Domestic and family

violence and its

relationship to
child protection

Practice Paper
Revised October 2012
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................4
Principles for child safety officers when domestic and family violence is identified
as a harm to a child....................................................................................................................4
Definitions of domestic and family violence ..............................................................................5
Community definitions......................................................................................................... 5
Legislative definitions in Queensland.................................................................................. 6
Forms of domestic and family violence .....................................................................................7
Dynamics of domestic and family violence .............................................................................10
The issue of gender .......................................................................................................... 11
Factors influencing the incidence of domestic and family violence................................... 12
The cycle of violence......................................................................................................... 14
Escalation of violence ....................................................................................................... 20
The extent of domestic and family violence ............................................................................20
Domestic and family violence in the Australian community .............................................. 20
Challenges for rural and remote communities .................................................................. 21
Challenges for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities ................................... 23
Challenges for culturally and linguistically diverse communities....................................... 25
Childrens exposure to domestic and family violence .............................................................26
Indicators of domestic violence ...............................................................................................27
General indicators ............................................................................................................. 28
Indicators in children ......................................................................................................... 29
Impacts, effects and harms of domestic and family violence on infants, children and
adolescents ..............................................................................................................................30
Unborn children and infants .............................................................................................. 30
Young children .................................................................................................................. 32
Adolescents ...................................................................................................................... 33
Roles adopted by children in a violent family .................................................................... 33
Contact and placement issues .......................................................................................... 34
Perpetrators of domestic and family violence .........................................................................35
Characteristics of perpetrators .......................................................................................... 36
Assessment of the dominant aggressor............................................................................ 39
Factors affecting the ability to leave a relationship impacted by domestic
and family violence ..................................................................................................................41
Individual factors ............................................................................................................... 41
Situational factors ............................................................................................................. 42
Safety planning ........................................................................................................................44

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Queensland domestic and family violence legislation.............................................................44
Legislative definition of domestic and family violence....................................................... 45
Information about Domestic Violence Orders ................................................................... 46
Conditions imposed by a domestic violence order............................................................ 47
Additional powers under the legislation............................................................................. 49
Child as an aggrieved or respondent under the Domestic and Family
Violence Protection Act 2012 ............................................................................................ 51
A practice framework for child safety officers when domestic and family violence is an
identified harm to children........................................................................................................51
Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................53
Appendix 1 Common behavioural and emotional indicators of children who experience
domestic and family violence...................................................................................................54
Appendix 2 General effects on children exposed to domestic and family violence ...............57
Appendix 3 The effects and resulting harms for children exposed to domestic and family
violence at different developmental stages .............................................................................60
Appendix 4 Links to other services and resources .................................................................63
Appendix 5 Website resources for further information ............................................................66
Acknowledgment......................................................................................................................67
Reference list ...........................................................................................................................68

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Introduction
Domestic and family violence and child protection are significant social issues which have
become the focus of increased community concern and attention. Both are predominantly
about violence and abuse within the family home but, despite these commonalities, societal
responses to both issues have developed separately. Historically, community awareness,
legislation, policies and practices, and treatment and support programs were developed
individually, with different organisations tasked to respond to either child abuse or to
domestic violence.

To understand the link between domestic violence in families and harm to children, child
safety officers must acknowledge an increasing body of evidence that indicates that different
types of violence commonly occur simultaneously in the same family. The presence of one
form of violence may be a strong predictor of the other and to address only one form, for
example, harm to a child, will not protect that child adequately both in the short and long
term. 1

Due to the significant interface between domestic and family violence and child protection, it
is important that Child Safety and domestic and family violence services establish and
maintain a collaborative and coordinated relationship. This interagency collaboration is
essential to deliver services that will address all forms of violence present within a family,
and secure the safety and wellbeing of the children involved.

This practice paper has been developed to assist child safety officers to intervene
effectively with children and families impacted by domestic and family violence. It
provides information to assist child safety officers to:
apply principles and a practice framework when working with families impacted by
violence
understand the nature of domestic and family violence and the forms it may take
recognise the risk indicators of domestic and family violence and identify its
occurrence
understand the effects of violence, in particular how it impacts as a harm to children
address domestic and family violence effectively within intervention strategies to
maximise the safety of all concerned but especially the safety and well-being of
children
provide information to families about court orders that can be obtained under the
Domestic and Family Violence Protection Act 2012
seek advice from, and make appropriate referrals to, domestic and family violence
support services, and government and non-government agencies.

Principles for child safety officers when domestic and

family violence is identified as a harm to a child
The Child Protection Act 1999 section 5A and 5B outline the general principles for child
safety officers to maintain when undertaking child protection work. In addition to these,

1
Tomison, A.M. (2000:1) Exploring family violence links between child maltreatment and domestic violence, Issues in
Child Abuse Prevention, National Child Protection Clearinghouse, Issues paper 13

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further practice principles are recommended when domestic and family violence is identified
as a harm to a child or is suspected. These principles are crucial to achieving the primary
goal of ensuring the safety, well-being and best interests of children, which may often best
be accomplished by ensuring the safety of the non-abusive parent. 2

The principles are:

exposure of a child to domestic and family violence can impact on the childs
physical, developmental, psychological and emotional well-being
the safety and wellbeing of a child will be increased by increasing the safety of their
non-violent parent
the safety of a child will be increased by supporting the autonomy of the non-violent
parent and enhancing their capacity to protect their child
the domestic violence perpetrator, not the victim, will be held responsible for the
violent behaviour and for stopping it, with child safety officers directly addressing the
behaviour with the perpetrator where safety allows
interagency coordination and collaboration is an essential service delivery response
to ensure a familys safety and wellbeing.

Definitions of domestic and family violence

There is a wide range of terminology associated with domestic and family violence in the
community, within legislation, and in literature and research. The terms used may broaden or
narrow the meaning and scope of the violence and include: domestic violence; family
violence; spousal violence; wife beating; and intimate partner violence.

Community definitions
In broad terms, domestic violence occurs when one person in an intimate relationship
behaves in a way that causes fear or harm to another person. 3 Within the general
community this is the most common term.

Intimate partner violence is more specific than domestic violence and has been defined by
the World Health Organisation (2002) as any behaviour within an intimate relationship that
causes physical, psychological, or sexual harm to those in the relationship; and includes:
physical aggression, psychological abuse, forced intercourse, and other forms of sexual
coercion, and various controlling behaviours. 4 This term relates to the most common form
of violence seen by child safety officers and also includes abusive behaviour by adolescents
in an intimate personal relationship.

The term family violence acknowledges that the impact of domestic violence occurring
within a couples relationship is often felt by other family members, particularly children. It
also acknowledges that extended family members can become enmeshed or collude with
the violence that is occurring. The Domestic and Family Violence Protection Act 2012

2
As cited in Ganley, A. L., and Schechter, S. (1996) Domestic Violence: A National Curriculum for Child Protective
Services.
3
Term used by DVConnect at www.dvconnect.org/dvline.
4
Hegarty (2006: 21.) What is intimate partner abuse and how common is it?, in Roberts et al (2006)

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includes protection for family members who are direct victims of violence and abuse, for
example, a parent can apply for a domestic violence order against their adult child.

Family violence is the term used by Indigenous communities to more accurately reflect the
diversity and complexity of kinship ties in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities.
It includes inter-generational violence and abuse and recognises all victims, whether they
are affected directly or indirectly. Perpetrators and victims of family violence can include
parents, uncles, aunties, (step) children, (step) siblings, cousins, grandparents, in-laws and
distant relatives. An individual can be a perpetrator and a victim at the same time in a family
situation. 5

The broader term of family violence is also relevant to culturally and linguistically diverse
communities.

The term domestic and family violence (DFV) is used throughout this paper as it links the
individual terms outlined and is defined within Queensland legislation. The term violence is
used to cover all behaviour the community would regard as being controlling, violent or
abusive violating the right of another person to safety and well-being by using fear, power,
control and / or harm. Victim is used inclusively, relating to the non-violent partner, children
and other family members who experience, and are impacted by, the violence and abuse.
The paper does use language that represents the most common perpetrator of violence
that of male violence towards females.

Legislative definitions in Queensland

In Queensland, the Domestic and Family Violence Protection Act 2012 aims to:
maximise the safety, protection and wellbeing of people who fear or experience
domestic violence and minimise disruption to their lives
prevent or reduce the exposure of children to domestic violence and
ensure perpetrators of violence are held accountable for their actions.

This Act replaces the Domestic and Family Violence Protection Act 1989 and recognises
that the civil response set out in the Act should operate with, not instead of, any options that
may be available through any criminal process.

Domestic and family violence is defined in section 8 of the Domestic and Family Violence
Protection Act 2012, as behaviour used by one person towards another person in a relevant
relationship that:
is physically, sexually, emotionally or psychologically abusive
is economically abusive
is threatening or coercive
controls or dominates a person, causing fear for that persons safety or wellbeing or
for the wellbeing of someone else (section 8).

Such behaviours may include:

causing or threatening injury to a person

5
SNAICC (2005:12) Through young black eyes.

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 coercing a person to engage in sexual activity, or attempting to
damaging or making threats to damage a persons property
threats to, or deprivation of liberty
threatening death or injury
threatening to commit suicide or self-harm to torment, intimidate or frighten
threatening to, or causing, the death of an animal to control, dominate or coerce the
person
unauthorised surveillance of a person, including monitoring of telephone and email
counts; using a GPS system to track movements
unlawful stalking of a person.

Also included is when one person in a domestic relationship asks or gets someone else to
engage in these behaviours against another person.

