and strengthened in a number of ways. First, leaders should engage in regular
contact with staff, allowing for staff decision-making, as well as regular performance
support (Horowitz et al., 2003; Spiers, 2007). Regular contact with the staff involves the
field team member questions or concerns (Horowitz et al., 2003; Spiers, 2007). Allowing
for staff decision-making entails allotting team members the freedom to take charge and
make decisions regarding practices, fitness training, or basic strategy (Horowitz et al.,
2003; Spiers, 2007). Regular performance support involves the leader providing team
members with frequent feedback concerning the strengths of their performance as well as
that they listen well and make use of non-verbal communication. This involves leaders
developing the following skills: establishing two-way dialogue, using non-verbal cues to
stimulate revealing questions or answers, the use of silence, and effective listening
(Spiers, 2007). Third, leaders need to clearly develop and communicate roles and tasks.
We make sure that we have our flip charts and that (they) are somewhere where
everyone sees it, reads it, and I make sure I never throw those away.
By establishing a simple, clear, and consistent system, listening, and making use
of regular and non-verbal communication, leaders are able to ensure their communication
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!! THE ABILITY TO FOSTER COHESIVENESS
leader needs to ensure that the team is united. Thus, the leaders ability to foster
suggest this ability can be developed through the use of team building exercises and
The leaders implementation of team building activities is one way that cohesiveness
can be strengthened. Team building activities can take on many forms such as; team-
based excursions, team meals, or team meetings. However, the most important element of
these activities is that team members are brought together and have the opportunity to
build relationships with one another and are clearly informed of the goals of the team. For
Team building activitiesare really popular right nowYou have to get the team
together and talk about the goals for the teamget them to talk to each other, (and)
A second way to develop the cohesiveness of a team is by the leader placing a greater
of a bigger picture (Rantz et al., 1996). Leaders should stress the importance of team
work and team problem solving through their actions, memos, and meetings (Rantz et al.,
1996). Leaders can stress the importance of team work through their actions by getting
involved in work teams and delegating responsibility throughout the team. Leaders can
also achieve this through memos or by providing team members with literature that
identifies the importance and benefits of team-based work. Also, leaders can conduct
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meetings that discuss the importance of team work and provide ways that employees can
engage in it. These methods will help to positively influence employees views of
interpersonal relations and will result in higher levels of motivation (Rantz et al., 1996).
Since team reward systems produce unity and enhance motivation, the leader needs to
ensure that effective reward systems are implemented. Thus, the ability to implement
team reward systems is important (Cacioppe, 1999; Hoffman and Rogelberg, 1998). This
ability can be developed in a number of ways. First, the rewards should be team-based
because they build cohesiveness and unite the efforts of the team. For example, Team
Coach 1 states,
We were all rewarded the same, with the same amount of money after each game.
