ABSTRACT

This paper presents a low power Wireless Safety Detection Sensor (WSDS)
system to prevent fatal accidents with vehicles on construction sites. It helps providing
increased safety for construction workers and eliminates back over accidents. The system
employs three combined techniques which are the (1) 868 MHz radio frequency, (2)
directional antennas, and (3) 40 kHz ultrasound waves. In order to secure the area behind
the vehicles rear, a sensing unit that ensures good coverage along with a wearable device
for construction workers have been designed. The wearable device consists of a radio
transceiver, RF wake up sensor, and an alarm actuator while the sensing unit consists of a
processor, radio transceivers, directional antennas, and three ultrasound-based distance
sensors. When the WSDS system detects a construction worker in a potential of a hazard,
it sends the identification information to a visual display unit located in the driver's cab.
At the same time, an alarm in the worker's wearable device is activated. To reserve the
battery power of the wearable device, an RF wake up sensor is designed. The RF module
will gain a new feature to be hybrid (active/passive) device with a current consumption
as low as 0.5 A at 3 V supply.

1
 Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION

Construction work is considered to be one of the most hazardous industrial activities

worldwide. Studies showed that the rate of injury at the construction industry is higher
than other industries. The studies also added that fatal accidents with vehicles are among
the most frequent causes of death on construction sites . In 2012, the rate of accidents
related to vehicles (trucks) having caused in France a permanent disability or death is
2.7% and 14.5% respectively . In the UK, an average of 7 workers die annually as a result
of accidents involving vehicles on construction sites; further 93 workers are seriously
injured . The Occupational Safety & Health Administration in the US stated that vehicle
related accidents are the second top cause of death for construction workers resulting in
more than 800 deaths annually.

Many factors make construction work challenging for workers and engineers such as
weather and safety. Considering the Gulf Corporation Council (GCC) region for example
with temperaturesthat exceed 40 C and very long working hours, the construction workers
are barely able to focus on their surroundings. Tired and distracted workers around the
operation of heavy machinery at the construction site along with unaware drivers are
sometimes a recipe of bad accidents. On most construction sites, trucks and other vehicles
move in and out regularly for different purposes, but unfortunately, there are seldom any
systems in place to manage all the traffic. As a result, the risk of injury in a construction
site motor vehicle accidents can be significant

In this chapter a fully automated, standalone, and accurate system is proposed to monitor,
locate, and alert construction workers in noisy environment sites. It allows the detection
of laborers behind vehicles and therefore potentially at risk. The proposed sensor
enhances the safety features with simple installation. Moreover, the WSDS system is
immune to effects of weather, dust, and night vision due to the use of a combination of
three seamlessly integrated technologies which are radio frequency, directional antennas,
and ultrasound.

2
This report presents a low power Wireless Safety Detection Sensor (WSDS) system to
prevent fatal accidents with vehicles on construction sites. It helps providing increased
safety for construction workers and eliminates back over accidents. The system employs
three combined techniques which are the (1) 868 MHz radio frequency, (2) directional
antennas, and (3) 40 kHz ultrasound waves. In order to secure the area behind the
vehicles rear, a sensing unit that ensures good coverage along with a wearable device for
construction workers have been designed. The wearable device consists of a radio
transceiver, RF wake up sensor, and an alarm actuator while the sensing unit consists of a
processor, radio transceivers, directional antennas, and three ultrasound-based distance
sensors. When the WSDS system detects a construction worker in a potential of a hazard,
it sends the identification information to a visual display unit located in the driver's cab.
At the same time, an alarm in the worker's wearable device is activated. To reserve the
battery power of the wearable device, an RF wake up sensor is designed. The RF module
will gain a new feature to be a hybrid (active/passive) device with a current consumption
as low as 0.5 A at 3 V supply.

3
 Chapter-2

Literature survey

R. Kanan, R. Bensalem and O. Elhassan, on "A Comparative Study: Received

Signal Strength Based Zone Differentiation Using Mobile Transmitters," This paper
conducts a comparative study for zone differentiation techniques using two types of
linearly polarized directional antennas. The antenna types are microstrip single patch and
microstrip array patch. We employed array patch antenna with three elements in a
previous work to track and identify hospital staff who approach patient's bed space.
However, there was an inaccuracy in detection due to radiation overlapping and
interference. An investigation was carried out using three single patch antennas by
sweeping over the separating distance and orientation. The study concluded that the
optimal separation between two adjacent antennas is 12 cm, and orientations of the right,
center, and left antennas are 30, 90, and -30, respectively. This configuration has
resulted in 100% accuracy for zone differentiation.
S. Azzouzi; M. Cremer; U. Dettmar; R. Kronberger; T. Knie on New
measurement results for the localization of UHF RFID transponders using an Angle
of Arrival (AoA) approach
In this paper we present new measurement results for an Angle of Arrival (AoA)
approach to localize RFID tags at 868 MHz. Self-designed three element antenna arrays,
off-the-shelf IDS R901G RFID reader ICs, and UPM Raflatec DogBone RFID tags are
used to generate and detect ISO 18000-6C compliant signals. The experimental setup
comprises three antenna arrays and a test environment of size 3 times 3 square meters
with 25 test points. The AoA is estimated using the phase differences in the complex
baseband signals of adjacent antenna elements within one array. A mean positioning error
of 0.21 m was achieved for the considered test grid.
R. Kanan, O. Elhassan, and R. Bensalem, on An autonomous system for Hospital-
Acquired infections (HAIs) prevention, This paper presents a low power autonomous
system to prevent the spread of nosocomial infections within hospital environment. It
employs two combined techniques which are the (1) 868 MHz radio frequency and (2) 40
KHz ultrasound waves. A wearable device for hospital staff and a main unit ensuring
coverage for all bed's surroundings have been designed. The wearable device consists of a