A relevant relationship defined under the Act (sections 13 20) is an intimate personal
relationship, family relationship or informal care relationship between two people. The
specific legislative definitions of these terms are:
(1) Intimate personal relationship between persons in a spousal relationship,
engagement or couple relationship. The court considers the circumstances of the
relationship to decide whether an intimate personal relationship exists, for example,
the degree of trust and the level of dependence and commitment to the other
person in the relationship; the length of time for which the relationship has existed
or did exist; the frequency of contact between the persons; and the degree of
intimacy between the persons.
(2) Family relationship between persons who are relatives of each other, connected
by blood or marriage such as a grandparent, aunt, uncle, step-parent, sibling,
cousin or child (18 years and over). A relative also includes a person who can be
reasonably regarded to be a relative, giving consideration to cultures that have a
wider concept of relative, for example Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
peoples, members of certain non-English speaking communities and people with
particular religious beliefs.
(3) Informal care relationships where one person is or was dependent on another
person (a carer) who helps the person in an activity of daily living (personal care
activities). This may include dressing, preparing meals or shopping. The care must
be provided in an informal way and not under a commercial arrangement, for
example in-home care nurses. An informal care relationship does not exist between
a child and a parent of the child.

It is important for child safety officers to be aware of these legislative definitions as it is

possible for abuse in a variety of familial or intimate relationships to negatively impact on a
childs safety and wellbeing.

Forms of domestic and family violence

In relationships not impacted by violence, respect, equality and independence between
household members is evident. Arguments may occur but opinions can be expressed freely
without fear of reprisal.

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In comparison, a relationship impacted by violence does not include respect and equality.
The perpetrator uses tactics aimed at achieving power, control, dependence and dominance
over the victim. The resulting fear experienced by the victim is used as a tool, together with
ongoing veiled or real threats of violence. Where a threat has been carried out in a previous
incident of violence, further threats and the constant fear of more violence may constitute the
main form of abuse, with little overt conflict being obvious. 6

Although physical violence is often identified by the community as the main form of domestic
and family violence, there are equally damaging non-physical behaviours that must be
categorised as abusive and be identified and recognised by the child safety officer. The
categories of violence are:
(1) Physical abuse - includes directly assaulting a person, their child, a pet or property
and includes the use of weapons and reckless behaviour. Examples include:
- pushing, slapping, punching, kicking, choking, biting, shaking, inflicting burns,
hair pulling
- using a weapon, for example, belting, stoning, flogging with a stick, spearing
- destroying property or possessions, for example, clothes, personal items,
furniture
- being cruel to pets, including in front of family members
- dangerous driving of vehicles
- locking people out of the house
- locking people inside a room or house, depriving them of their liberty
- denying access to needed medical/dental care
- homicide.

(2) Sexual abuse - in this context involves adults only, as sexual abuse against children
is a child protection and criminal matter. Examples include:
- trying to force someone to have sex or take part in sexual acts against their will,
or
- using an object or body part to penetrate the vagina, mouth or anus without
permission or consent
- injuring sexual organs
- intentionally hurting someone during sex
- forcing someone to have unsafe sex , without protection against pregnancy or
sexually transmitted diseases
- forcing someone to take their clothes off or remain naked against their will
- being made to pose for pornography or being made to look at pornography
against their will
- being forced to watch, observe or take part in sexual activities, voyeurism or
exhibitionism
- criticising sexually or making sexually degrading comments or names
- sexual harassment.
6
Mouzos, J. and Makkai, T. (2004) Womens experiences of male violence : findings from the Australian component of the
International Violence Against Women Survey (IVAWS)

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(3) Verbal and emotional abuse Verbal abuse includes the intent to humiliate,
degrade, demean, threaten, coerce or intimidate and includes the use of derogatory
language or continual put-downs to highlight a particular part of a persons being or
their societal role. Consequently, the person may experience this abuse as an attack
on their identity resulting in psychological harm. As a result, verbal abuse is closely
related to emotional abuse. Emotional or psychological abuse can leave a person
feeling that they are to blame for the problems in the family or in a relationship.
Examples of verbal and emotional abuse include:
- using words or phrases such as stupid, brainless, youre no good at anything
- attacking a persons confidence or self-esteem by denigrating the persons life,
including their cultural practices and beliefs, or making constant comparisons to
other peers, lowering a persons confidence, self esteem and self worth
- intimidating behaviours
- making threats to harm or kill a person, child, relative or pet
- making threats to destroy property or possessions
- harassment such as constant phone calls and/or repeated visits to the workplace
- withdrawing from a person by refusing to speak to or acknowledge them
- refusing to engage with a person on any joint activities
- laying blame on a person for something that happens
- overworking someone or keeping them from getting enough sleep
- threatening to commit suicide if the relationship ends.

(4) Spiritual or cultural abuse - is when power and control is used to deny a partner or
family member their human, cultural or spiritual rights and needs. It can also include
using religion or culture as an excuse to commit particular abuses to justify the
behaviour. Examples include:
- denying access to cultural land, sites or family
- denying access to cultural or spiritual ceremonies or rites
- preventing religious observances or practices
- forcing religious ways and practices against a persons own beliefs
- undermining the persons cultural background, particularly for people from
culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds
- threatening deportation, or to withdraw support for applications made through
Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs
- denying a person their cultural heritage.

(5) Social abuse - social abuse and isolation is commonly used by perpetrators to
separate the victim from supportive friends, family and community agencies. This has
particular relevance for women in rural and remote areas where there is limited
access to cheap transportation, where firearms are more common, there is increased
isolation from neighbours and support services, and communities are small. This
abuse may also be more prevalent for women from culturally and linguistically
diverse communities. Examples of social abuse include:
- not being allowed to contact, visit or see friends or family

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 - not being allowed to plan or attend social events or move around socially
- not being able to make telephone calls without permission or supervision
- being prevented from learning or speaking English or other languages that
improve (or mask from the perpetrator) communication with others
- having limited or no personal freedom, including checking mileage on the car
- not being able to make or keep appointments, for example with a doctor, without
permission, supervision, and/or in the presence of the perpetrator
- having limited or no decision-making role in the family.

(6) Economic or financial abuse - involves the unequal control of finances in a

relationship or family and the deprivation of basic necessities. Examples include:
- exercising total control of finances in order to increase the victims powerlessness
and dependency
- taking and holding a persons money, or personal items such as keys and
bankbook
- adjusting or withholding Centrelink benefits
- making a person ask for necessities
- demanding that a person maintain a household on limited amounts of
housekeeping money and then abusing them for not being able to do so
- threatening family members for money.

(7) Stalking is behaviour intended to harass, intimidate, and torment another person.
Examples include:
- repeated phone calls
- sending letters, emails, and faxes and using social media
- unauthorised surveillance such as following a person, monitoring email or social
media accounts, and using a GPS tracking device to check a persons
movements
- loitering near the persons place of residence or employment or other places that
the person regularly frequents, for example a child care centre or shopping
centre)
- organising unwanted home deliveries. 7

In terms of legal recourse, stalking, its definitions, and penalties are covered within the
Criminal Code Act section 359A. Telecommunications legislation can also be used in relation
to repeated phone harassment.

Dynamics of domestic and family violence

It is necessary for child safety officers to have a broad understanding of the complex
dynamics of domestic and family violence to assist them in working effectively and achieving
better outcomes for children and families.

7
Compiled from Seen but not heard (2003); Through young black eyes (2002 ed.); and National Council of Single Mothers
and their Children website.

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This understanding needs to be based on research and evidence that takes into account:
the gender issues involved in domestic and family violence
the factors that may exist to influence the incidence of violence
whether a pattern or cycle of violence exists
whether there is a continuum or escalation of violence that may be common.

The issue of gender

Research indicates that over 90% of reported domestic and family violence incidents are
committed by men against women, and that gender and power play a significant role in acts
committed against their female partners. It is therefore a form of gender-based violence as
one sex is more likely to be the target and the other is most likely to be the perpetrator. 8 This
is also evidenced in police statistics which reveal that women are over eight times more
likely to be victims than males. 9

Studies also acknowledge that women as well as men can commit violence and that it can
occur equally in same-sex and heterosexual relationships. Service providers have reported
increasing numbers of men approaching their services for support in dealing with violence
and abuse from a partner; however there is limited research and statistical data to be able to
draw factual conclusions. 10 For child safety officers who need to assess the level of violence
in a household where it may appear that both parties are abusive, the identification of the
dominant aggressor or the person most in need of protection is critical. (Refer to:
Assessment of the dominant aggressor, pg 39).

In Australian and international studies of men and women who engage in abusive behaviour
in heterosexual relationships, it is evident that the nature and consequence of womens
violence is not equivalent to that used by men. The studies indicate that mens violence
towards women is more severe as they generally possess greater strength and aggression.
Consequently the impact tends to be more significant for women and can include broken
bones, loss of consciousness, injuries to sexual organs, head injuries, lacerations and
bruising.

Homicide statistics also support that women are more likely to be killed by their current and
former male partners than by anyone else. The main reasons reported by men for killing
their female partners are desertion; the ending of a relationship; and jealousy.

In comparison, studies of wives who kill their husbands reveal that there is a history of
marital violence in more than 70% of cases, with over half of the husband killings reportedly
occurring in response to an immediate or long-standing threat or attack by the husband.
Most women whose partners are abusive live in fear before, during and after separation from
them. This data suggests that womens violence is more likely to be in self-defence or
retaliation where the male partner is abusive or has a history of violence in the relationship.