There are also a number of factors that a leader must consider to determine a
reward system that is suitable for their team. These factors include; the stage of team life-
cycle, team reward and recognition strategies, what the rewards should provide
(direction, support, or celebration), and the culture of the team (Cacioppe, 1999). The
leader must consider the stage of the teams life-cycle to determine which rewards are
suitable for a team (Cacioppe, 1999). For example, it is important to focus the group and
give it energy in the forming and norming stages while the team needs encouragement to
move to the performing stage and celebration and acknowledgement during the ending
stage (Cacioppe, 1999). Team reward and recognition strategies should be considered
because rewards can range from intrinsic to extrinsic and it must be determined which are
the most appropriate. Rewards and recognition can be used in teams to provide: direction,
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support, reinforcement, or celebration (Cacioppe, 1999). Also, it is important that reward
systems fit within the mission, vision, values, goals, and competitive atmosphere of the
Some other important guidelines that should be followed to develop the leaders
(Cacioppe, 1999)
For instance, rewards should reward teams for their success. For example, in professional
hockey, this could include rewarding the team equally after wins or as a team progresses
Everybody got the same it was not based upon individual bonuses but was based
If the key factors for successful team reward systems are met, rewards become a
Since cultural differences influence motivation in the sense that different members
are motivated differently, the leader needs to ensure that the organization is aware of
these differences. Thus, the ability to understand and educate the team on these
programs which are designed to educate one culture how to interact effectively with and
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These types of programs have varying degrees of sophistication. Simple forms
include lectures and meetings that educate multicultural teams on each others cultures
(Vecchio, 2006). A more sophisticated technique called the culture assimilator provides
the subject with instant feedback on their answers to hypothetical situations involving
culture (Vecchio, 2006). Another technique that can be used is simulation training which
involves the trainee realizing subtle differences between cultures as well as learning that
The above methods can assist leaders in understanding and educating team members
however, many of these guidelines can be applied in the same way to business
organizations. These include: the ability to lead by example, the ability to effectively
communicate, the ability to foster cohesiveness, and understanding and educating the
team on cultural differences. Despite these similarities, some of the guidelines can be
applied to businesses but take on a slightly different slant. These include: the ability to
hire (developing talent), promoting intrinsic motivation, and the implementation of team
reward systems.
The ability to hire, focuses primarily on hiring practices and buying talent.
Businesses do not necessarily develop their talent in the same way as professional sports
organizations. A comparison of the literature and the results suggest that business leaders
more frequently develop talent through education, training, and experience than sports
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leaders do (Kirkman and Rosen, 1999; Chen et al., 2007). By enrolling employees in
appropriate training and providing them with responsibility and the ability to make
decisions, business leaders are able to develop their talent (Kirkman and Rosen, 1999).
In order for business leaders to ensure their team members are intrinsically
motivated, the key is for leaders to identify what tasks intrinsically motivate their
employees and provide them with the opportunity to do them (Hughes et al., 2006). In
tasks. For example, an employee may by intrinsically motivated to deal with the public
while another may prefer being behind a desk calculating numbers. It is vital for a
business leader to communicate with team members to discover their interests and match
While the factors and guidelines that are necessary for the implementation of team
reward systems are similar in business and sports, business teams should be rewarded
differently than sports teams. Business leaders should reward team work; otherwise team
work will not be seen as important (Hoffman and Rogelberg, 1998). According to
Hoffman and Rogelberg (1998), business leaders must consider two basic factors when
type (full or part-time). For example, leaders of high interdependence, full-time teams
should consider team-goal based or team skill incentive systems with equal distribution
discretionary bonus system with equitable distribution among members (Hoffman and
Rogelberg, 1998).
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5. IV) Implications for Organizations and Leaders
Now that the guidelines for enhancing motivation in teams have been presented, it
the guidelines.
!! FINANCIAL INVESTMENT
In order for leaders to finance guidelines such as; team reward systems, team building
activities, or cultural training, the organization needs to allocate sufficient funds to these
areas. Without the funding, the guidelines mentioned above cannot be implemented.
Team Manager 3 who-has been a leader of a team that was restricted by a lack of
In these situations (the team) could have improved further if the business and the
economics would have been more favourable and (we) would have been able to pay
more money.
In order for teams to implement new systems or to pay for training, they must ensure they
are sufficiently funded. Finances are also critical to the hiring of talented individuals.
Generally speaking, the more talented the person is, the more money it takes to acquire or
It is not important how much money he gives out for the whole team, but it is
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!! EXTRA TRAINING
understanding and educating the team about cultural differences, and for the ability to
lead by example (Cacioppe, 1999; Rantz et al., 1996; Kozlowski and Ilgen, 2006).
In order to ensure the team is cohesive, the organization needs to provide its leader
and team members with extra training. The organization should include training in
interpersonal and teamwork skills to get the team members to feel as though they are a
part of something important (Cacioppe, 1999; Rantz et al., 1996). Extra training is also
required because in Western society we educate children and hire, train, and reward
a strong belief that individuals thrown together to form a team with, little thought
successful (Kozlowski and Ilgen, 2006). Extra training is required to counteract this
deficiency and train teams to think and act collectively (Kozlowski and Ilgen, 2006).