4
radio transceiver and an alarm actuator while the main unit consists of a processor, radio
transceivers, directional antennas, and ultrasound-based distance sensors. When the main
unit detects and identifies a medical staff, it populates the identified information to an
online database. In case the approached patient is already infected, the wearable device
worn by staff activates an alarm. To reserve the battery power of the wearable device, an
RF wake-up sensor is designed. The RF module of the wearable device will gain a new
feature to be a hybrid (active/passive) device with a current consumption as low as 0.5 A
at 3 V supply. Furthermore, the main unit enters a power saving mode by disconnecting
power from the distance sensors until a personnel approaches an area of contamination.

5
 Chapter-3

RF MODULE

3.1 INTRODUCTION

An RF module (radio frequency module) is a (usually) small electronic device used to

transmit and/or receive radio signals between two devices. In an embedded system it is
often desirable to communicate with another device wirelessly. This wireless
communication may be accomplished through optical communication or
through radio frequency (RF) communication. For many applications the medium of
choice is RF since it does not require line of sight. RF communications incorporate
a transmitter or receiver.

RF modules are widely used in electronic design owing to the difficulty of designing
radio circuitry. Good electronic radio design is notoriously complex because of the
sensitivity of radio circuits and the accuracy of components and layouts required to
achieve operation on a specific frequency. In addition, reliable RF communication circuit
requires careful monitoring of the manufacturing process to ensure that the RF
performance is not adversely affected. Finally, radio circuits are usually subject to limits
on radiated emissions, and require Conformance testing and certification by
a standardization organization such as ETSI or the U.S. Federal Communications
Commission (FCC). For these reasons, design engineers will often design a circuit for an
application which requires radio communication and then "drop in" a pre-made radio
module rather than attempt a discrete design, saving time and money on development.

RF modules are most often used in medium and low volume products for consumer
applications such as garage door openers, wireless alarm systems, industrial remote
controls, smart sensor applications, and wireless home automation systems. They are
sometimes used to replace older infra red communication designs as they have the
advantage of not requiring line-of-sight operation.

Several carrier frequencies are commonly used in commercially available RF modules,

including those in the industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands such as
433.92 MHz, 915 MHz, and 2400 MHz. These frequencies are used because of national

6
and international regulations governing the used of radio for communication. Short Range
Devices may also use frequencies available for unlicensed such as 315 MHz and
868 MHz.

RF modules may comply with a defined protocol for RF communications such

as Zigbee, Bluetooth low energy, or Wi-Fi, or they may implement a proprietary protocol

Figure 3.1 RF module

This diagram shows the physical approach of RF module

7
 Fig 3.2 RF module pins

3.2 Pin Description:

Table 3.2.1 RF Transmitter

Pin
Function Name
No

1 Ground (0V) Ground

2 Serial data input pin Data

3 Supply voltage; 5V Vcc

8
 4 Antenna output pin ANT

Table 3.2.2 RF Receiver

Pin
Function Name
No

1 Ground (0V) Ground

2 Serial data output pin Data

3 Linear output pin; not connected NC

4 Supply voltage; 5V Vcc

5 Supply voltage; 5V Vcc

6 Ground (0V) Ground

7 Ground (0V) Ground

8 Antenna input pin ANT

3.3 Types of RF modules

The term RF module can be applied to many different types, shapes and sizes of small
electronic sub assembly circuit board. It can also be applied to modules across a huge

9
variation of functionality and capability. RF modules typically incorporate a printed
circuit board, transmit or receive circuit, antenna, and serial interface for communication
to the host processor.

Most standard, well known types are covered here:

Transmitter module

Receiver module

Transceiver module

System on a chip module

3.3.1 Transmitter modules

An RF transmitter module is a small PCB sub-assembly capable of transmitting a radio

wave and modulating that wave to carry data. Transmitter modules are usually
implemented alongside a micro controller which will provide data to the module which
can be transmitted. RF transmitters are usually subject to regulatory requirements which
dictate the maximum allowable transmitter power output, harmonics, and band edge
requirements.

3.3.2 Receiver modules

An RF receiver module receives the modulated RF signal, and demodulates it. There are
two types of RF receiver modules: superheterodyne receivers and super-regenerative
receivers. Super-regenerative modules are usually low cost and low power designs using
a series of amplifiers to extract modulated data from a carrier wave. Super-regenerative
modules are generally imprecise as their frequency of operation varies considerably with
temperature and power supply voltage Superheterodyne receivers have a performance
advantage over super-regenerative; they offer increased accuracy and stability over a
large voltage and temperature range. This stability comes from a fixed crystal design
which in the past tended to mean a comparatively more expensive product. However,
advances in receiver chip design now mean that currently there is little price difference
between superheterodyne and super-regenerative receiver modules.