8
Qld Domestic Violence Task Force phone-in (1988); Laing, L. (2003:3) Domestic violence in the context of child abuse and
neglect. Topic Paper.
9
Hegarty, K., Hindmarsh, E.D., and Giles, M.T. (2000:365) Domestic violence in Australia: definition, prevalence, and nature
of presentation in clinical practice. Medical Journal of Australia, 173.
10
Mulroney, J. and Chan, C. (2005:2) Men as victims of domestic violence. Topic Paper

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The violence has been reported by the woman as an expression of frustration in response to
their dependence, fear or stress, or their refusal to accept a less powerful position.

In Australia in 2007 - 2008, of the 134 domestic homicides recorded, a total of 80 were
classified as intimate partner homicides. In the statistical analysis, females were over-
represented, comprising 78% of victims (Virueda and Payne, 2010).

Further gender differences have also been reported. Mens violence towards women has
been most often linked to an attempt by the man to control, coerce, humiliate or dominate -
generating fear and intimidation in the woman. This is a direct contrast to research about
male victims that suggest they are less likely to be afraid or intimidated by a female
perpetrator, and are more likely to be angry. 11

Factors influencing the incidence of domestic and family violence

There is no single factor to explain abusive and violent behaviour however four levels of
causation have been identified in research which may help create and maintain violence by
a person within families. They are:
1. individual factors
2. relationship or family factors
3. factors within the community
4. socio-cultural factors.

These factors can interact with each other in a variety of combinations to produce a
predisposition or vulnerability to violence. The presence of any of these does not provide an
excuse for violence to occur.

Practice tip

Awareness of these factors will assist departmental officers in identifying their existence
within a family, address trans-generational violence issues, gain an understanding of
how and why the violence may be maintained, and significantly assist in assessing the
level of risk that may exist for children and family members.

(1) Individual factors

Individual factors may stem from a persons own experiences of family and social life,
and demographic factors such as education and employment. Individual factors include:
experiences of, and conditions within, the persons family of origin - for example, if a
person lived with violence as a child, they may believe that violence is an acceptable
way to deal with situations as an adult. Research indicates many perpetrators have
been impacted by child abuse and domestic and family violence as children, resulting
in the continuation of violence through generations.
low self-esteem and high dependence on a partner - this can lead to a desire or need
to control and is often reinforced by poor communication skills and poor impulse
control.

11
Bagshaw D. and Chung, D. (2000:11) Women, men and domestic violence.

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 rigid traditional ideas about the roles of men and women and a belief that the male
has the right to control a partners behaviour and impose their will upon that person.
Sometimes these ideas are linked to religious teachings about the role of a male as
the head of the house and family; however most religions do not support violence
and abuse towards women and children.
mental health; antisocial behaviours and personality disorders
work related stresses, gambling and financial debt, the use of drugs/alcohol, and
access to firearms have also been identified as additional causal factors for domestic
violence, though they may also be linked to poor impulse control. The Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander Womens Task Force Report on Violence indicated that alcohol
often facilitated violence by providing a socially acceptable excuse for the negative
behaviour. 12

(2) Relationship and family factors

There are many factors relating to families and relationships which influence the nature
of domestic and family violence, but most research indicates that perpetrators bring the
violence into the relationship with them, rather than the cause of the violence lying within
the relationship. Some of the relevant indicators may include:
marital / relationship conflict and conflict with extended family members
violence that begins in the initial stages of a relationship, soon after commitment or
marriage, or at a significant change within the family, for example, a pregnancy
women providing full time care of young children are more vulnerable as they are
frequently isolated at home, often without an independent income
the presence of young children in a family may place pressure on intimate
relationships, and time spent caring for children may lead to perceived jealousies
women from rural and remote areas are more vulnerable due to the isolation of the
area, the lack of transport and telephone/internet facilities, and the high prevalence of
firearms in rural areas.

(3) Community factors

Historically, keeping domestic and family violence behind closed doors has been an
accepted practice. Multimedia campaigns with anti-violence messages delivered by both
sexes, and Domestic and Family Violence Prevention Month held each May linked with
commemorative services has brought it out in the open. Aspects of community life which
can contribute to the vulnerability of families being exposed to domestic violence can
include:
general community acceptance towards violence and bullying, for example on the
sporting field, in the court system, on television, movies and videos, computer games
and social media sites
association and friendships with abusive or oppositional peers
encouragement towards sex role stereotypes in some cultures that pressure boys to
be competitive, dominant over girls and to engage in physical violence to get what
they want

12
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Womens Task Force Report on Violence (2000), DATSIPD

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 traditional gender roles where the male is viewed as the breadwinner, supporting
and protecting the passive and emotional female partner
for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, the loss of traditional authority roles
has impacted on their communitys ability to respond to issues of violence.

(4) Socio-cultural factors

There has been a long held belief in Western society that to some degree men have the
right to use control or force against women. A clear example is the term rule of thumb -
originating from medieval times when a man was allowed to use a stick to beat his wife
as long as the stick was no thicker than his thumb. Other socio-cultural factors include:
the long held cultural myth idealising family life as being loving and accepting which
has assisted in keeping domestic and family violence behind closed doors
rigid gender roles within specific cultures and belief systems
the notion of privacy is very strong, with a belief that what occurs within the family
home is no-one elses business. This works against the disclosure and prevention of
domestic and family violence as, like sexual abuse, it remains one of the most private
issues
the weakening of Aboriginal law and Torres Strait Islander customs impacting on
attitudes to violence, sexism and racism. Traditional Indigenous cultures had gender
roles that were complementary and respectful. 13

The cycle of violence

There has been much research to indicate that a pattern of violent behaviour may emerge in
many abusive relationships. This is commonly referred to as the cycle of violence, first
referred to in 1979 and has been continually well-publicised in differing forms since that
time. 14 Child safety officers need to understand this possible pattern to domestic and family
violence and assess whether it may be occurring as it can:
assist family members to identify possible escalation behaviour of the person who is
abusive
raise awareness for both adults and children so they can note patterns and help them
to identify behavioural changes so safety planning can be implemented
help identify any immediate risks to children and other family members.

In gaining an understanding of the cycle it should be remembered that abusive attacks are
unpredictable and can come out of the blue, with violence occurring without any lead-up.
For those experiencing violence, it has been likened to walking in an unmarked minefield or
walking on eggshells. The stages can be short-circuited or missed due to other factors
however fear, power and control will be present throughout.

13
Taken from Seen but not heard: children who live with domestic or family violence. Communities Caring for Kids
Coalition, Department of Families, Toowoomba, 2003.
14
Walker Dr L. (1979), The Battered Woman.

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 Practice tip

Child safety officers should gain information from family members to assist their
understanding of the abusive behaviour. As the cycle describes the possible behaviour
of the person being abusive, the cycle can be discussed with the person experiencing
the abuse in private and away from the perpetrator, asking questions such as In relation
to your partners behaviour, have you noticed anything like this phase/cycle of abuse?
and mapping their observations. By looking at their experience of the abusive partners
violence, the child safety officer can implement more effective assessment and
intervention strategies that take into account the different stages of the cycle.

The cycle of violence will often begin with a build-up of tension over a period of time, which
may last days or weeks. As tension increases, the perpetrator may use aggression and
threats of violence as a stand-over tactic in order to raise the fear level of the partner and
maintain greater control over the situation. This is often the most dangerous and debilitating
time for those experiencing violence and it is when the person using the behaviour has the
greatest power and control.

Ultimately an explosion occurs where the rage results in some form of violence. This
violence may not necessarily result in physical injury and may include verbal aggression,
damage to property, threats and self harm. The explosion may be brief or escalate over
hours. The perpetrator may have lost control; however the violence has strong elements of
choice, power and control. As an example, the explosion may begin with a raised eyebrow
at a BBQ giving the only message needed to control the other person and signalling that
violence will occur when they get home. Similarly, in the child protection context, a subtle
gesture may be used by the perpetrator to control statements made by the victim to child
safety officers. The elements of power and control may continue later with the person being
hit in an area which is hidden from view or, in the case of a pregnant woman, in the stomach.
Another aspect of the control is that the violence often occurs within the home rather than in
social settings, minimising the presence of witnesses:

If someone knocked on the door when I was arguing with my wife, I could stop
mid-sentence I would instantly become Mister Nice Guy. The second they left it
was like turning a tape recorder back on I could start exactly where I left off.
(George in No to violence)

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Figure 1: The cycle of violence
(Refer to the Queensland Police Service website
http://www.police.qld.gov.au/programs/cscp/dv/brochure/)

Practice tip

If a child safety officer assesses that a family member appears fearful of another
member it is probable that domestic and family violence has been experienced by that
person and will be experienced again. Signs of fear can be: agitation and nervousness,
a high level of apprehension, eye contact may be avoided (but this could be cultural),
turning away from the person they are speaking with, or displaying a reluctance to be
contacted or interviewed.

If the perpetrator is present or nearby, the fearful person may appear to be guarded,
may constantly glance towards their partner, may be defensive of their partners actions
and be unwilling to respond to questions or conversation. This fear will include fear of
the abuser, but can also encompass fear of deportation, fear of losing the children, fear
of being exposed and embarrassed, especially if outside contact has been forbidden,
and fear of retaliation. (Folwell, 2005)

After the explosion there may then be a period of remorse and guilt over any emotional
and/or physical harm inflicted on the victim. The perpetrator may fear losing their family and
may make a greater effort to restore the relationship. Victims at this point often want to
believe that the violence will not be repeated in order to salvage the relationship and may
choose to believe the perpetrator when they say that it wont happen again. During the
remorse phase the perpetrator will often justify their actions and minimise them, finding
external reasons why the violence occurred instead of taking responsibility for their own
behaviour.

