TABLE OF CONTENT

NO. CONTENT PAGE

1 Experiment 2: Shear Centre

a) Objective 1
b) Theory
c) Apparatus 12
d) Procedure
e) Results 3
f) Discussion 3 11
g) Conclusion
h) References & Appendices 12
13
13 14

2 Experiment 6 (a): Three Hinged Arch

15
a) Objective
b) Theory 15
c) Apparatus
d) Procedure 16
e) Results
f) Discussion 16
g) Conclusion 17 20
h) References & Appendices
21
21
21 22

3 Experiment 6 (b): Two Hinged Arch

a) Objective 23
b) Theory
c) Apparatus 23
d) Procedure
e) Results 24
f) Discussion 24
g) Conclusion
h) References & Appendices 25 28
29
29
30

EXPERIMENT 2: SHEAR CENTRE

OBJECTIVES

1. To validate the theoretical equation of shear center for semi-circle, Z section, C-

channel & angle section in the laboratory.
2. To ascertain the position of the shear center for a sections.

THEORY

If a beam is subjected to bending moments and shear force in a plane, other than the plane of
geometry, which passes through the centroid of the section, then bending moment will be
accompanied by twisting. In order to avoid twisting and cause bending only, the transverse
forces must act through a point which may not coincide with the centroid, but will depend
upon the shape of section and such a point is termed as shear centre. In other words, loads
must be applied at a particular point in the cross section, called shear center, if the beam is to
bend without twisting.

a) The shear centre of C-channel:

Figure 1.0: The example dimension of C-channel

e = b1 / [ 2 ( 1 + ( AW / 6Af ) ]

Aw = t2h = area of web Af = t1b1 = area of flange

1
 a) The shear center for semicircle:
Figure 1.1: The example dimension of semicircle

e = 4r /
r = radius of semicircle

b) The shear centre for an angle:

The shear centre (xO, yO) is located at the intersection of the angle leg axes.
Figure 1.2: The example dimension of an angle.
c). The shear center for Z-section:

The shear center for Z-section is located at O

2

APPARATUS

1) Indicators
2) Shear center beam
3) Dial gauge
4) Ruler
5) Vernier caliper
6) Thumbscrew

PROCEDURE
1) The two rearward facing thumbscrew on the indicator bosses was loosen, the
indicators was turned outward to contact the inner two datum pegs and the
thumbscrew was locked off. This sets the two indicators parallel.
2) The U section was fitted into the bottom chuck.
3) The top of specimen was fitted into the top chuck in the same relative position, the
specimen was set squarely and all of the screws were tighten.
4) The top chuck hand wheel was undone and the specimen was rotated so it is
orientated. After hearing the clicking of the chuck into the correct position, the hand
wheel was tightened.
5) The shear centre of the beam was fitted to the bottom chuck and was secured with the
extension piece.
6) The indicators were ensured to have roughly equal travel of forward and backward on
the shear arm pegs. If not, loosen the indicator to the correct position and tighten the
screw.
7) The frame was tapped sharply to reduce the effect of friction and zero indicators.
8) A load of 5N was applied to the left-hand notch.
9) The result was recorded.
10) The same load was repeated at the other notch positions.
11) Step 8-10 was repeated for other specimen.

3
 RESULTS

Channel Section

Table 1.0: Deflection of shear centre.

Hole
positio 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
n
Left -
0.02 0.02 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.01
(L) 0.01
Right - - - - -
-0.08 -0.06 -0.07 0 0.01 0.03 0.07 0.08
(R) 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01
L- R - - -
0.1 0.08 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 -0.09
0.01 0.03 0.06

0.15

0.1

0.05
Deflection(mm)
dl-dr
0 Linear (dl-dr)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

-0.05

-0.1

Hole position (mm)

Figure 1.0: Graph of channel section.

Experimental Shear Centre

From the graph, the load shear centre at position 130 mm which at hole number 8.