10
3.3.3 Transceiver modules

An RF transceiver module incorporates both a transmitter and receiver. The circuit is

typically designed for half-duplex operation, although full-duplex modules are available,
typically at a higher cost due to the added complexity.

3.3.4 System on a chip (SoC) module

An SoC module is the same as a transceiver module, but it is often made with an onboard
microcontroller. The microcontroller is typically used to handle radio data packetisation
or managing a protocol such as an IEEE 802.15.4 compliant module. This type of module
is typically used for designs that require additional processing for compliance with a
protocol when the designer does not wish to incorporate this processing into the host
microcontroller.

3.4 868 Mhz wireless transrecievers

s a multi-channel FSK/OOK transceiver module operating in the 863-870MHz ISM

frequency band. It is based on the Microchip MRF89XA single-chip RF transceiver.

3.5 RF wake up sensor

RF wakeup sensor is a dedicated radio wave sensor to detect the presence of a

communication by sensing a carrier signal. In other words, RF wakeup sensor separates
the channel monitoring function from a RF communication module. If a RF wakeup
sensor detects a signal that has higher signal strength than the

predefined threshold, the RF wakeup sensor interrupts the processor to notify the
communication occurrence. The processor generates a turn-on signal to activate a RF
communication module.

Fig. shows the organization of a sensor node with the RF wakeup sensor.

11
 Fig 3.3 A sensor node with RF wakeup sensor.

3.5.1 Design Methodology

To design the RF wakeup sensor, it is necessary to understand the signal processing

mechanism of a general RF module. Since carrier signal detection is a part of the signal
processing mechanism, RF wakeup sensor can be designed by simplifying a basic RF
module. We assume a superheterodyne module such as CC1000 as a baseline RF module.
Fig. shows the block diagram of CC1000. A mixer and a voltage controlled oscillator
(VCO) are required to shift the frequency of an incoming signal to the intermediate
frequency (IF). A mixer needs an additional signal from the VCO, which is the most
energy-consuming component in a RF module. To design an ultra-low power RF wave
sensor, we need to eliminate both the mixer and the VCO from our design. Note that both
of them are used for frequency shifting. If we can directly process an incoming signal
without frequency shifting, these components can be eliminated. Fortunately, our RF
wakeup sensor tolerates inter-symbol interference since itdoes not have to extract

12
information fr
from
om an incoming signal.

Fig 3.4 Block diagram of CC1000

Instead, RF wakeup sensor needs to detect only the presence of a signal on the channel.
Thus, we can eliminate both components from our design. Instead, we add a frequency
filter to select the predefined
fined channel. Since the RF communication frequency is higher
than IF, RF wakeup sensor requires a precise frequency filter and inductors with high Q
factor. In an IF stage, an amplifier reports received signal strength (RSS), which is
estimated by an automatic
matic gain control (AGC). The AGC controls the gain of the
amplifier. The output signal of an AGC has a constant power level which should be
strong enough to be processed in the following demodulator. Note that RF wakeup sensor
does not require RSS values. It only needs to report true or false information on whether
the RSS is higher than the predefined threshold. Therefore, the energy
energy--consuming AGC
can be replaced by a simple signal detector. A demodulator is used in a RF module to
recover the information from the incoming modulated signal. We can also eliminate the
demodulator from our design since the RF wakeup sensor does not require extracting any
information from an input signal. Consequently, RF wakeup sensor consists of a low
noise amplifier (LNA), a frequency filter, and a signal detector.

13
3.5.1.1 Overview of RF Wakeup Sensor Design

Fig. shows the circuit design of RF wakeup sensor, which consists of a multistage
amplifier, a bandpass filter, and a detector. This design also includes the interrupt port to
a processor since the resistance of the interrupt port should be considered for impedance
matching. As shown in this design, RF wakeup sensor has neither a mixer nor a VCO that
are heavy
avy consumers of an energy source. In addition, all the other devices except the
amplifier are passive devices that do not consume energy. RF wakeup sensor uses a
multistage cascade amplifier to reduce the energy consumption.

3.5.2 Detector

A detector in RF wakeup sensor has two roles: Detecting a communication signal and
generating an interrupt signal. If the strength of an incoming signal is higher than the
predefined threshold, a detector interrupts the processor. These operations are simply
implemented by regarding the incoming signal as an input to a switch for interrupt signal
generation. Therefore, we use a general low-power
low power rectifier to convert an incoming AC
signal into a DC switching signal. The capacitor linked with the transistor gate in a
voltage
ge sensor secures power for the transistor and eliminates ripples on the output signal
of the detector. Fig. shows a signal detector that consists of a rectifier and a voltage
sensor.

The response time of the RF wakeup sensor depends on the design parameters
paramete of a
detector since the parameters affect the time for charging a capacitor within the detector.
To analyze the response time, we first calculate the minimum signal strength

Fig 3.5 The circuit design of RF wakeup sensor.