Page 16 of 71
 Practice tip

It may be at this point that child safety officers are contacted by police (via an 0522
report) or others about the family and need to gather information to make an
assessment of harm and whether further departmental intervention may occur. As well
as gathering specific information about the risks to the children in the household as
outlined in the Child Safety Practice Manual it is also necessary to:
(1) gather as much information as possible from the caller in relation to the current
abusive incident between the family members
(2) ask questions to ascertain past history of violence within the household and when
previous incidents occurred, what actions were taken by police or family members
at that time, and whether there are other risks present: for example,
firearms/weapons (include asking questions about the occupation of the perpetrator
for example Police Officer, Defence Force, abattoir worker, where ready access to a
weapon is possible), previous history of violence or controlling behaviours,
geographic isolation, drug and alcohol abuse or mental health issues such as
depression
(3) assess the presence of further risk indicators that may mean violence could
escalate, for example by identifying community and socio-cultural factors
(4) provide advice to the caller about services, agencies and emergency contacts that
can enable better safety planning
(5) use information gathered, together with child protection knowledge, to provide a
holistic assessment about what the harms/risks are to the child and other family
members.

If undertaking an investigation and assessment, the child safety officer should be aware
of the characteristics of the remorse phase and identify statements made by family
members that may minimise, justify, blame or apologise for the behaviour such as the
victim saying, I nagged him and I should know he gets mad then; or the perpetrator
stating it was only a push, I didnt know she would fall, I didnt mean to hit her in the
stomach.

The child safety officer also needs to be self-aware as to the personal values held about
violence and abuse, not accept the statements of minimisation about the acts, and place
responsibility back on to the perpetrator. Remember, many victims will minimise the
violence or abuse out of fear for what may happen if they tell, and many perpetrators will
try to justify abusive behaviour, stating they were provoked to act in the way they did. If /
when it is safe to do so, hold the perpetrator accountable for their impact on the childs
safety by addressing the violence with them directly, outlining the effects and the
consequences of the behaviour, and recording them as the person responsible in
ICMS. The safety of the child without placing any other victims at risk should always be
the highest priority.

The pursuit phase often results in attempts by the perpetrator to win back the love and
affection of their partner and family. To do this they may offer promises to change their

Page 17 of 71
behaviour, provide gifts or surprises, and be the partner that they know is desired. This stage
relies on creating a sense of goodwill, guilt and hope in their partner. If these tactics do not
succeed, they may resort to more threats and intimidation in order to convince their partner
that they cannot leave the relationship.

Please note: For women and children who may have separated from the abusive partner,
this phase may lead to an escalated risk of violence for family members, as shown in
homicide and murder/suicide statistics. Post-separation violence can be a continuation of
violence that occurred in the relationship, or the violence may commence with separation.

Research has identified that this violence can be serious and life-threatening: approximately
30% of Australian women killed by male partners are killed after separation. 15 Further, in
Australia between July 1989 and December 1993, 35% of children aged 14 years and under
who were fatally assaulted died as a consequence of a family dispute. 16 Child death victims
may or may not have been victims of the perpetrators violence prior to this fatal assault:

The parents relationship had ended due to the fathers increasing domestic violence, which
at times placed the children at serious risk of harm. After his application for a shared care
arrangement was refused, the father killed his children and himself in the family home.
Although the fathers motive remains unclear, a suicide note insinuated he was responding
to the court decision and it appears that he was trying to prove ownership of the two young
children. 17

Practice tip

Family members who choose to leave the perpetrator or have the perpetrator removed
need to be supported by child safety officers and others so they are provided with
resources to assist them to remain living safely and independently. This support can
include assistance with Protection Orders, and assisting with access to housing and
financial services, in conjunction with other agencies and legal interventions. Support
needs to be provided that can stop the perpetrator continuing the abuse.

It is important to note that for families that remain together, the perpetrator may be
covertly influencing family members to minimise the violence by escalating the degree of
threats used. At this time, the partner may be seen as choosing not to take action to
secure a childs safety, and is assessed as failing to protect the child. This, however, is
a simplistic view of the complexities of the abusive situation - they may be protecting the
child by not being seen to actively be engaging with services, due to threats of extreme
violence. Identifying and strengthening the protective measures already being
implemented is an intervention option which can lead to the non-abusive partner feeling
empowered and more confident, enabling them to take further protective actions in the
future.

15
Easteal (1993) cited in Laing (2003:2).
16
Strang (1996) cited in Annual Report - Deaths of children and young people 2004-05, CCYPCG: 117.
17
Child death circumstances in Annual Report - Deaths of children and young people 2004-05, Commission for Children and
Young People and Child Guardian, Queensland.

Page 18 of 71
Child safety officers must fully assess the reasons if the partner is not leaving the home /
taking other action rather than making assumptions that they are not acting protectively. To
make this assessment, care needs to be taken to allow family members to disclose family
issues and safety threats in a safe environment and away from the perpetrators presence /
knowledge. This in itself can be difficult as the partners relationship with child safety officers
often mirrors the same disempowerment, control and fear they have already experienced in
their relationship with the perpetrator. Some of the challenging dilemmas for statutory child
protection workers have been identified as:

how to intervene to protect children without reinforcing the womans sense of guilt,
self-blame and failure as a mother; how workers can avoid placing even more
responsibility for protecting children onto women who are often powerless to act
because of their own victimisation; and how workers can invite perpetrators to take
responsibility for their violence and to be accountable for the impact of their actions
on mothers and children. 18

Contact with the family and unplanned interventions and responses may place the family at
greater risk if possible, ask the partner for the safest time to call. During contact and
interviews with the perpetrator, child safety officers should not disclose information provided
by the partner or children as this may place them at increased risk of further violence.
Instead, police reports and other assessments may be used, together with an interview
process that encourages the perpetrator to discuss their behaviour.

The honeymoon phase is often indicative of a situation where the relationship becomes very
enmeshed and intimate with a denial of the previous abuse. During this phase and the
pursuit phase, families may withdraw from Intervention with Parental Agreement case plans,
care agreements, other support and also seek the withdrawal of Protection Orders, showing
animosity towards people attempting to assist them. Families at this point have a decreased
ability to address the violence and, as the perpetrators power over them and their sense of
safety in the relationship increases, the momentum builds again.

At certain times, phases of the cycle such as the honeymoon phase and the build-up phase
may be eliminated from the cycle altogether so that violence builds more quickly with
explosions occurring more frequently. This sequence of events indicates extreme danger for
the family. Research has also shown that, over time, the cycles tend to become more
frequent and the violence more intense, unless early and effective intervention is provided.

Alternatively, due to the significant element of fear involved, the perpetrator may not need to
explode as often as they use the fear that has been created to be in control. Child safety
officers are to take these issues into account when applying professional judgment,
implementing the SDM screening and assessment tools, and when accessing supervision as
a means to discuss the complexities of assessing these risks.

The cycle of violence and its possible escalation may be found in any relationship:
dating relationships
same-sex relationships

18
Burke, C. (1999:257), cited in Breckenridge, J. and Laing, L. (1999) Challenging silence: innovative responses to sexual
and domestic violence.

Page 19 of 71
 family violence between adult children who care for their parents or other family
members
elder abuse
informal care relationships such as carer-type relationships.

Elder abuse is defined as violence and/or abuse committed against older people by
members of their own family, other people they trust in intimate relationships, and informal
carers. Children can be exposed to elder abuse by visiting, or living in, the same household
as the elderly victim.

Escalation of violence
Without intervention and support, domestic and family violence can escalate. By ignoring or
failing to identify the characteristics of violence within a family, and not holding the
perpetrator accountable, it may appear that the behaviour is condoned.

This may result in the violence increasing in frequency, intensity and severity.

Asking initial questions to help identify any indicators of domestic and family violence, and
being aware of any signs of escalation is important to help address ongoing safety. In
looking for signs of escalation, research identifies risk factors that may indicate the
probability of serious injury or death occurring. These are:
actual or impending separation
obsessive behaviour by the perpetrator, for example, stalking
signs of depression in the perpetrator
the use of sexual violence
a heightened sense of fear experienced by the victim
the perpetrator making threats to kill
the perpetrator making threats to self-harm, or is self-harming
the perpetrator having access to firearms.

The extent of domestic and family violence

Domestic and family violence is a social, economic and political issue that has significant
consequences for individuals, families and the community as a whole. Estimates in relation
to the extent of this violence vary, with accurate statistics being difficult to obtain due to the
hidden nature of the violence, and research findings that women with a current intimate
partner are less likely to report experiences of violence from that partner than about previous
partners. Over the past six years in Queensland, however, an average of 24 deaths per
year, or 47% of all homicides, have resulted from domestic and family violence (Coroners
Report 2012).

Domestic and family violence in the Australian community

An extensive survey was conducted in Australia in 2002 2003 (IVAWS) on 6677 women
aged between 18 and 69 years. The information provided by them about experiences of

Page 20 of 71
physical and sexual violence indicated:
48% of women reported experiencing some form of physical violence by an intimate
partner over their lifetime
the majority of these women experienced more than one type of violence. The co-
existence of different forms of violence highlights that violence is often not an isolated
incident - with more than one type of violence experienced either in the same
incident or as part of a pattern of repeat victimisation
25 per cent of women experienced both physical and sexual violence, either in the
same incident, or on separate occasions. 19

Research suggests that a minority of all victims of domestic and family violence pursue
protection through the legal system, either as a civil or criminal matter. However, in
Queensland in 2011-12 there were 8425 Temporary Protection Orders and 17,084
Protection Orders made. 20

Challenges for rural and remote communities

The challenges for people living in rural and remote communities are very real when it
comes to disclosing domestic and family violence. Research indicates rural and remote
areas, particularly Indigenous communities, experience greater levels of violence generally,
and domestic violence specifically, than other areas. 21 As is the case in urban areas, women
experience domestic violence at higher rates than men, but for those in rural and remote
areas further challenges are experienced. These challenges include:
the lack of availability of independent communication away from the perpetrator due
to not having mobile telephone reception or internet access
the common presence of firearms
in a close, small, conservative community the family may be regarded as upstanding
citizens who play a key role in the functioning of the community. They may hold
positions of power or of social importance which makes disclosure more difficult.
fear of not being believed or of being ridiculed which acts as a hindrance to
disclosure. Many feel ashamed and humiliated while others are fearful of
embarrassing their families who also live in the area.
a reluctance to contact and use local services due to a traditional ethic of self-
sufficiency in these communities. It is possible that the local doctor or police officer is
within the same social network, making disclosure extremely difficult.
social isolation when living on farms and properties away from personal contact with
others. Women who have moved with their partners to rural areas may be more
isolated, having left behind connections to family, friends and other supports.