4
 Z Section

Table 1.1: Deflection of shear centre.

Hole
positio 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
n
Left - - - - - -
0.47 0.44 0.43 0.34 0.31 0.01 -0.14
(L) 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.06 0.07 0.12
Right - - - -
-0.48 -0.44 -0.45 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04
(R) 0.36 0.33 0.03 0.01
L- R - - - - -
0.95 0.88 0.88 0.7 0.64 0.04 0 -0.18
0.01 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.16

1.2

0.8

0.6

Deflection ( mm ) 0.4
deflection
0.2 Linear (deflection)

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
-0.2

-0.4

Hole position (mm)

Figure 1.1: Graph Z section

Experimental Shear Centre

From the graph, the load shear center at position 190 mm which at hole number 10.
5
 Semi-circle

Table 1.2: Deflection of shear centre.

Hole
positio 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
n
Left - -
0.2 0.17 0.15 0.13 0.1 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 -0.12
(L) 0.04 0.09
Right - - - - -
-0.11 -0.09 -0.08 0 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07
(R) 0.07 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.01
L- R - - -
0.31 0.26 0.23 0.2 0.15 0.09 0.05 0.03 0.01 -0.19
0.01 0.07 0.14

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1
Deflection (mm)
dl-dr
0
Linear (dl-dr)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
-0.1

-0.2

-0.3

Hole position (mm)

Figure 1.2: Graph of semi-circle

Experimental Shear Centre

From the graph, the load shear center at position 170 mm which at hole number 9.
 6

L Section

Table 1.3: Deflection of shear centre.

Hole
positio 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
n
Left - - -
1.13 1.00 0.87 0.7 0.51 0.37 0.22 0.09 0 -0.47
(L) 0.08 0.18 0.32
Right - - - - -
-0.59 -0.5 -0.43 0 0.05 0.11 0.18 0.25
(R) 0.34 0.25 0.18 0.12 0.05
L- R - -
1.72 1.5 1.3 1.04 0.76 0.55 0.34 0.14 0 -0.5 -0.72
0.03 0.29

1.5

Deflection (mm) 0.5

dl-dr Linear (dl-dr)

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

-0.5

-1

Hole position (mm)

Figure 1.3: Graph of semi-circle

Experimental Shear Centre

From the graph, the load shear center at position 170 mm which at hole number 9.

7
THEORETICAL

Channel Section

Dimension of Section:

Total length of position hole, L = 259 mm

t1 = 2.4mm, h =102 mm, b =50 mm

Area, A X Y Ax Ay
Section Shape
(mm2) (mm) (mm) (mm3) (mm3)
2.4 x 102 1.4 /2 102/2
1 293.76 12484.80
= 244.8 =1.2 = 51

2(2.4 x 50) 2(50/2) 2(2.4/2)

2 12000.0 576.0
= 240.0 =50 =2.4
Total 484.8 12293.76 13060.8

xo = 12293.76/ 484.8 yo = 13060.8/ 484.8

= 25.36 mm = 26.94 mm

Position Hole

d = [(259 50)/2] + 25.36

= 129.86 mm

Theoretical Shear Centre

The load shear centre at position 130 mm which at hole number 7.

Z-Section
Dimension of Section

Total length of position hole, L = 259 mm

b = 25mm, h = 102 mm, t = 3.6 mm

Area, A X Y Ax Ay
Section Shape
(mm2) (mm) (mm) (mm3) (mm3)

2((25-3.6) x 3.6) 2(25/2) 2(3.6/2)

1 1926.0 277.34
= 154.08 =25.0 =3.6

40 x 4.07 4.07/2 40/2

2 331.3 3256.0
=162.8 =2.035 =20

Total 316.88 2257.3 3533.34

xo = 2257.3/ 316.88 yo = 3533.34/ 316.88

= 7.12 mm = 11.15 mm

Position Hole

d = [(259 50)/2] + 7.12

= 111.6 mm

Theoretical Shear Centre

The load shear centre at position 110 mm which at hole number 6.