Extra training is also required to help leaders and team members understand cultural
differences that exist within the team. Cross-cultural training programs must be created
and implemented by businesses to teach team members about cultural differences and to
teach members of one culture to interact effectively with members from another
(Vecchio, 2006).
example. Organizations must ensure team leaders receive adequate training so that they
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are able to understand and display appropriate leadership behaviour (Kirkman and Rosen,
1999).
!! RESTRUCTURING
intrinsic motivation (Kirkman and Rosen, 1999; Cacioppe, 1999; Gee and Burke, 2001).
methods if they hope to replace them with more effective ones. For example, the leader
or the organization can modify social structures to allow for more team member access to
each other and establish more communication across teams (Kirkman and Rosen, 1999).
Leaders who are hoping to establish team-based rewards that previously were not in
place need to restructure their reward systems. The plan, type, criteria, and use of the
reward systems all need to be restructured (Cacioppe, 1999). Teams that are
implementing new reward systems need to review and evaluate the reward system
Leaders and organizations who are undertaking the promotion of intrinsic motivation
within their team may need to restructure job design. Leaders can restructure job design
based on factors that are geared toward realizing the untapped skills of employees (Gee
and Burke, 2001). Also, restructuring jobs to ensure that employees are involved in
decision-making and have the opportunity to use different skills and receive feedback are
elements that can be restructured to promote intrinsic motivation (Gee and Burke, 2001).
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!! TIME
Time is a critical element that is required for the implementation of any of the
guidelines (Hoffman and Rogelberg, 1998). Time is required to establish new systems, to
complete training programs, and to acquire additional finances (Hoffman and Rogelberg,
1998). Leaders and organizations are often under time constraints to implement new
5. IV) Summary
As expected, there are minor differences between the results model and the
theoretical model which can largely be attributed to the context (professional hockey) that
capacity. The discussion reveals that despite the minor differences, the results and
theoretical models are consistent in many ways. These links demonstrate the strong
influence of the above factors in the motivation of teams. From these models, the
research questions are answered, and a series of guidelines and implications for
organizations and leaders are developed. Chapter 6 provides the conclusions that have
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Chapter 6 Conclusions
Chapter 6 summarizes the results and presents answers to the research questions.
In addition, it discusses the weaknesses of the research, the learning reflections, and
This study set out to answer two main research questions. These questions and
The theoretical model and the results model reveal a variety of leadership factors and
motivational processes that influence motivation in teams. According to the models, the
major leadership factors influencing motivation in teams are: the ability to empower
talent, and developing respect. The models also reveal the main motivational processes
that influence motivation in teams which include: needs, intrinsic motivation (individual
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!! Research Question 2: How can leaders enhance motivation in teams?
A set of guidelines for how leaders can enhance motivation in teams are developed
from the theoretical and results models. These guidelines include; the ability to hire, the
systems, and understanding and educating the team on cultural differences. These
guidelines are developed from the discussion and are based upon interesting and
important points, similarities, and differences in the models. In order for these guidelines
GLUIDELINE SUMMARY
2. The Ability to Lead by Example Doing and saying the right things to inspire
and gain the respect of team members.
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6. The Implementation of Team Reward Rewarding each member of the team
Systems equally for accomplishing team-based
goals.
7. Understanding and Educating the To help bridge the cultural divide that may
Team on Cultural Differences exist within teams and to learn how
different cultures are motivated.