19
Mouzos, J. and Makkai, T. (2004) Womens experiences of male violence: findings from the Australian component of the
International Violence Against Women Survey (IVAWS).
20
Department of Communities, Child Safety and Disability Services, 2012.
21
Research by Mouzos 2001; Mukherjee et al. 1998; Hogg & Carrington 1996; Harding et al. 1995; cited in Mouzos, J. and
Makkai, T. (2004).

Page 21 of 71
If a disclosure is made, further challenges exist in responding to safety concerns. These can
include:
limited access to independent transport and lack of mobile telephone reception,
significantly limiting their ability to escape. This can lead to families feeling trapped
and isolated.
familiarity with a family in the community may heighten the reluctance of people in
authority, such as a doctor or police officer, to respond appropriately to secure safety.
slower police response times due to the geographical area police need to service.
This may impact on their capacity to arrest and charge a perpetrator who resides in
another town. If a partner has tried this avenue with no success, they risk putting
themselves in a more dangerous position and may have no other options available. 22
difficulty in accessing and enforcing legal protections, such as legal aid, legal
representatives, and a timely police response to a breach of a domestic violence
order.

People from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds have further difficulties in rural
areas due to factors including language barriers, lack of familiarity with their surroundings,
and the limited opportunities to engage with face to face and telephone interpreters to assist
them in accessing supports.

Practice tip

It is imperative that child safety officers are aware of these challenges prior to initiating
contact with a family living in a rural or remote area. Preparation and planning are
important to provide a thorough understanding of the processes, options and difficulties
that may be faced. When safe to do so, the provision of verbal and/or written information
must be a significant part of the initial visit, including safety planning options, contact
numbers for domestic and family violence support services, and information about legal
options. Prior to undertaking this, child safety officers need to assess the safety
implications of leaving written information with the family, or emailing information which
may later be found by the perpetrator.

DVConnect is a Brisbane based telephone service which has the capacity to assist in
moving rural families escaping violence to a place of safety if requested by the family.
Child safety officers can also make contact with this service prior to contact with the
family to gain further information about options that may exist however the service must
speak to the family directly prior to any arrangements being made (refer to Appendix 4
for a list of services). A family may need to travel to another region if needing refuge
accommodation, as refuge locations in smaller towns are often known to others. This
relocation may mean further isolation from their support network of family and friends.

22
Please note - The issue of tried but failed, in particular with the Police is a broader experience for those impacted by
abusive behaviour in their relationships and is not just restricted to those in rural areas. See the CMC Policing Domestic
Violence in Queensland (2005) report for victim survey results (p 69).

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Challenges for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities have a disproportionately higher rate of
assault against women than the non-Indigenous population. In one study, the rate of family
violence victimisation for Indigenous women was almost 40 times the rate for non-
Indigenous women. 23

Another study found that Indigenous women were more likely to be killed by their partner,
with just under half of all Indigenous homicides collated occurring as a result of domestic
altercations. 24

Domestic and family violence within these communities is complex and needs to be
understood in terms of historical, cultural and social contexts. Colonisation, with its related
power and control imbalances can be regarded as mirroring the dynamics and impacts of
family violence. Other factors to take into account include:
the loss of land and traditional culture
the disempowerment of traditional elders and at times the re-attribution of power
from a non-Indigenous perspective
the breakdown of community kinship systems
the breakdown of Aboriginal law
entrenched poverty, and resultant poor health, education and housing
racism. 25

These factors greatly contribute to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander families being very
suspicious of Child Safety, police and court systems. There is a fear that children will be
removed from a violent home and not returned, as previously experienced by the Stolen
Generation, and that responses by the police and the legal system may continue to break
down their cultural systems. A question to consider is How many years would it take you to
trust someone who stole your child? 26

The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Womens Task Force on Violence Report (1999)
further reported that the trauma of experiencing family violence is compounded for many
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children who also experience other multiple traumatic
situations such as community violence, deaths of loved ones, displacement from home and
extreme poverty.

The inter-generational trauma that has resulted has led to confusion about roles and cultural
identity; internal conflict; and feelings of alienation and anomie. Research has linked the
associated suppression or denial of these consequent feelings of distress and despair to
their expression through destructive behaviours such as family violence, alcohol and drug
abuse, and suicide. 27

23
Harding et al. (1995) cited in Mouzos and Makkai (2004).
24
Mouzos, J. (2001) Indigenous and non-Indigenous homicides in Australia: a comparative analysis.
25
Memmott et al, 2001 cited in Mulroney J., (2003:11) Australian statistics on domestic violence.
26
Sullivan, B. (2005) quoted at Abusive men as parents - presentation to Domestic and family violence reference group
meeting.
27
Atkinson (1994) in Stanley, J., Tomison, A. and Pocock, J. (2003: 7) Child abuse and neglect in Indigenous Australian
communities.

Page 23 of 71
Practice tip

Research provides evidence of disproportionately high rates of assault occurring within

many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities compared to non-Indigenous
populations. This predominance may result in an increased tolerance of violence by both
community members themselves and others visiting communities to provide services
and support. Child safety officers should maintain an awareness of this possibility and
ensure that they do not become complacent when assessing the significance of family
violence, its associated harms to children and the safety of family members.

Many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are reluctant to report incidents of
family violence. This under-reporting may be due to:
loyalty to family and community
attempts to prevent the incarceration of family members (associated with increased
rates of deaths in custody)
avoiding shame from both within and outside the family
fear of possible payback or retribution. Reasons are varied but can include
intimidation by offenders, and if action is taken without the support of community
elders (PADV 2000).

Unintended consequences of some human service and violence prevention policies may
also result in families not seeking protection when needed, as requesting help can lead
to a referral to Child Safety or police. Where a family or community has experienced
trauma associated with the Stolen Generation, the ongoing distrust of authority figures
may create tension and a conflict of interest between the desire to protect their children
and the need to take action against the person responsible for the violence (Stanley,
Tomison and Pocock:2003). These and other underlying factors should be taken into
account as cultural considerations by child safety officers when assessing failure to
protect issues associated with family violence.

Where family violence is being experienced in families, it is important to identify

culturally appropriate safety planning options for family members. Contact details for
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander family violence prevention services and other
domestic and family violence services are referred to in Appendix 4.

Cultural protocols

Child safety officers should also be aware of protocols that may exist when establishing
contact and undertaking interviews in relation to family violence with Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander peoples. For example, in some circumstances, the violence may
be considered mens business. Some men may consider it disrespectful to discuss the
issue with a female child safety officer. Reasons are varied but can include:
the age of the person
a lack of established trust
those objecting to discussions being perpetrators or supporting the perpetrator
the nature of the violence (Lodder:2003).

Page 24 of 71
 Similarly, issues such as pregnancy, birth and child rearing may be considered womens
business and some women may not engage with a male. This discomfort may be
misinterpreted by child safety officers as an unwillingness to participate in interviews.

For further information, refer to the Practice paper - Working with Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander People.

Challenges for culturally and linguistically diverse communities

Data in relation to the incidence of domestic and family violence in culturally and linguistically
diverse (CALD) communities is problematic and has not been regarded as a true indicator of
its prevalence. One study indicated that 7.5% of women from these communities had
experienced violence by their partner during the course of their relationship but this is
considered a conservative estimate. 28 A similar finding was made in the IVAWS survey.

These statistics are viewed as conservative estimates, due to the many barriers that prevent
these families from reporting violence and accessing services or support. Barriers may
include:
language and cultural differences which make communication difficult
racial judgements and discrimination, particularly made against Asian women
married to Australian men
pre- and post-migration experiences which may include torture and trauma, cultural
shock, grief and loss for family and previously known network systems
differences in gender roles, cultural values and traditions impacting on freedom,
rights and opportunities
the role of the mother in many cultures in maintaining the familys unity and keeping
the familys honour, therefore counteracting disclosure
fear for the possible fragmentation of the family unit
isolation due to separation from extended family and other support networks
a lack of knowledge and understanding of Queensland systems and services
fear of government departments, correlating them to past experiences of police,
military or paramilitary actions as is particularly relevant to people who are refugees
hesitation in seeking help from their own community due to cultural taboos, social
stigmas, shame, fear, and privacy issues
threats to withdraw permanent residency applications with Department of Immigration
and Multicultural Affairs where applicable, should the partner try to leave the
relationship
a lack of access to services which can respond to their needs. 29

For women from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, the broader concept of
domestic and family violence may not be readily understood. Research has identified that
physical abuse is recognised as domestic violence by most cultural groups, together with

28
Australian Bureau of Statistics, (1996: 56) Womens Safety Australia.
29
Compiled from National Council of Single Mothers and their Children website, www.ncsmc.org.au; Kyriacou, undated, and
IWSS Diversity Training Project (2002: 56).