Semi-Circle

Dimension of Section
Total length of position hole, L = 259 mm

Diameter, d = 97.4 mm

Area, A X Y Ax Ay
Section Shape
(cm2) (cm) (cm) (cm3) (cm3)
(97.4)2/8 97.4/2
1 0 0 181428.93
= 3725.44 = 48.7

Total 3725.44 181428.93 181428.93

yo = 181428.93/ 3725.44

= 48.7 mm

Position Hole

d = [(259 97.4)/2] + 48.7

= 128.1 mm

Theoretical Shear Centre

The load shear centre at position 130 mm which at hole number 7.

10

L Section

Dimension of Section

Total length of position hole, L = 259 mm

b = 74 mm, h = 76 mm, t = 2.7 mm

Area, A X Y Ax Ay
Section Shape
(mm2) (mm) (mm) (mm3) (mm3)
76 x 2.7 2.7/2 76/2
1 277.02 7797.6
= 205.2 =1.35 =38

74 x 2.7 74/2 2.7/2

2 7392.60 269.73
=199.8 =37.0 =1.35
Total 405.0 7669.62 8067.33

xo = 7669.62/ 405.0 yo = 8067.33/ 405.0

= 18.94 mm = 19.92 mm

Position Hole

d = [(259 74)/2 ] + 18.94

= 111.4 mm

Theoretical Shear Centre

The load shear centre at position 110 mm which at hole number 6.

11

DISCUSSION

Distance of Distance of Distance of

No. of hole No. of hole No. of hole
hole, d (mm) hole, d (mm) hole,d (mm)
st th th
1 10 6 110 11 210
 2nd 30 7th 130 12th 230
3rd 50 8th 150 13th 250
4th 70 9th 170
5th 90 10th 190

Based on the experimental and theoretical, the shear centre of various shapes was determined.
It can be show from the table below:

Position of shear centre

Shape Distance hole, Distance hole,
Experimental Theoretical
(mm) (mm)
Channel
8th hole 130 7th hole 130
Section

Z-Section 10th hole 190 7th hole 130

Semi-circle
5th hole 90 6th hole 110
Section
L-Section 9th hole 170 6th hole 110

The shear centre is depend upon the shape of section which is having a different dimension
and area. In theoretical calculation, shear centre is determined by the calculation of centroid
of the section. From the table, the position of the shear centre between experimental and
theoretical is totally different. One of the main reasons is during the experiment parallax error
occurred when measuring the dimension of the section and while taking the reading from the
dial gauge. Besides that, the systematic error from the apparatus also was effect when get the
shear centre position of section shape, as when adjusting the dial gauge and screws, it may
affect the result.

12

CONCLUSION

From the experiment, the objective to validate the theoretical equation of shear centre for
semi-circle, Z-section, C-channel & angle section in the laboratory and to ascertain the
position of the shear centre for a section was determined. The position of the shear centre
from the experimental and theoretical is not absolutely the same due to some errors, either
while reading the dial gauge or adjusting the apparatus. It might be the error from the
apparatus itself as it has been use many times. Besides that, the beam of the section may
cause twisting when the load is applied. The best way to overcome this problem is with
repeating the experiment and gets the average value for accurate result. Furthermore, the
shear centre is important in the engineering field as a structure balance in every each side of
the section as a main supporting of the building. It is useful to apply this concept especially in
the structure building.

REFERENCES

1. Beer, F.P (2012). Mechanics Of Materials. New York: Mc Graw Hill

2. Beer, F.P (2012). Statics. New York: Mc Graw Hill
3. Open-ended Manual for Structural Engineering Laboratory, UiTM Pulau Pinang.