There are a few weaknesses in the methodology of this study that should be
discussed. First, this study used a small sample size which is limited in the sense that it is
not appropriate to make generalizations for a wider population based on this data (White,
2000). These generalizations are difficult to make because the analysis relies heavily
upon subjectivity and interpretation (McDaniel and Gates, 2007). A second limitation is
the guarded nature of professional athletes. Professional hockey players are generally
very cautious and reluctant when conducting interviews. This characteristic may have
limited the focus and richness of the data that was collected. For example, many
references were made to the team and we when the questions being asked were
actually in regards to their personal feelings. A third limitation of the research involves
gender. All of the interviewees were male, thus, generalizations are difficult to make for
Despite these weaknesses, the data that was collected and analyzed was credible
as several methods were undertaken to ensure validity. Data triangulation in the form of
compensate for the lack of differing time scales was used (Creswell, 2003). Member
checking was also used to ensure the information and results model were congruent
86 !
(Creswell, 2003). Memos were also used such as the one included under Appendix E
The first type of future research that could be conducted involves gaining insight
into how the weaknesses of this study could be reduced or negated. For example, in order
for the data to be generalizable, further research would need to be undertaken which
would focus of the main deficiencies. The results model would be need to be measured
used to evaluate the different leadership and motivation variables described in the
models. This research would need to be conducted randomly to ensure that both males
A second type of research that could be conducted is a future study that examines
the relationship between motivation and the success of the team. The results of the thesis
suggest that motivation not only influences success, but success influences motivation as
well. It would be interesting to elaborate upon this finding and determine if it is true
within a broader scope. This study could be conducted by using qualitative data through
interviews and gathering a larger sample size that is representative of different industries.
6. V) Learning Reflections
traditional business environment. However, this study reveals that many leadership
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business environments) are linked to many of the factors in the results model (based on
professional hockey). This indicates that perhaps the two business environments are not
In addition, a great deal was learned about collecting, interpreting, and conveying
the results of rich, in-depth, qualitative data. This was the most frustrating aspect of the
study, but in the end proved to be the critical ingredient to building a compelling
argument.
This project effectively answered the research questions and produced a set of
guidelines for how leaders can enhance motivation in teams. Although the study
contained some weaknesses, the richness of the qualitative data is revealed in the
consistencies between the models. Even though the consistencies were strong, the
differences are applicable within professional hockey. Further research can be undertaken
to reduce or negate the weaknesses and to examine the interesting relationship between
particular can use this thesis to gain an understanding of how teams are motivated and to
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APPENDICIES
Supervision Achievement
Pay Responsibility
Job Security
89 !
APPENDIX B: The Empowerment Continuum
Self-determined Other-determined
90 !
APPENDIX C: Interview Seed Questions
5. Have you been in a team where leadership was poor? If so, how did this poor
leadership influence motivation?
6. Have you been in a team where leadership was good? If so, how did this good
leadership influence motivation?
7. In the example you gave me of poor motivation, if you were the manager/leader, what
would you have done in order to improve motivation?
8. In the example you gave me of high motivation, what actions or elements influenced
motivation?
9. Do you think motivation could have been improved further? If so, how would you
have achieved this?
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APPENDIX D: List of Interviewees and Demographic Information
92 !
APPENDIX E: Sample Transcript Using Interpretive Phenomenological
Analysis (Steps 1-3)
T.C.1 Yes.
Culture a R.Z. From your experience, does culture play a role in influencing how you
major factor in motivate someone?
motivation. As
a leader, you
must learn to T.C.1 Yes, in this situation the culture played a huge role. You had the Canadian
overcome it. mentality and the German mentality and you had to try and bring these guys
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The feeling of together. It is still a challenge today, but you find different ways to do it and you The feeling of
striving for striving for
learn as the leader of the group how to deal with certain situations. The situation
more was more was
lacking, we were in, the kids signed two or three year deals and were making money and lacking,
contentment were comfortable. They did not feel that they had to listen to me as the leader contentment
was felt. because they felt that they were doing fine. was felt.