Page 25 of 71
some elements of psychological and emotional abuse. Sexual abuse was not automatically
considered or identified as a form of violence. 30

Practice tip

Children from culturally and linguistically diverse communities require and are entitled to
the same protections from harm as any other child. It is unacceptable to not intervene in
families from different cultural backgrounds by presuming that the violence or harm is a
culturally sanctioned belief or practice. Harmful cultural practices are no excuse for
violence. The key is to have an understanding of the types of cultural practices that may
take place, the likely harm that may occur and to discuss the concerns in a sensitive and
non-judgmental way with the parent and family.

Consideration should be given to engaging professional interpreters to ensure effective

communication is achieved, even when the person may have some understanding of
English as a second language. Culturally appropriate protocols and procedures need to
be taken into account also. Contact with support services for those from culturally and
linguistically diverse backgrounds can assist in gaining this understanding, such as the
Immigrant Womens Support Service. It is important that confidentiality be maintained
during this contact as a family may fear that their situation will become known to their
own specific cultural community.

The Immigrant Womens Support Service (www.iwss.org.au) is an important resource

for women from CALD backgrounds experiencing male violence. The IWSS is a
community based crisis and support service which works with women and children of
non-English speaking background who are, or have been, in violent domestic situations
or who have been raped or sexually assaulted. The service employs bilingual social
workers who provide culturally appropriate support, information and counselling.

For further information refer to the Practice paper - Working with people from culturally and
linguistically diverse backgrounds.

Childrens exposure to domestic and family violence

Extensive research confirms that children are often exposed to violence within their homes.
Studies also indicate significant prenatal risks, with evidence indicating that domestic and
family violence may initially commence during pregnancy and further, that there is a reported
higher prevalence of violence during pregnancy. 31 This is during a time when a pregnant
woman is likely to be in a position of increased emotional and financial dependence on their
partner. For pregnant adolescents, rates of reported violence are higher again, signifying
increased vulnerability for themselves and their unborn child.

Research conducted in Queensland in 1988 found that dependent children were members of
households of 88% of the 856 callers to a Queensland domestic violence phone survey. In

30
Partnerships Against Domestic Violence (2000: 36) Attitudes to domestic and family violence in the diverse Australian
community Cultural perspectives.
31
Taft, A. (2002: 4) Violence against women in pregnancy and after childbirth.

Page 26 of 71
80% of these cases, there were two or more dependent children; and in 90% of these cases,
the women reported that children had witnessed the violence. 32

In 1996 a large survey of female victims conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics
(Womens Safety Australia) found that 38.3% of women experiencing violence from a current
partner said that children had witnessed the violence. A more recent study found that 48.5%
of women who experienced violence by a previous partner said that children in their care
had witnessed the violence. 33

Significantly, a majority of research studies indicate that in 30% to 60% of families where
domestic and family violence is a factor, harm through other forms of child abuse has also
occurred. 34 Respondents to the 1988 Queensland survey reported that children experiencing
domestic and family violence were also victims of physical abuse in 68% of cases, emotional
abuse in 70% of cases and sexual abuse in 8% of cases. In the same study it was found that
64% of perpetrators witnessed domestic violence as children.

The combination of being both a victim of child abuse and being exposed to violence is also
associated with more severe impacts, and has been termed a double whammy for
children. 35

The complexity of this combination is indicated in a 2002 Victorian study which examined the
characteristics of parents of children in substantiated cases of abuse or neglect. It found that
73% of these parents had at least one issue or problem in addition to the child protection
concern. Of these, 52% experienced domestic violence, 33% substance abuse, 31% alcohol
abuse, 19% had a psychiatric disability, 4% a physical disability and 3% an intellectual
disability. Two or more of these problems were experienced by 44% of the parents. 36

Research and survey responses suggest that statistics about childrens exposure to
domestic and family violence may be higher than reported as parents often deny to
themselves and others (especially child protection workers) that the abuse occurred in the
presence of, or proximity to, the children. Studies indicate that children and young people
have a higher level of awareness of the violence that occurs than reported by their mothers.
It is also important to understand that children do not have to directly witness or be involved
in the violence occurring to be affected by it. The Domestic and Family Violence Protection
Act 2012 provides examples of how a child may be exposed to violence in the household
when they were not present during the actual incident (section 10).

Indicators of domestic violence

Recognising signs or indicators of domestic and family violence is similar to identifying child
protection concerns in families with direct questions often not eliciting the information
needed to inform an assessment. Subtle signs can be difficult to recognise, as injuries may
be out of sight, or the person may have become very adept at hiding the physical effects - for
example, avoiding people so injuries are not seen and having excuses why they were unable

32
Qld Domestic Violence Task Force (1988:45)
33
Mulroney, J. (2003: 7) Australian statistics on domestic violence.
34
Edleson, J.L. (1999: 2) The overlap between child maltreatment and woman abuse.
35
Research cited in Laing, L. (2000: 5) Children, young people and domestic violence.
36
Victorian Department of Human Services (2002) An integrated strategy for child protection and placement services.

Page 27 of 71
to keep appointments. Also, there may be significant emotional impacts rather than physical
ones that are difficult to link to violence if it is hidden.

General indicators
Child safety officers should be aware of the following indicators in adults, remaining aware
that they may not be obvious at first contact:
repeated injuries
inconsistent explanations for injuries
vague complaints or acute anxiety with no reported injuries
social isolation and deprivation of money
concentrated focus on what actions their partner will want them to take
frequent reference to their partners anger or temper
terror or reluctance to speak to those in authority
inability to attend appointments without the partner being present
their partner responding to all questions and requests for information
frequent fleeing from home or not wanting to return
depression, suicidal gestures or attempts
history of excessive alcohol or drug use
their partner making jealous accusations of infidelity.

Careful observation and separate interviews of the partner and children within a safe
empathic environment may help elicit information about abusive behaviour by a family
member, however full disclosure by the partner is rare, unless there is a trusting relationship
already established. The authority role of the child safety officer and the parents fear that a
child can be removed is generally not conducive to a parent disclosing the full extent of any
violence within the home.

International research suggests that child protection workers often fail to identify or address
domestic and family violence. When this failure occurs by child safety officers, the victim can
view this as the violence being minimized or condoned. The violence can fall off the agenda
for child safety officers in various ways, including:
by supporting the perpetrator as the more functional family member
by identifying the non-violent parent as the person responsible for harm as they
failed to protect the child
by not involving the perpetrator in assessment processes (the invisible man) 37
by shifting the focus of assessment from violence to mental health, alcohol abuse or
other issues
by not recording incidents of domestic and family violence in case notes and
assessment reports. 38

37
The invisible man is a term used to describe how the impact of the perpetrators actions can be seen, but the perpetrator
is never seen by child protection workers, counsellors and others, in Burke, C. (1999: 260).
38
Humphreys, C. (2000:11) Social work, domestic violence and child protection challenging practice.

Page 28 of 71
 Practice tip

Child safety officers knowledge of the dynamics of domestic violence, their

observations, and their skills in engaging and building rapport with family members are
significant in achieving a thorough assessment. Discussing observations, facts and
opinions with specialised service providers will also be of value in assessing family
dynamics and the prevalence of violence. As an example, a person from a culturally and
linguistically diverse background may already have an established trusting relationship
with a multicultural organisation or settlement worker. The support offered by these
services needs to be ascertained and, with consent, can be built on so positive
relationships are maintained.

Indicators in children
There are numerous signs in children that may indicate they have been exposed to domestic
and family violence. These indicators may be overtly apparent, as in cringing at loud voices
or quick movements, or more internalised, such as when a child is unable to express
themselves emotionally or has a poor self image.

An assessment of the child; their relationships with others - both in the home and at school
or elsewhere; their coping mechanisms; and their behaviours in context will assist in
identifying whether they have experienced or been exposed to violence within the home. If
indicators are present, further information is required to complete an evidence-based holistic
assessment.

Please refer to Appendix 1 - Common behavioural and emotional indicators of children who
experience domestic and family violence for a concise list of indicators that may be present.

Practice tip

Child safety officers need to be aware of indicators of domestic and family violence
throughout the child protection continuum, from intake through to case closure. Direct
enquiry can be used with the family together with ongoing communication with police,
schools and other agencies that are in contact with the family. A perpetrators ability to use
control, dominance and coercion may continue during contact with the family or during
case planning processes such as Family Group meetings, whether or not the perpetrator is
present at the time. Given domestic and family violence can escalate at times of high
stress, as may occur during an investigation and assessment of child protection concerns,
identifying and addressing indicators of violence is necessary to respond to the childs
protection needs.

Page 29 of 71
Impacts, effects and harms of domestic and family
violence on infants, children and adolescents
Significant behavioural, cognitive, social and emotional impacts can result in harm to
children exposed to domestic and family violence. Short term effects can begin from the
initial onset of the violence and last until after the final episode, however if the violence is
more entrenched, the impacts and harm may be more significant and long term. Behind the
effects of the violence are entrenched messages about the use of power and control in
relationships, and inappropriate ways to resolve conflict.

A degree of overlap exists between short and long term effects dependent on a number of
factors, including: the age and vulnerability of the child; the length of time the violence has
been continuing; the severity of the violence; and the degree to which the child has access
to some level of support. If support has been available the effects of the trauma may be
lessened due to the childs resilience being built on.

Effects of domestic and family violence can be exhibited by both internalised and
externalised behaviours at different developmental stages. For a concise list refer to:
Appendix 2 General effects on children who live with domestic and family violence
Appendix 3 - The effects and resulting harms for children experiencing domestic and
family violence at different developmental stages.