13

APPENDICES
 Shear center apparatus Channels

Vernier caliper Ruler

14

EXPERIMENT 6 (A): THREE HINGED ARCH

OBJECTIVE
To study three-hinged arch for the horizontal thrust of the roller end for a given system of
loading and to compare the same with those obtained analytically.

THEORY

An arch may be defined as a curved girder, having convexity upwards and supported
at its ends. It may be subjected to vertical, horizontal or even inclined load. In the past, the
arches had been the backbone of important buildings. But in modern building activity, the
arches are becoming obsolete. Today the arches are being provided only for the architectural
beauty in ultra-modern buildings.

There are two types of three-hinged arches which are:

(i) Three-hinged parabolic arch:

(ii) Three-hinged circular arch:

15

APPARATUS

1) three hinged arch

2) load (5N)
3) digital indicator
 4) ruler
5) vernier caliper

PROCEDURE

1) The digital indicator was switched on and set to zero.

2) The measurement of the span of the arch was taken together with the distance
from left-support to each point. This distance is called kL. kL is measured from
support to the selected point.
3) A few 5N loads was taken to be placed at selected points.
4) The first selected point is the most nearest to the support. The 5N load was placed
and the reading was taken.
5) Step 4 was repeated with an increased load of 5N until it reached maximum height
of the load hanger. The maximum load was 25N.
6) Step 4 and 5 is repeated until the end of the span.

16

RESULTS

Span of arch = 1 m
Thickness of arch = 7.87mm
Width of arch = 39.66 mm
Height of the arch, H = 213.0 mm
kL (m) Load,W Horizontal
 (N)

Thrust (N)
Experimental
Theoretical Percentage
Test 1 Test 2 Average error (%)
0.125 5 1.4 1.4 1.40 1.47 4.76
10 2.9 2.8 2.85 2.93 2.73
15 4.3 4.3 4.30 4.40 2.27
20 6.0 5.7 5.85 5.87 0.34
2.18
25 7.6 7.4 7.50 7.34
0.25 5 3.2 3.1 3.15 2.93 7.51
10 6.2 6.1 6.15 5.87 4.77
15 9.3 9.2 9.25 8.80 5.11
20 12.4 12.3 12.35 11.74 5.20
4.64
25 15.4 15.3 15.35 14.67
0.375 5 6.0 5.9 5.95 4.40 35.23
10 12.1 12.0 12.05 8.80 36.93
15 18.1 18.0 18.05 13.20 36.74
20 24.2 24.1 24.15 17.61 37.14
36.85
25 30.1 30.2 30.15 22.01
0.5 5 6.0 5.9 5.95 5.87 1.36
10 12.1 12.0 12.05 11.74 2.64
15 18.1 18.0 18.05 17.61 2.50
20 24.2 24.1 24.15 23.47 2.90
2.76
25 30.1 30.2 30.15 29.34

17

Sample calculation

test 1+test 2
Average = 2

1.4 +1.4
= 2
 = 1.4

WkL
Theoretical, HA = 2h

5 (0.125)(1)
= 2(0.213)

= 1.47

Theoretical Experimental
Percentage error = Theoretical x 100%

1.471.40
= 1.47 x 100%

= 4.76 %

18
Analysis:

Figure 1: horizontal thrust versus load (kL = 0.125 m)

Horizontal thrust vs Load for kL = 0.125 m

8
7
6
5
Experimental
4 Theoritical
Horizontal Thrust (N)
3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Applied load (N)

Figure 2: horizontal thrust versus load (kL = 0.25 m)

Horizontal thrust vs Load for kL = 0.25 m

18
16
14
12
10
Experimental
Horizontal Thrust (N) 8 Theoretical
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Applied load (N)

 19

Figure 1: horizontal thrust versus load (kL = 0.375 m)

Horizontal thrust vs Load for kL = 0.375 m

35
30
25
20 Experimental
Horizontal Thrust (N) 15 Theoretical
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Applied load (N)

Figure 1: horizontal thrust versus load (kL = 0.5 m)

Horizontal thrust vs Load for kL = 0.5 m

35
30

25

20 Experimental
Horizontal Thrust (N) Theoretical
15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Applied load (N)

20
DISCUSSION

From the graph we can see that almost all kL experimental and theoretical value are
almost the same except for kL=0.375. The least difference between value experimental and
theoretical is kL=0.125. The most obvious difference that we can see is kL=0.125.