There was a feeling of striving for more that was lacking, and being not satisfied
and wanting to prosper beyond what you are already at. They did not have that, as I Money is a
already said, some of them were making more than their parents had ever made motivator, as a
Money is a and to get them to buy into the idea that there is more out there is tough, everyone result of
motivator, the cultural
team was has their own motivation. influences, the
treated great players
and became Money is obviously a motivator and these kids were getting paid and were treated became
content. content.
like rock stars and felt that they did not have to listen to their leader, I do not think
having a German leader would have achieved any different results. Handing out
Money has a false hope and
negative R.Z. What factors contributed to this low level of motivation? praise
influence, so negatively
do outside influences
influences. T.C.1 I would say money had a negative influence, I would say the outside motivation.
The players influences were negative, outside influences being their parents, their friends, the
were fed false fans, these were all negative influences because when you are a top player at your
praise and age group in Germany, you are treated differently, you are treated like you are a
hope from
outside rock star, your parents, friends, and fans keep telling them how good they are and
influences. telling them they deserve a shot and that they are great, there are a lot of outside
influences that affect these young kids negatively.
I would say that we as the Eisbaeren also built a negative influence, being that our
coach who was coaching the top club at the time his favourite thing to do was to
QUOTE pull these kids out in the paper and say how great they were and how they were QUOTE
going to the NHL and in turn was giving them false senses of security. It was
unwarranted and exaggerated positive reinforcement which affected these kids
negatively. Positive reinforcement must be within the realm of reality.
Cliques R.Z. How did this situation of low motivation impact the behaviour of the Cliques of
formed similarly
consisting of team? motivated
similarly team members
motivated T.C.1 I would say that groups and cliques formed. Some of the groups were the form.
people.
guys who wanted to play hard, then you had the cliques that thought they were
Finger getting screwed and the ones who didnt want to work anymore and that ones that Finger
pointing, had contracts. That is what I saw happening in this group because of all of this. pointing,
resentment, a resentment, a
lack of You also have guys who think the grass is greener on the other side and who dont lack of
personal personal
accountability. want to work for success. I saw a lot of finger pointing; it was the coachs fault, accountability.
Gossip, why arent I being given an opportunity. There was a lack of personal Gossip,
negative talk, accountability. There was a lot of gossip and a lot of negative talk about other negative talk,
and jealousy people; you could see the group trying to self-destruct really. Jealousy was another and jealousy
occurred. occur in teams
big problem in the group. Guys were jealous about not only playing time, but about with low
equipment and things like that. motivation.
As a team,
expectations
R.Z. What effect did this low level of motivation have on the output of the
were not met. As a team,
Results, team? expectations
productivity, are not met.
and focus T.C.1 Ultimately we did not achieve what we were capable of achievingand Results,
suffered. that was the bottom line. As individuals, we had some guys achieve what they were productivity,
and focus
capable of achieving, but as a team we did not achieve what we were capable suffer.
ofultimately.
94 !
The results and productivity suffered as a result. The focus suffered, you loose
track of what you were there for. The guys didnt achieve nearly what they could
have.
I think that in this situation with the mentality, I am a big preacher of the team
mentality and then everyone will be taken care of as individualsthat is how it is
in Canada. While in Germany everyone is worried about themselves and everyone
is worried about individual goals, they are put up on a stage more than team goals
are for instance. I think that this is a product of the culture and their upbringing,
being raised in a certain society and it reflects in how these guys act. It is all about
the individual, this is the situation that occurred in the team and it 100% hindered
the motivation of the team.
As a coach, I kept preaching the team. As the leader, you have to come around to
my way of thinking, but I tried to understand and adapt to their way of thinking
and that was a mistake that I made. I had to understand every individual and
understand how to pull their sting and bring them over to the teams side. We had
situations where I had to ask the guys to stand up and cheer when we scored
because guys were not legitimately happy for each other when someone scored. It
was a very challenging situation, it is something that me as a Canadian could not
understand it.
I had to deal with the anger and almost hate of those individuals who would not be
happy for members of the team.