14
 Fig 3.6 The circuit design of a signal detector

that can be sensed by the detector, Psig. Prect is the power dispatched through the diode.
Since Prect is the same as the input power to the circuit elements after the first transistor
in Fig. it can be computed
puted as the sum of the power charged within the capacitor, Pc, the
power consumed by the resistor, Pr, and the power charged and consumed by the
transistor, Pt. So, Prect can be expressed by:

Prect = Pc + Pr + Pt = Pc + Pr

by calculating and solving these equations we get the time t = 1.9586RC we assume that
the response time is the time when the charged voltage on the rectifier becomes 99% of
the maximum voltage. As shown in equation the response time depends on both the
resistance
stance of a resistor, R, and the capacitance of a capacitor, C. However, a small
resistance degrades the sensitivity of the detector as shown in equation and a small
capacitance increases a ripple signal.To achieve the maximum sensitivity with low ripple
signal,
ignal, we select a 10 pF capacitor and a 900 k resistor

3.5.3 AMPLIFIER

An amplifier in RF wakeup sensor should have at least 69 Db gain to make 99 dBm

communication signal pass through the signal detector that can detect only 30 dBm
signal. Since an
n amplifier needs bias current, it consumes energy due to leakage current

15
when there is no RF signal. Therefore, to design a low power RF wakeup sensor, it is
important to minimize the energy consumed by the amplifier. However, we need to
consider the tradeoff
eoff between the energy consumption and the gain of an amplifier. We
can use a single 69 dB amplifier with high energy consumption or multiple low gain
amplifiers with low energy consumption. Since an incoming signal can be very small in
its strength, an amplifier
mplifier must be robust to a background noise.

3.5.4 Bias Current & RF Chock

The energy consumption and the gain of an amplifier depend on bias current. Low bias
current reduces both energy consumption and gain. Therefore, we need to find the
optimal parameters to maximize gain/power, which depends on transistor size and RF
chock.

3.5.4.1 ImpedanceMatching

In an RF circuit, impedance matching is the practice of designing the input impedance of

an electrical load or the output impedance of its correspo
corresponding
nding signal source to maximize
the power transfer and to minimize reflections from the load. If we fail to match the
impedance, a circuit may lose the incoming signal due to reflections. We need to find
optimal parameters both to match the impedance and aalso
lso to make the amplifier to meet
the 50 standard for microwave hardware.

Fig.3.7 The communication process with the wakeup signal.

16
 Fig 3.8 Wakeup signal response of RF wakeup sensor with duty cycling.

3.5.5 Bandpass Filter

If the RF wakeup sensor has no frequency filtering, the number of false--positive wakeups
due to unrelated signal will be increased.

Therefore, we use a frequency filter that requires neither mixer nor oscillator to
selectively sense a signal on the predefined frequency band. The Q factor of a frequency
filter is inversely proportional to the bandwidth of a passband. Since the frequencies used
for communication and for an IF stage are 915 MHz and 150 kHz respectively, RF
wakeup sensor, which operates on 915 MHz, requires a narrow
narrow-band
band filter while a
conventional RF communicationmodule requires a wide-band
wide band filter for its IF stage.
Therefore, the frequency filter within RF wakeup sensor will have a high Q factor that
leads to a high inductance for an impedance matching network. Altho
Although
ugh the proposed
filter assumes that they are implemented on the outside of a CMOS chip, the filter can be
simply converted into a BAW filter that can be implemented on a CMOS chip.

17
3.5.5.1 Duty Cycling

We assume that both the RF wakeup sensor and the communicationmodule use the same
channel. Therefore, a node transmits a wakeup signal before transmitting a
communication packet by using the communication module. Since the RF wakeup sensor
performs only the carrier sensing against the wakeup signal

we can apply any contention based MAC protocol by inserting a wakeup signal
transmission into the beginning of a communication process. After detecting a wakeup
signal, the RF wakeup sensor is not involved in the normal communication process. Thus,
a node can turn off its RF wakeup sensor until the end of its communication. Fig. 7 shows
the communication process with the wakeup signal. The height and the width of each
rectangle represent the power consumption and the elapsed time for each operation.

Tsleep = Twakesig 2Tresponse

where Twakesig and Tresponse represent the length of a wakeup signal and the response
time of the RF wakeup sensor respectively. Note that in (19) the term Tresponse is
multiplied by 2. Otherwise, any skew in the wakeup time of receiver would cause the
receiver to miss the wakeup signal since the response time of the receiver is partitioned
into two pieces during the wakeup signal transmission as illustrated in Fig. 8. Also, note
that Tresponse depends on only the circuit parameters such as resistance and capacitance.
Therefore, the duty cycle of the RF wakeup signal depends on the size of a wakeup
signal.

18
 Chapter-4

DIRECTIONAL ANTENA

4.1 INTRODUCTION

A directional antenna or beam antenna is an antenna which radiates or receives greater

power in specific directions allowing for increased performance and reduced interference
from unwanted sources. Directional antennas provide increased performance over dipole
antennas or omnidirectional antennas in general when greater concentration of
radiation in a certain direction is desired.

A high-gain antenna (HGA) is a directional antenna with a focused, narrow radiowave

beam width. This narrow beam width allows more precise targeting of the radio signals.
Most commonly referred to during space missions, these antennas are also in use all over
Earth, most successfully in flat, open areas where no mountains lie to disrupt radiowaves.
By contrast, a low-gain antenna (LGA) is an omnidirectional antenna with a broad
radiowave beam width, that allows for the signal to propagate reasonably well even in
mountainous regions and is thus more reliable regardless of terrain. Low gain antennas
are often used in spacecraft as a backup to the high-gain antenna, which transmits a much
narrower beam and is therefore susceptible to loss of signal

All practical antennas are at least somewhat directional, although usually only the
direction in the plane parallel to the earth is considered, and practical antennas can easily
be omnidirectional in one plane. The most common types are the Yagi antenna, the log-
periodic antenna, and the corner reflector antenna, which are frequently combined and
commercially sold as residential TV antennas. Cellular repeaters often make use of
external directional antennas to give a far greater signal than can be obtained on a
standard cell phone. Satellite Television receivers usually use parabolic antennas. For
long and medium wavelength frequencies, tower arrays are used in most cases as
directional antennas.