As we can see kL=0.375 has a higher percentage error than other kL. The average
percentage error is 36.58% which is very much higher than other kL percentage error. This
may happen due to human error or the environment that sometimes may interrupt the
experiment. During the experiment, when the load was placed on the load hanger, the load
hanger tends to swing abruptly as it will affect the reading. Another error maybe happen as
the person who record the data may done some mistakes as he or she whom are not paying
attention. But it is most likely will not happen as everyone was focusing doing the
experiment. To prevent this from happen, they must take more readings to get an accurate
result. Another step to prevent error is being careful while placing the load on the load
hanger.

CONCLUSION

From the experiment, when the load applied increased so is the horizontal thrust. There are
some application of the three-hinged arch which is bridges. Based on the experiment, it is
suggested that the three hinged arch is the tied arch. Tied arch is a variation on the arch which
allows construction even if the ground is not solid enough to deal with the horizontal forces.
Rather than relying on the foundation to restrain the horizontal forces, the girder itself ties
both ends of the arch together, thus the name tied arch.

REFERENCES

1. Open-ended Manual for Structural Engineering Laboratory, UiTM Pulau Pinang

2. www.eng-forum.com/articles/articles/arch.htm

21
APPENDICES

Three-hinged arch Loads

Vernier caliper Ruler

Digital indicator

22
EXPERIMENT 6 (B): TWO HINGED ARCH

OBJECTIVE

To study two hinge arches for the horizontal thrust of the roller end for a given system of
loading to compare the same with those obtained analytically.

THEORY

A two hinge arch, as the name indicates, is an arch hinge on its two supports only. Like the
three hinge arch, will consist of a vertical component V A and VB as well as horizontal
component, the vertical component of the support reactions may be easily found out by
equating clockwise and anti-clockwise moments of all the forces on the arch about any one
hinge. As the matter of fact, a two hinged arch is statically indeterminate structure, since the
horizontal thrust can be found by the equation of statically equilibrium. The horizontal thrust
in two hinge arch is found out on the following assumption:

(1) Before loading the arch is free from stresses.

(2) The support A and B are rigidly hinged.
(3) After loading the horizontal span AB of the arch remains unchanged.
(4) The strain energy method and flexural deformation.

23
APPARATUS

1) Apparatus of two hinge arch

2) Load
3) Hanger load
4) Digital indicator
5) Ruler
PROCEDURE
1. The digital indicator was switched on. For stability of the reading of the indicator
must be switch on 10 minutes before taking readings.
2. The two supported was fix tightly to the supported frame. The span of the arch was
measured.
3. The TARE button was pressed to set the dial indicator reading to zero.
4. Next, the load was placed on the load hanger.
5. After that, the indicator reading was recorded. This represents the horizontal reaction
of the pinned support.
6. Finally, increase the load on the hanger and record the horizontal reaction.
7. Repeat step 7 for another load increments and get the average of two reading.

24

RESULTS

Span of arch = 99 cm

Width of the arch = 40.27cm

Thickness of arch =7.72 cm

Distance of the load from the pinned supported, k =

k= 0.14 0.25 0.38 0.51 0.63 0.75 0.88

Horizontal Thrust

Table 6: Experimental result of horizontal thrust of the 3-hinged arch.