It is important It is important
to get to know R.Z. Do you think treating each member of the team as an individual first has for leaders to
the team to an effect on motivation? get to know
better team members
understand as individuals
T.C.1 I think it does, I think that you have to find a way. As I got to know the
each and
individual. group, it got better as the years went on because I found a way to motivate each understand
individual. Some needed to be yelled at, some needed to be petted. There was what
jealousy over why certain players got called up, and this would result in for motivates
instance, guys not passing the puck because they wanted score so that they could them.
get called up. At that time with the coach of the parent club, he was pulling kids up
for the wrong reasons, not because they deserved it, but because of potential. You
have to have a healthy competition.
Contextual Contextual
factor: In Canada, there are so many kids fighting for a small number of jobs that when factor:
CULTURE you dont make it, you dont blame the coach you look at yourself and wonder CULTURE
what you can do better. There is that sense of concurrence. In Germany, there are
not the same number of people competing for jobs. When they get into competition
they point fingers, there is not that mentality of when you are in a competition
there is that struggle and you have to emerge from that struggle. They want to
emerge without a struggle. That is what we have done well in Berlin over the last
little bit, is to create that competitive environment so that the players have to work
harder to achieve their goals. It is still not where it needs to be here in Berlin, but it
is a lot better than anywhere else in Germany.
T.C.1 Yup.
T.C.1 I played on a team that was a group of guys where the chemistry was
95 !
unbelievable and the morale was very high, the motivation was extremely high and
it was exciting.
These R.Z. How did this situation of high motivation make you feel?
situations do In highly
not occur motivated
T.C.1 It makes you feel great! It is not a situation that you are in, it is an ideal
often, when it teams, people
does, it feels situation, and you are not in these situations a lot as a guy in sports. It was a whole feel a part of
great. team, we felt like we were a team, the motivation was high, we were happy for something
each other, genuinely happy for each other. important and
You feel a part enjoy going to
of something work.
big, important, I felt that I was a part of something, a piece of that team, I enjoyed what I was
and enjoy doing, I enjoyed my co-workers, it was all positive, there wasnt a negative thing
going to work. about it.
R.Z. How did this situation of high motivation make others feel?
Cohesiveness T.C.1 The situation impacted the behaviour of the team in that we were close-knit
occurred, Cohesiveness
because of the whole situation because of the no jealousy. It resulted in everyone
everyone was resulted as
working pulling on the same line; it was something that I had never felt on the professional everyone was
towards side of things. I had felt that on the amateur side of things, like when we were kids focused on
common because there was no money or big contracts involved. We were a unit and because attaining team
goals. of this we way over achieved. goals.
R.Z. What effect did this high level of motivation have on the output of the
team?
Team
motivation and Motivation is
cohesiveness T.C.1 We overachieved. We were a bunch of East-Coast slugs that competed and high in teams
resulted in beat the top European teams because of that cohesiveness. There was no jealousy; with good
overachieving. it was all about the team. The reasons for that were: the chemistry was chemistry and
The chemistry who are
unbelievable, we were all treated equally, no matter who werea first liner or a
was great, rewarded the
everyone was slug, plus we all were rewarded the same, with the same amount of money after same.
treated equally each game. Even though it was not a lot, you were excited when your buddy scored
and were or you wanted to throw yourself in front of a puck to be the hero so all of the guys Motivation
rewarded the got some money. results in
same. cohesiveness
and
In this case, the extra money was a big positive. overachieving.
96 !
Money was a
R.Z. What were the factors that made this money such a motivator?
motivator in Money can be
this case a motivator if
because T.C.1 I think it was because everybody got the same, it was not based upon it is
everyone got individual bonuses but was based on team bonuses. It took away a lot of that administered
the same and it properly.
jealousy and individualism and it was really unbelievable what that did for our
was a team
bonus. It was team. It was our GMs decision to do this. He said that he wanted everybody to do Money was a
not the this. We did our 50 dollar dance after every game, it was unbelievable, it made for motivator in
amount, it was a great atmosphere. this case
the thought the because
team could everyone got
achieve it R.Z. Do you think that you were more motivated because you were making the same and
together. more money? it was a team
bonus. It was
not the
T.C.1 It didnt matter the amount. It was just the thought that we could all achieve
amount, it was
it together and that it was exciting. That played a big role; I dont think that it was the thought
the amount. the team could
achieve it
together.