When identifying effects as listed, it is acknowledged that none are exclusively indicative of
domestic and family violence, as they may also indicate a range of other traumas in a childs
life. As an example, children from refugee backgrounds and survivors of torture in particular
may experience similar signs. Child safety officers need to ascertain whether domestic and
family violence has been experienced as well as torture or trauma from their past family
circumstances. 39

Coupling impacts of domestic and family violence with other child protection harms (the
double whammy) means child safety officers must acquire knowledge of these impacts on
children at each stage of development, beginning prior to birth onwards.

Unborn children and infants

Recent research has focused on the effects and harm that domestic and family violence may
have on an unborn child with one research sample indicating 17 percent of women who
experience domestic violence do so for the first time while pregnant (Morgan & Chadwick
2009).

In addition, the effects of this violence on womens pre-natal health and well-being are
pervasive, and can impact significantly on their physical, emotional and mental health,
leading to poor obstetric and reproductive outcomes. The effects can result in babies:
being miscarried, either as a direct result of violence or due to stresses within the
home
having low birth weight

39
Further information about this issue can be accessed from Queensland Program of Assistance to Survivors of Torture and
Trauma (Asscn) Inc. (QPASTT) www.qpastt.org.au/home.

Page 30 of 71
 being stillborn.

Evidence has also linked a higher proportion of abortions by mothers who experience
domestic and family violence.

A study conducted at the Royal Womens Hospital, Brisbane found that women experiencing
abuse within their relationships were likely to have more hospital admissions during
pregnancy, and be prescribed more medication, with newborns to the mothers of the group
also having a higher incidence of asthma and epilepsy. Use of tobacco, alcohol, minor
tranquilisers and non-prescription drugs was also more likely, possibly jeopardising the
health of the baby in-utero. 40 These are factors that need to be considered when child safety
officers receive concerns in relation to an unborn baby.

Infants can exhibit signs of stress and trauma if domestic and family violence is occurring
within the home through:
poor general health and development, including failure to thrive and slow growth
poor sleeping habits
irritability, excessive screaming, separation anxiety
reactivity to their environment, including a chronic startle reflex
refusal or withdrawal from feeding
difficulty in forming attachment to adults through effects of emotional deprivation.

They may often be directly involved in the violence with harm resulting from:
being held as a shield or for their protection by their parent
being hit by thrown objects
being intentionally hurt or threatened to cause fear
picking up emotional signals given out by their carer distress, depression, fear,
and/or anger which can impact on bonding and attachment. 41

My little one was put behind the tyre in a capsule so I couldnt leave, when she was
a baby.

It got to the stage where we were fighting and this is the time where (he) grabbed
the chair and smashed it right next to the baby and he did that on purpose to scare
me and it did hit the baby. 42

There is also evidence that an infants exposure to this traumatic stress can result in
maladaptive changes to their developing brain, affecting their emotional development, the
organisation of behaviour and their personality. Neurodevelopmental studies indicate this
occurs through an over activation of stress hormones which prepare the body for flight or
fight, leading to the brain mislearning responses to stressful situations. 43

40
Webster (1996) in Queensland Health report, (2001: 1).ATO
41
Department of Community Services Forum (2002: 3).
42
Taft, A. (2002: 8) Violence against women in pregnancy and after childbirth: Current knowledge and issues in health care
responses.
43
Smith, J. (2006) Domestic violence: the impact on children. Research forum, Dept Child Safety, August 2006.

Page 31 of 71
In infancy, these changes can be observed by irritability, sleep disturbances, and an
increase in minor illnesses, but further impacts later in life may occur such as extreme
anxiety, depression, and / or the inability to form healthy attachments to others. 44 Research
continues to examine infant incidence of post-traumatic stress disorder when domestic and
family violence has been identified. 45

Practice tip

Child safety officers must recognise this infant age group as particularly vulnerable to
significant harm and consider this vulnerability when using their professional judgment and
applying the SDM assessment tools during all phases of the child protection continuum.

For further information refer to the Practice paper Child protection intervention with high
risk infants.

Young children
Research has indicated that the initial reactions to violence experienced by young children
are often depressive, internalised and dissociative in nature with children exhibiting
depression, anxiety, fear, loneliness and lowered self-worth. These reactions are difficult to
identify unless indicators are identified, assessed and addressed. 46

In a Brisbane study of 3 to 6 year old children, it was found that children responded to
domestic and family violence within the home by:
fright 39% - My child cried, screamed, sobbed and was hysterical. He would cry
and come to me for comfort
fight - 30% - My child would scream Dont hit mummy, punch his legs and was
very distressed and angry
flight 13% - He would go to his room and be quiet otherwise the violence would
turn on him. This is what I did as a child.
other responses, including distracting and ignoring 18% - He would get rowdy and
run around, like he was trying to draw attention away and onto himself. 47

These responses and consequent impacts may not be obvious on initial contact, and, to
observers outside the family, it can seem that there is nothing wrong unless a thorough risk
assessment, including querying violence in the home, is completed:

It got so bad I had to go to special classesI found it hard to concentrateThey

always thought I was slow. 48

44
Perry (1997) in Roberts et al, (2006: 132).
45
Bogat et al (2005) Trauma symptoms among infants exposed to intimate partner violence.
46
Research cited in Bedi, G. and Goddard, C. (2006: 8) Intimate partner violence: What are the impacts on children?
47
Smith, J. (1994) from presentation Domestic violence: the impact on children. Research forum, Dept Child Safety,
August 2006.
48
Child quoted in Humphreys, C. and Mullender, A. (2000: 14) Children and domestic violence: a research overview of the
impact on children.

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Adolescents
A study of young Australians between the ages of 12 to 20 concluded that experiencing
parental domestic violence emerged as the strongest predictor of perpetration of violence in
a young persons own intimate relationship. 49 Also, young people who witnessed couple
violence (both male and female partners perpetrating and being victimised by domestic
violence) were more likely to be victims of relationship violence.

The longer the violence goes on, the harder it is to lessen the damaging effects on a childs
ongoing development; with the result being:
a loss of their sense of safety as the violence is in the home, the place that is meant
to have the most security. This can lead to viewing the rest of the world as unsafe.
aggression used as the dominant model of problem solving and conflict resolution in
relationships due to learnt patterns of behaviour which have become normalised
an entrenchment of traditional, stereotyped gender roles more likely
a feeling of resentment towards their family at the loss of their childhood, particularly
toward the non-abusive parent for lack of protection rather than toward the abusive
parent who may be too scary to resent
children more likely to act out the violent behaviour they have witnessed as they grow
up
they are more likely to think that boys and men can and should be abusive towards
girls and women (boys especially)
accepting family violence as normal, therefore choosing to remain with a partner who
treats them in the same abusive way (girls especially)
they may develop a belief that fear is normal in a relationship or in a family
they may feel ambivalence towards forming their own intimate relationships. 50

There are children who are ultimately impacted by the violence within their family and
become victims of filicide or murder / suicide. Often, this occurs post-separation or at the
time of making permanent court orders about contact, custody and guardianship. The
vulnerability of younger children being victims, especially the 0 5 age group, is also
reflected in statistics.

The significance of this timing for families cannot be overlooked by child safety officers
during case planning and decision making about the protection needs of children.

Roles adopted by children in a violent family

Children and adolescents may adopt adaptive roles in their family due to the violence
experienced. These can be:
the hero, by being the overachiever of the family, and the people-pleaser. This child
often is the eldest in the family and holds in trust the respectability of the family.

49
Indermaur, D. (2001: 5) Young Australians and domestic violence.

50
Adapted from Seen but not heard children who live with domestic or family violence (2003).

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 the scapegoat, by taking on the responsibility for the familys problems. This child
frequently gets into trouble and may be the one to trigger an event which a parent
then uses to blame for the violence.
the clown, by being responsible for the tension relief in the family. This child says and
does things to make the family laugh, an asset in a stressful environment, and draws
attention away from any violence.
the parent, especially older children, by assuming the parental role, particularly if the
violence leaves the non-abusive parent unable to function at a physical or emotional
level for some time
the protector, by actively protecting the victim which can leave them subject to
physical abuse at the same time.

Some children align themselves with the perpetrator as it can be safer to be on side with the
more powerful of the adults. In some cases this may lead to older sons mimicking the
violence against their mothers that they learned as a child. 51

In describing these roles, it is also important to note that some can also be seen in children
from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. These children may take up these
roles as they are the interpreters for their non-English speaking parents and therefore need
to take on other responsibilities, including when referred to services that are not culturally
appropriate.

Contact and placement issues

Child safety officers need to consider the impacts of domestic and family violence when
assessing contact and placement issues between a child and parent:
In fact, women and children may be in greater danger after separation than
before. This means that separation from an abusive partner does not always solve
the problem of violence in the family. Instead, the nature and the focus of the
violence may change and contact visits may well provide the opportunity for the
perpetration and perpetuation of abuse. 52

Significantly, at this time of greater danger, there are times when the victim may be expected
to negotiate arrangements for contact and residence, either due to extended family
pressures, mediation within court actions or child protection case planning decisions. 53

Contact can be used by the perpetrator to continue to engage in violence and abuse of both
the non-abusive partner and the children through:
the use of contact to harass, denigrate and verbally abuse family members
returning the children in a dirty condition or with inadequate clothing
making comments and / or threats to the partner via coercion of the children to
deliver the messages
failing to comply with medical and dietary requirements for the children

51
Taken from Seen but not heard (2003).
52
Rendell K., Rathus, Z. and Lynch, A. (2000: 29) An unacceptable risk a report on child contact arrangements where there
is violence in the family.
53
Research cited in Laing, L. (2003: 4) Domestic violence and family law.