Horizontal thrust (n)

Load (n) k Experimental
Theoretical
Test 1 Test 2 Average
5 0.14 0.80 1.00 0.90 1.04
10 1.60 1.70 1.65 2.07
15 2.20 2.30 2.25 3.11
20 2.60 3.00 2.80 4.15
25 3.10 3.40 3.25 5.18
30 3.70 4.00 3.85 6.22
35 4.20 4.60 4.40 7.25

5 0.25 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.71

10 4.10 4.10 4.10 3.42
15 6.00 6.00 6.00 5.13
20 7.80 7.90 7.85 6.84
25 9.70 9.70 9.70 8.55
30 11.70 11.70 11.70 10.26
35 13.80 13.80 13.80 11.97

5 0.38 2.60 2.80 2.70 2.24

10 5.10 5.00 5.05 4.47
15 7.40 7.50 7.45 6.71
20 10.00 9.00 9.50 8.95
25 12.60 12.40 12.50 11.18
30 15.10 15.00 15.05 13.42
35 17.60 17.60 17.60 15.66

5 0.51 2.90 3.00 2.95 2.40

10 5.60 5.50 5.55 4.80
15 8.20 8.10 8.15 7.20
20 10.80 10.80 10.80 9.60
25 13.70 13.60 13.65 12.00
30 16.50 16.40 16.45 14.40
35 19.30 19.20 19.25 16.80

5 0.63 2.80 2.90 2.85 2.21

10 5.20 5.10 5.15 4.42
15 7.70 7.60 7.65 6.62
20 10.20 10.10 10.15 8.83
25 12.80 12.80 12.80 11.04
30 15.40 15.40 15.40 13.25
35 18.10 18.10 18.10 15.46
 5 0.75 2.20 2.20 2.20 1.71
10 4.20 4.30 4.25 3.42
15 6.10 6.20 6.15 5.13
20 8.10 8.10 8.10 6.84
25 10.10 10.10 10.10 8.55
30 12.10 12.20 12.15 10.26
35 14.20 14.30 14.25 11.97

5 0.88 1.40 1.30 1.35 0.90

10 2.60 2.50 2.55 1.79
15 3.50 3.50 3.50 2.69
20 4.60 4.60 4.60 3.59
25 5.70 5.70 5.70 4.48
30 6.80 6.70 6.75 5.38
35 7.90 7.90 7.90 6.28

Sample calculation (horizontal thrust for theoretical):

(k = 0.14 cm)

HA = 5wL (k4 2k3 + k) / 8h

W=5N

L = 99 cm

h = 40.27 cm

HA = 5(5) (99) (0.1364 2(0.136)3 + 0.136) / 8(40.25)

= 1.04 N
 27

Figure 1: Graph of horizontal thrust against load.

8.00

7.00

6.00

5.00

Load vs Experimental
4.00
Horizontal Thrust, (N) Linear (Load vs
Experimental)
3.00
Load vs Theoretical
Linear (Load vs Theoretical)
2.00

1.00

0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Load, (N)
 28

DISCUSSION

1. The result shows the data of horizontal thrust for theoretical is more accurate compare
to the experimental data.
2. Have error due to conduct experiment, such as systematic error.
3. The applied load at several points at the arch will affect the value of the horizontal
thrust.
4. Make sure press TARE to set dial gauge indicator to zero reading.
5. The indicator must be switched on 10 minutes before take the readings.

CONCLUSION

As conclusion, the horizontal thrust is proportional increase due to applied load. From the
result, it shows that the theoretical is more accurate than experimental reading. It is because
have errors during do the experiment. The example of two hinge arch is Tyne Bridge,
Newcastle, England, that consist arch ribs are variable depth warren girders.
29
REFERENCES

Open-Ended Manual for Structural Engineering Laboratory.

R.S. Khurmi (2005). Basic Solid Mechanics . S.Chand & Company Ltd Publications
Sdn. Bhd.

http://nisee.berkeley.edu/elibrary/Image/GoddenB37

APPENDICES

Apparatus Two Hinge Arch Ruler

Load Digital Indicator

30