Q5. Have you been in a team where leadership was poor? If so, how did this
poor leadership influence motivation?
Leadership is
the biggest T.C.1 Yes. I think leadership plays the biggest role in motivation. When it is a Leadership is
motivator. bad leadership it influences motivation in that you are not getting the motivation the biggest
Leaders help factor in
stimulate from the leader, you are having to create that yourself and that is something that motivation.
motivation, b/c not everyone can doto create their own motivation. I think that if not everyone is
not all can motivated, then you are not going to have the results that you need. I think that a Leadership is
motivate the biggest
good leader can motivate people so that they are all motivated towards a common
themselves. motivator.
Leaders goal. Leaders help
motivate stimulate
people I think that when leadership is poor, not everyone is motivated, there are fewer motivation, b/c
towards a not all can
goals, and the goals turn individual.
common goal. motivate
Good leaders themselves.
can motivate If the leader is not a good motivator, in that he does not recognize what each Leaders
individually. person needs to be motivated, then you have to do or say whatever it takes to get motivate
that person motivated. people
towards a
common goal.
R.Z. Do you think that the leader needs to be accountable for their actions? Good leaders
can motivate
individually.
T.C.1 Yes, I think that there are different types of leaders and different ways of
motivating.
R.Z. What would you consider to be the most effective and the least effective
ways?
The most T.C.1 I would say the silent leader who does not back it up through actions is the
effective least effective. I think that the most effective is a leader who backs up their words Leaders who
leader is the and holds people accountable, and backs it up through their actions. lead by
one that backs example are
up their words the most
with their I think the least effective leader is not necessarily that they are silent, but it is effective. They
actions and because they are not able to back up what a leader needs to possess. That is the back up their
holds team words with
work ethic, the team first mentality, it is some of these situations that if the leader
members actions and
accountable. can not back that up or show that, they are not a good leader. hold people
accountable.
Leaders have outside influences such as: fans, money, etc. are some things that
should not influence the way they lead the team.
97 !
Q6. Have you been in a team where leadership was good? If so, how did this
good leadership influence motivation?
They were
able to read Good leaders
situations, T.C.1 It influenced motivation by being a positive influence in that they found a read situations
saying and way to read situations. They said the right things at the right time, did the right and do and say
doing the right the right
things that needed to be done for the team, backed up his actions by doing things
things at the things at the
right time. that most people are not willing to do (throwing yourself in front of a puck), and right time.
those are some of the things that the leader needs to do.
A leaders
actions are Leaders need to do the dirty work, not only just the work that is fun. I think that a A leaders
contagious. actions are
They can leaders actions are contagious. I think that you can influence and motivate contagious.
influence and someone to do those actions if you are willing to do those yourself, and the They can
motivate opposite is true as well. As a leader, not only can you gain respect for doing these influence and
someone to motivate
things, but you can also quickly loose respect for not doing these things.
follow if they someone to
are performing follow if they
them as well. Q7. In the example you have me of poor motivation, since you were the leader, are
looking back, what would you have done to in order to improve motivation? performing
I had to gain them as well.
credibility by
ensuring those T.C.1 If I could have controlled the situation, I would not have had guys get
getting called up because of certain situations (not because of the size of their contract or Properly
promoted who their parents were) but because they deserved it. Also, because I was a leader, rewarding and
deserved that I lost some credibility because these guys were getting called up and I allowed it. providing
promotion. opportunity to
Rewarding the They were looking at me and going hey? Because we were on a team, I could not the deserving
right players just throw my leader under the bus, I had to back them and take some people is key
would have accountability and responsibility for what was going on. for leaders
established my trying to
credibility. motivate their
R.Z. Why do you think these ideas would have improved motivation? team.