19
 Fig 4.1 DIRECTIONAL ANTENA

4.2 Principle of operation

When transmitting, a high

high-gain antenna allows more of the transmitted power to be sent
in the direction of the receiver, increasing the received signal strength. When receiving, a
high gain antenna captures more of the signal, again increasing signal strength. Due to
reciprocity,, these two effects are equal - an antenna that makes a transmitted signal 100
times stronger (compared to an isotropic radiator),
), will also capture 100 times as much
energy as the isotropic antenna when used as a receiving antenna. As a consequence of
their directivity, directional antennas also send less (and receive less) signal
si from
directions other than the main beam. This property may be used to reduce interference.

There are many ways to make a high

high-gain antenna - the most common are parabolic
antennas, helical antennas,
antennas yagi antennas, and phased arrays of smaller antennas of any
kind. Horn antennas can also be constructed with high gain, but are less commonly seen.
Still other configurations
ns are possible - the Arecibo Observatory uses a combination of a
line feed with an enormous spherical reflector (as opposed to a more usual parabolic
reflector), to achieve extremely high gains at specific frequencies.

20
4.3 Antenna gain

Antenna gain is often quoted with respect to a hypothetical antenna that radiates equally
in all directions, an isotropic radiator. This gain, when measured in decibels, is called dBi.
Conservation of energy dictates that high gain antennas must have narrow beams. For
example, if a high gain antenna makes a 1 watt transmitter look like a 100 watt
transmitter, then the beam can cover at most 1/100 of the sky (otherwise the total amount
of energy radiated in all directions would sum to more than the transmitter power, which
is not possible). In turn this implies that high-gain antennas must be physically large,
since according to the diffraction limit, the narrower the beam desired, the larger the
antenna must be (measured in wavelengths).

Antenna gain can also be measured in dBd, which is gain in Decibels compared to the
maximum intensity direction of a half wave dipole. In the case of Yagi type aerials this
more or less equates to the gain one would expect from the aerial under test minus all its
directors and reflector. It is important not to confuse dBi and dBd; the two differ by
2.15 dB, with the dBi figure being higher, since a dipole has 2.15 db of gain with respect
to an isotropic antenna.

Gain is also dependent on the number of elements and the tuning of those elements.
Antennas can be tuned to be resonant over a wider spread of frequencies but, all other
things being equal, this will mean the gain of the aerial is lower than one tuned for a
single frequency or a group of frequencies. For example, in the case of wideband TV
antennas the fall off in gain is particularly large at the bottom of the TV transmitting
band. In the UK this bottom third of the TV band is known as group A, see gain graph
comparing grouped aerials to a wideband aerial of the same size/model.

Other factors may also affect gain such as aperture (the area the antenna collects signal
from, almost entirely related to the size of the antenna but for small antennas can be
increased by adding a ferrite rod), and efficiency (again, affected by size, but also
resistivity of the materials used and impedance matching). These factors are easy to
improve without adjusting other features of the antennas or coincidentally improved by
the same factors that increase directivity, and so are typically not emphasized.

21
4.4 Omnidirectional antenna

In radio communication, an omnidirectional antenna is a class of antenna which

radiates radio wave power uniformly in all directions in one plane, with the radiated
power decreasing with elevation angle above or below the plane, dropping to zero on the
antenna's axis. This radiation pattern is often described as "doughnut shaped". Note that
this is different from an isotropic antenna, which radiates equal power in all directions
and has a "spherical" radiation pattern. Omnidirectional antennas oriented vertically are
widely used for non directional antennas on the surface of the Earth because they radiate
equally in all horizontal directions, while the power radiated drops off with elevation
angle so little radio energy is aimed into the sky or down toward the earth and wasted.
Omnidirectional antennas are widely used for radio broadcasting antennas, and in mobile
devices that use radio such as cell phones, FM radios, walkie-talkies, wireless computer
networks, cordless phones, GPS as well as for base stations that communicate with
mobile radios, such as police and taxi dispatchers and aircraft communications.

The radiation pattern of a simple omnidirectional antenna, a vertical half-wave dipole

antenna. In this graph the antenna is at the center of the "donut," or torus. Radial distance
from the center represents the power radiated in that direction. The power radiated is
maximum in horizontal directions, dropping to zero directly above and below the antenna.

Fig 4.2 omnidirectional antena

22
 Chapter-5

BLUETOOTH

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances
(using short-wavelength UHF radio waves in the ISM band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz) from
fixed and mobile devices, and building personal area networks (PANs). Invented by
telecom vendor Ericsson in 1994, it was originally conceived as a wireless alternative
to RS-232 data cables. It can connect up to seven devices, overcoming problems that
older technologies had when attempting to connect to each other. Bluetooth is managed
by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), which has more than 30,000 member
companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer
electronics.

The IEEE standardized Bluetooth as IEEE 802.15.1, but no longer maintains the
standard. The Bluetooth SIG oversees development of the specification, manages the
qualification program, and protects the trademarks. A manufacturer must meet Bluetooth
SIG standards to market it as a Bluetooth device. A network of patents apply to the
technology, which are licensed to individual qualifying devices.

The development of the "short-link" radio technology, later named Bluetooth, was
initiated in 1989 by Nils Rydbeck, CTO at Ericsson Mobile in Lund, Sweden, and
by Johan Ullman. The purpose was to develop wireless headsets, according to two
inventions by Johan Ullman, SE 8902098-6, issued 1989-06-12 and SE 9202239, issued
1992-07-24. Nils Rydbeck tasked Tord Wingren with specifying and Jaap Haartsen and
Sven Mattisson with developing. Both were working for Ericsson in Lund. The
specification is based on frequency-hopping spread spectrum technology.

5.2 Implementation

Bluetooth operates at frequencies between 2402 and 2480 MHz, or 2400 and
2483.5 MHz including guard bands 2 MHz wide at the bottom end and 3.5 MHz wide at
the top.[15]This is in the globally unlicensed (but not unregulated) Industrial, Scientific

23
and Medical (ISM) 2.4 GHz short-range radio frequency band. Bluetooth uses a radio
technology called frequency-hopping spread spectrum. Bluetooth divides transmitted data
into packets, and transmits each packet on one of 79 designated Bluetooth channels. Each
channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. It usually performs 800 hops per second,
with Adaptive Frequency-Hopping (AFH) enabled.Bluetooth low energy uses 2 MHz
spacing, which accommodates 40 channels.

Originally, Gaussian frequency-shift keying (GFSK) modulation was the only modulation
scheme available. Since the introduction of Bluetooth 2.0+EDR, /4-
DQPSK (Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) and 8DPSK modulation may also
be used between compatible devices. Devices functioning with GFSK are said to be
operating in basic rate (BR) mode where an instantaneous data rate of 1 Mbit/s is
possible. The term Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) is used to describe /4-DPSK and 8DPSK
schemes, each giving 2 and 3 Mbit/s respectively. The combination of these (BR and
EDR) modes in Bluetooth radio technology is classified as a "BR/EDR radio".

Bluetooth is a packet-based protocol with a master-slave structure. One master may

communicate with up to seven slaves in a piconet. All devices share the master's clock.
Packet exchange is based on the basic clock, defined by the master, which ticks at
312.5 s intervals. Two clock ticks make up a slot of 625 s, and two slots make up a slot
pair of 1250 s. In the simple case of single-slot packets the master transmits in even slots
and receives in odd slots. The slave, conversely, receives in even slots and transmits in
odd slots. Packets may be 1, 3 or 5 slots long, but in all cases the master's transmission
begins in even slots and the slave's in odd slots.

The above is valid for "classic" BT. Bluetooth Low Energy, introduced in the 4.0
specification, uses the same spectrum but somewhat differently; see Bluetooth low energy
Radio interface.

5.3 Communication and connection

A master BR/EDR Bluetooth device can communicate with a maximum of seven devices
in a piconet (an ad-hoc computer network using Bluetooth technology), though not all
devices reach this maximum. The devices can switch roles, by agreement, and the slave

24
can become the master (for example, a headset initiating a connection to a phone
necessarily begins as master
masteras initiator of the connectionbut
but may subsequently
operate as slave).

The Bluetooth Core Specification provides for the connec

connection
tion of two or more piconets to
form a scatternet,, in which certain devices simultaneously play the master role in one
piconet and the slave role in another.

At any given time, data can

can be transferred between the master and one other device
(except for the little-used
used broadcast mode) The master chooses which slave device to
address; typically, it switches rapidly from one device to another in a round-robin
round fashion.
Since it is the master that chooses which slave to address, whereas a slave is (in theory)
supposed to listen in each receive slot, being a master is a lighter burden than being a
slave.
lave. Being a master of seven slaves is possible; being a slave of more than one master is
possible. The specification is vague as to required behavior in scatternets.

Fig 5.1 Computer network

25
5.5 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Bluetooth devices are generally organized into groups of two to eight devices called
piconets,consisting of a single master device and one or more slave devices. A device
may additionally belong to more than one piconet, either as a slave in both or as a master
m
of one piconet and aslave in another. These bridge devices effectively connect piconets
into a scatternet. A diagram of a Bluetooth scatternet is shown in Fig. 2. Bluetooth
operates in the unlicensed ISM frequency band, generally cluttered with signals
signa from
other devices: garage door openers, baby monitors, and microwave ovens, to name just a
few. To help Bluetooth devices coexist and operate reliably alongside other ISM devices,
each Bluetoothpiconet is synchronized to a specific frequency hopping pattern.
pa This
pattern, moving through 1600 different frequencies per second, is unique to the particular
piconet. Each frequency hop is a time slot during which data packets are transferred. A
packet may actually span up to five time slots, in which case the frequency remains
constant for the duration of that transfer.

Fig. 5.2 Bluetooth network topology

26
5.4 USES

Bluetooth is a standard wire-replacement communications protocol primarily designed

for low-power consumption, with a short range based on low-
cost transceiver microchips in each device. Because the devices use a radio (broadcast)
communications system, they do not have to be in visual line of sight of each other;
however, a quasi optical wireless path must be viable. Range is power-class-dependent,
but effective ranges vary in practice. See the table on the right.