T.C.1 They would have improved motivation because it would have given me
some credibility and it would have made the players realize that they get rewarded
for team play. That would have been motivation for these guys, not the selfish,
individual goals, but the team goals. It would have been better to reward the right
players, not the ones with the biggest contracts, or the coachs favourite. We were
bringing players up for the wrong reasons.
Q8. In the example you gave me of high motivation, what actions or elements
influenced motivation?
Motivation is
contagious. T.C.1 It is contagious, it rubs off. All this stuff goes back to the things you say,
Saying and are you saying the right things, are you doing the right things, are you doing what Motivation is
doing the right you say, are you saying what you do. contagious.
things as a Saying and
leader and as doing the right
an The actions that the organization took were how they set up the team bonuses, how things as a
organization they treated us. Everything they did was built on team success, there was nothing leader and as
are important. individual. The roles were clearly defined, everyone knew their roles and they were an
accepted, if you didnt you were outthat is something else that the leader did, organization
are important.
they created a plan, and that is what made it a well-oiled machine.
Q9. Do you think motivation could have been improved further? If so, how
would you have achieved this?
Motivation
could not have T.C.1 I dont think so, in that situation they did it exactly how they needed to be Motivation
been improved done and the results proved itthe results spoke for themselves. I think the factors could not have
further, the were the character of the individuals and can you get them to buy in. It all comes been improved
results spoke further, the
for down to hiring the right people and the leader did this. The leader is paramount to results spoke
themselves. the situation. for themselves.
98 !
The leader is very important to forming the team structure, but every individual is
The leader is The leader is
paramount in equally important. There is no way that the leader can form it without every paramount in
the hiring of individual buying in. The followers have to be willing to buy in, and that is what the hiring of
the right does not happen very often and that is why when it does happen it is something the right
individuals individuals
pretty special and you can achieve success. If you dont have one of those
and forming and forming
the team elements, you do not have the harmony that you need to achieve that. It is such a the team
structure. balancing act, it is crazy. structure.
QUOTE QUOTE
99 !
APPENDIX E: Continued
Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis- Step 4 (Listing of Themes)
2. Feelings of frustration were felt which quickly turned to anger (Team). Team
mates also felt angry and frustrated with one another (Team).
3. The feeling of striving for more was lacking, contentment was felt (Team).
8. As a team, expectations are not met. Results, productivity, and focus suffer
(Output).
11. In highly motivated teams, people feel a part of something important and enjoy
going to work (Team).
12. Leadership and their ability to structure the team are keys to motivation (L.F.).
14. Cohesiveness resulted as everyone was focused on attaining team goals (Team).
100 !
17. Leadership is the biggest factor in motivation. Leadership is the biggest
motivator. Leaders help stimulate motivation, b/c not all can motivate themselves.
Leaders motivate people towards a common goal. Good leaders can motivate
individually (L.F.)
18. Leaders who lead by example are the most effective. They back up their words
with actions and hold people accountable (L.F.)
19. Good leaders read situations and do and say the right things at the right time. A
leaders actions are contagious. They can influence and motivate someone to follow
if they are performing them as well (L.F.).
20. Properly rewarding and providing opportunity to the deserving people is key for
leaders trying to motivate their team (L.F.).
21. Motivation could not have been improved further, the results spoke for
themselves (Results).
22. The leader is paramount in the hiring of the right team members and forming
the team structure (L.F.).
23. A strong leader is needed in order for the right team members to buy into team
goals and visionsQUOTE (Conclusions).
101 !
APPENDIX E: Continued
Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis- Step 5 (Table of Themes)
!! MOTIVATION FACTORS
!! OUTPUT
!! RESULTS
!! CONCLUSIONS
102 !
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