Officially Class 3 radios have a range of up to 1 metre (3 ft), Class 2, most commonly
found in mobile devices, 10 metres (33 ft), and Class 1, primarily for industrial use
cases,100 metres (300 ft). Bluetooth Marketing qualifies that Class 1 range is in most
cases 2030 metres (6698 ft), and Class 2 range 510 metres (1633 ft).

Bluetooth version Maximum speed Maximum range]

3.0 25 Mbit/s

4.0 25 Mbit/s 200 feet (60 m)

5 50 Mbit/s 800 feet (240 m)

Table 5.1 bluettoth range

The effective range varies due to propagation conditions, material coverage, production
sample variations, antenna configurations and battery conditions. Most Bluetooth
applications are for indoor conditions, where attenuation of walls and signal fading due to
signal reflections make the range far lower than specified line-of-sight ranges of the
Bluetooth products. Most Bluetooth applications are battery powered Class 2 devices,

27
with little difference in range whether the other end of the link is a Class 1 or Class 2
device as the lower powered device tends to set the range limit. In some cases the
effective range of the data link can be extended when a Class 2 device is connecting to a
Class 1 transceiver with both higher sensitivity and transmission power than a typical
Class 2 device.[17] Mostly, however, the Class 1 devices have a similar sensitivity to
Class 2 devices. Connecting two Class 1 devices with both high sensitivity and high
power can allow ranges far in excess of the typical 100m, depending on the throughput
required by the application. Some such devices allow open field ranges of up to 1 km and
beyond between two similar devices without exceeding legal emission limits.

The Bluetooth Core Specification mandates a range of not less than 10 metres (33 ft), but
there is no upper limit on actual range. Manufacturers' implementations can be tuned to
provide the range needed for each case.

Max. permitted power

Typ. range
Class
(m)
(mW) (dBm)

1 100 20 ~100

2 2.5 4 ~10

3 1 0 ~1

4 0.5 -3 ~0.5

Table5.2 bluetooth range according their respective class

As we can see that in our WSDS system the range should be about more than 10m so in
our WSDS system we use class 2 bluetooth device for sending and receiving the signal.

28
 Chapter -6

RECIEVED SIGNAL STRENGTH INDICATION

6.1 INTRODUCTION

RSSI is usually invisible to a user of a receiving device. However, because signal

strength can vary greatly and affect functionality in wireless networking, IEEE 802.11
devices often make the measurement available to users.

RSSI is often done in the intermediate frequency (IF) stage before the IF amplifier. In
zero-IF systems, it is done in the baseband signal chain, before the baseband amplifier.
RSSI output is often a DC analog level. It can also be sampled by an internal ADC and
the resulting codes available directly or via peripheral or internal processor bus.

6.2 Signal strength

In telecommunications, particularly in radio frequency, signal strength (also referred to

as field strength) refers to the transmitter power output as received by a reference
antenna at a distance from the transmitting antenna. High-powered transmissions, such as
those used in broadcasting, are expressed in dB-millivolts per metre (dBmV/m). For very
low-power systems, such as mobile phones, signal strength is usually expressed in dB-
microvolts per metre (dBV/m) or in decibels above a reference level of one milliwatt
(dBm). In broadcasting terminology, 1 mV/m is 1000 V/m or 60 dB (often written
dBu).

6.3 RSSI in 802.11 implementations

In an IEEE 802.11 system, RSSI is the relative received signal strength in a wireless
environment, in arbitrary units. RSSI is an indication of the power level being received by
the receive radio after the antenna and possible cable loss. Therefore, the higher the RSSI
number, the stronger the signal. Thus, when an RSSI value is represented in a negative
form (e.g. -100), the closer the value is to 0, the stronger the received signal has been.

RSSI can be used internally in a wireless networking card to determine when the amount
of radio energy in the channel is below a certain threshold at which point the network

29
card is clear to send (CTS). Once the card is clear to send, a packet of information can be
sent. The end-user will likely observe a RSSI value when measuring the signal strength of
a wireless network through the use of a wireless network monitoring tool like Wireshark,
Kismet or Inssider. As an example, Cisco Systems cards have a RSSI_Max value of 100
and will report 101 different power levels, where the RSSI value is 0 to 100. Another
popular Wi-Fi chipset is made by Atheros. An Atheros based card will return an RSSI
value of 0 to 127 (0x7f) with 128 (0x80) indicating an invalid value.

There is no standardized relationship of any particular physical parameter to the RSSI

reading. The 802.11 standard does not define any relationship between RSSI value and
power level in mW or dBm. Vendors and chipset makers provide their own accuracy,
granularity, and range for the actual power (measured as mW or dBm) and their range of
RSSI values (from 0 to RSSI_Max One subtlety of the 802.11 RSSI metric comes from
how it is sampledRSSI is acquired during only the preamble stage of receiving an
802.11 frame, not over the full frame.

As early as 2000, researchers were able to use RSSI for coarse-grained location estimates.
More recent work was able to reproduce these results using more advanced techniques.
Nevertheless, RSSI doesn't always provide measurements that are sufficiently accurate to
properly determine the location.

30
 Chapter-7

DETECTION SYSTEM

7.1 Introduction

To localize a construction worker (the target), the proposed solution consists of

combining three integrated technologies 868 MHz radio frequency, directional antenna,
and 40 kHz ultrasound waves) in a manner that is different from the usual approaches.
Indeed, the targets position in its environment is realized in a different way compared to
the traditional Cartesian form (x, y) positioning using triangulation methods. The
proposed system provides information directly in polar form.

The area (angular position) where target is located and its distance from the sensing unit.
This principle implies that the target must be equipped with a radio transmitter.

The overall system is based on area differentiation using three directional antennas. Each
antenna covers a region of 60, and the overall coverage is 180. The workers' regions are
determined using RF communication between their wearable devices and the sensing unit.
To maximize the safety, a danger zone is set at arange of 4 m from the rear of the vehicle.
The distance between the worker and the vehicle is estimated by ultrasound wavesThe
autonomous WSDS system is seamlessly implemented using three different technologies.
It is composed of three main blocks which are the sensing unit, the wearable device, and
the monitoring apparatus as illustrated in. These blocks interact with each other to make
the system capable of allocating construction workers and alerting them when necessary
to step away from any potential hazards. The sensing unit acts as the systems master; it
consists of a processor, 3 RF transceivers with directional antennas, and 3 ultrasound
sensors.

A bracelet like wearable device has been designed to communicate with the sensing unit
located in the rear of trucks. It contains an 868 MHz wireless transceiver that transmits its
unique ID while switched on. Its typical current consumption is 24 mA in transmission
mode. It also contains a buzzer and a vibrator to alert the workers who are inside a danger

31
zone. To activate the wearable devices transceiver when approaching a predefined

Fig. 7.1 system architecture

danger zone, an RF wake up sensor is proposed to reduce power consumption and to

increase the battery life time. It converts a small RF input signal into a DC signal to
trigger communications at a specified distance.

Fig. 7.2 System design of WSDS system

The sensing unit that is fixed to the rear of the vehicle transmits an 868 MHz ISM band
omnidirectional radio signal. If a worker is within the RF field (danger zone with 4 meters

32
radius) the designed passive RF wake up sensor powers up the transceiver in the wearable
device. Then the wearable device replies back an acknowledgement telegram to the
sensing unit which includes a 32-bit unique module ID. Each of the three RF transceivers
receive the acknowledgment telegram with different Received Signal Strength Indicator
(RSSI) values. The processor analyses and compares the RSSI values. It distinguishes the
strongest power level received and enables the corresponding ultrasonic sensor to
measure distance using 40 kHz ultrasound waves. If the resulted distance is within the
danger zone, an alarm activation command is sent to the wearable device. The command
triggers the wearable device to buzz and vibrate which will draw the workers attention.
The polar coordinates (distance, angle) are prepared to be sent via Bluetooth to the
monitoring apparatus at the driver's cab. The apps graphical interface will display the
position of the workers. To add assisting visuals, the app will force the tablet to flash once
there is a worker close to the truck by a distance less than 1.5 meters. Frequently updating
the mobile app makes it sufficient enough for the driver to drive safely as only one glance
to the tablet secures the vehicle's movement.

Fig. 7.3 WSDS system on the road side

33
Hence, it will eliminate back over accidents. In practice, the WSDS system mainly
focuses on generating polar coordinates (distance, angle) of a construction worker
withreference to the trucks position. Also, it passively wakes up the device worn by
laborers when they enter the danger zone where a strong RF field is present.

34
 CONCLUSION
This proposed system presented a novel design of an autonomous, power saving, and
real-time system for addressing and preventing dangerous collisions. It adopts three
combined techniques which are 868 MHz radio frequency for data communications,
directional antenna for zones limitation, and 40 kHz ultrasound waves for distance
measurement. A power saving scheme is implemented in the wearable device's
transceiver where its consumption is less than 0.5 A. The proposed system is designed to
easily integrate into construction site vehicles, operate in real time, and facilitate
following the safety workflows without hindering the normal construction sites activity.

35
 REFERENCES

[1] European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, "Preventing vehicle accidents

in construction," 2004. [Online]. Available: https://osha.europa.eu/en/tools

andpublications/

publications/e-facts/efact02.

[2] Institut National de Recherche et de Scurit, "Accidents du travail et maladies

professionnelles du BTP," 2013. [Online]. Available:

http://www.inrs.fr/actualites/statistiques-BTP-2013.html.

[3] Health and Safety Executive, "Traffic management on site," 2016. [Online].

Available:
http://www.hse.gov.uk/construction/safetytopics/vehiclestrafficmanagement.htm

[4] Occupational Safety & Health Administration, "Preventing Backovers," 2016.

[Online]. Available: https://www.osha.gov/doc/topics/backover/.

[5] Abu Dhabi Occupational Safety and Health Centre (OSHAD), "Legalization,"

2016. [Online]. Available: https://www.oshad.ae/en/Pages/legalization.aspx.

[6] R. Kanan, "Safety Detection System and Methods". United States of America Patent
15140748, 2016.

[7] R. Kanan, R. Bensalem and O. Elhassan, "A Comparative Study: Received Signal
Strength Based Zone Differentiation Using Mobile Transmitters," in IEEE

RADIO, Saint-Gilles Les Bains, 2016.

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37