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 failing to meet set guidelines for contact, such as arrangements for visit times, and
telephone calls
continuing other abuse of the children, with the non-abusive partner unable to protect
them.

Placement decisions may also perpetuate violence. Placing a child with the perpetrators
extended family can exacerbate the violence, increase the childs ongoing exposure to family
conflict, and can expose the child to trans-generational domestic and family violence.

Given that a childs exposure to domestic and family violence is recognised and legislated
against in the Domestic and Family Violence Protection Act 2012, contact and placement
arrangements that endanger a child and / or non-abusive parent need to be identified.

On the fourth week he rang and he really upset C., slagging me off, calling me all
sorts of names. C started crying and I told her to put the phone down. She said he is
still a nasty, horrible person and I will never speak to him again M. (daughter) was
the witness when he tried to kill me, and she has never forgotten that, as young as
she is it has stuck in her mind. 54

Careful attention needs to given to developing safe contact arrangements. Where it has
been assessed that a child may be placed at further risk of harm, a rationale to support a no-
contact decision needs to well documented in case files. As stated in An Unacceptable
Risk

It is reasonable to assume that if a child is forced to go on abusive contact visits by

the mother, because she is legally compelled to send him / her, this must have
negative consequences for the childs trust of, confidence in, and relationship with the
mother. 55

This comment can equally be true if mother is replaced by child safety officer.

Family Court orders can impact on this issue also. Amendments to legislation that
incorporate shared parenting and the belief that contact with both parents after separation
should be facilitated, may be inappropriately recommended or ordered where there is a
history of domestic and family violence. 56 Accessing legal advice is necessary in these
circumstances. Child safety officers should also seek advice from Court Services prior to
making recommendations or arrangements that may contravene a court order already in
place.

Perpetrators of domestic and family violence

Researchers studying perpetrators of domestic and family violence have highlighted the
diversity of men who commit violence against women. Contrary to some general beliefs,
perpetrators are found in all social classes and engage in a variety of lifestyles, social roles
and cultural practices. Perpetrators may appear to those outside the family as presentable

54
Quote in Humphreys, C. and Mullender, A. (2000: 18) Children and domestic violence: a research overview of the impact
on children.
55
Rendell et al, (2000: 42).
56
Laing (2003: 8) Domestic violence and family law.

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and responsible people, exhibiting strength, dependability and self-control. At the same time,
within the family home, they may control family members through superior physical strength,
threats and fear. 57

Figure 2: Ecological model of factors associated with partner abuse (Heise, Ellsberg, and
Gottemoeller, 1999: 8)

Characteristics of perpetrators
The ecological model in Heise et al (1999) above outlines factors associated with violence at
the society, community, relationship and individual levels. Others have examined dimensions
of violence, such as the severity and frequency of violence, the domain or where it occurs,
and the abusers psychopathology. This was then correlated to three perpetrator types
identified as:
the family-only group, who engage in the least severe violence, the least violence
outside the family, and the least criminal behaviour (lower risk)
the dysphoric 58 group, whose violence is moderate to severe, who may be violent
outside the family, psychologically distressed, may show signs of borderline
personality characteristics, and may have substance abuse problems (moderate risk)
the generally violent - antisocial group, who are moderately to severely abusive
against partners, have the most extra-familial violence and most criminal behaviour,
and are more likely to have an antisocial personality and substance abuse problems
(high risk). 59

This typology can provide some guidance in identifying the most appropriate intervention,
programs or support services as well as implementing safer case planning decisions.

57
Mugford, J. (1989: 11) Domestic violence.
58
Dysphoric - a state of feeling acutely hopeless, uncomfortable, and unhappy (Encarta English Dictionary)
59
Holtzworth-Munroe et al in Roberts, G. et al (2006: 149) Intimate partner abuse and health professionals.

Page 36 of 71
There are many societal myths associated with perpetrators. For example, perpetrators are
described as mentally ill, they cannot control their anger, or are abusive only when drunk.
These are not helpful in understanding the perpetrators violence. Evident in research is that:
abusive behaviour is a choice, although typically it is not seen as such in the mind of
the perpetrator
abusive behaviour can be chronic, although rarely disclosed as such
unlike in random violence, victims have ongoing relationships with the perpetrator.
When an unknown assailant is arrested, victims are able to prosecute with less
emotional interaction - this is very different in family violence where the victim may
still love and feel loyalty toward the perpetrator and for the perpetrators family..
perpetrators are likely to have continuing access to victims, knowing where they
work, where extended family live and having access to the family when having
contact with children. There are multiple opportunities for intimidation, threats and
psychological pressure, whether or not the parties are separated. Separation, in fact,
represents a time of increased risk for abuse to occur.
there are a high proportion of perpetrators who use alcohol and / or illicit drugs.
Although intoxication due to alcohol or drug use does not cause violence, abusive
men are prone to become more severely, and more frequently, violent while under
the influence.
perpetrators are often convinced they are victims. Although most offenders feel they
are victims, perpetrators of domestic and family violence are particularly insistent
about their victimisation. Historically they were protected by traditions of privacy, and
beliefs about keeping family matters within the family.
perpetrators may try to divide and conquer running a disinformation campaign
they may look for divisions between people and exploit them, and tell different
versions of the facts to different people. This manipulation can include using
agencies and departments to suit their own needs.
perpetrators may continue to deny the abusive behaviour and blame their partner,
taking a long time to admit responsibility for their behaviour
perpetrators may attempt to get those working with them to back off by being
constantly angry and challenging. They may present as justifiably angry, saying their
partners are crazy, and being accusatory towards others. Faced with constant
righteous anger, it may be easier for the child safety officer to shift the discussion
toward less volatile ground such as the partners parenting.
many perpetrators are persuasive and logical. People often expect perpetrators to be
inarticulate and overtly unreasonable. Instead, the perpetrator is often very
reasonable and persuasive, wanting people to understand them and take them at
face value. 60 Psychologically, perpetrators use this behaviour to shield themselves
from disclosure and shame and from accepting responsibility for their behaviour.

60
Mederos, F. (Undated: 1) Characteristics of men who batter women.

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In relation to child protection, perpetrators may further harm children physically, sexually,
emotionally, and through neglect. Harm may occur because:
they may focus their attention on controlling their partner rather than engaging as a
parent, or prevent their partner from caring for their children resulting in neglect of the
children
they may harm children emotionally by verbally abusing them, or damaging their
relationships by using them as a tool by coercing them into abusing the other parent
they harm children emotionally by creating an environment in which children
experience assaults against a parent and live with fear
they may undermine the ability of child safety officers and service providers to
intervene and protect children. 61

Practice tip

During contact with child safety officers, the perpetrator may appear rational and
controlled, with their partner reacting defensively and aggressively. This reversal of
behaviour is linked to the motivation of the perpetrator as outlined above, and an
attempt by the non-abusive partner to prevent intrusion which may place the family at
risk of further violence. Defensiveness and aggression by the usually non-abusive
partner in these circumstances can be a protective behaviour.

For child safety officers, engaging a perpetrator on a statutory, involuntary basis when
he is violent or aggressive is a significant professional and personal challenge, as
threats, intimidation and aggression may be used against them. Child safety officers
need to constantly consider their own safety as well as others, using information,
knowledge, and assessment skills to monitor safety risks. Where an assessment of
immediate significant risk by a perpetrator has been made and / or a threat has been
made to a family or child safety officer, contact the local police to advise them of the
present circumstances and the risks assessed.

It can be easier to directly engage with the non-violent partner and children. However by
not addressing the perpetrator or requesting their participation throughout the child
protection assessment process, the child safety officer reinforces that the partner alone
is responsible for the future safety of the children. Active engagement of the perpetrator
must be sought wherever safety issues allow, to assess whether engagement with any
services and programs is possible, and to address the impact the abusive behaviour is
having on the family (Callister, 2002:15). This engagement needs to occur without
making undue promises of family reunification which is often the motivator for
perpetrators and yet which may not be feasible or safe in the short term.

For further information refer to the Child Safety Practice Manual chapter 10.11 Staff
Safety and well-being.

61
Adapted from Jones A. and Schechter, S. (1992) at www.endabuse.org

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Assessment of the dominant aggressor
It is not unusual for police, child safety officers and other human service workers to
categorise domestic and family violence as a mutual violence with those involved being
capable of inflicting violence and abuse on each other. However, the use of physical force
and / or intimidation by the person most capable of violence, or with a history of using force
to intimidate, control and harm others has a much greater influence and more control over
the other person. Domestic and family violence cannot be seen as mutual when the parties
come from different power bases.

Victims who use force in response to a violent outburst will do so for different reasons to the
perpetrator, with self-defence, fear, or the protection of family members being their
motivation:
we do not assume that all violence is the same. The person who is physically and
sexually abused over a period of time and uses illegal violence as a way of stopping
the violence is not doing the same thing as the person who continually uses violence
to dominate and control a partner. 62

Care should be taken to undertake a comprehensive assessment of the dynamics of abuse

in a relationship impacted by violence. Identifying the dominant aggressor or predominant
aggressor is an assessment used to indicate the person who has used more substantial
force when two or more people have used physical force against one another. 63 This
assessment has been undertaken by police officers and by others in the field of domestic
and family violence. The concept of the dominant aggressor has been included in the
Domestic and Family Violence Protection Act 2012 recognising the need to identify the
person who is most in need of protection (section 4(d)).

When a person who is the dominant aggressor is confronted in relation to their abusive
behaviour, they may present as a victim, for example, of the other partys behaviour or of not
being in control due to their consumption of alcohol or other drugs. This may occur during a
police investigation, with the consequence being that domestic violence orders may be
applied for by both parties (cross-applications). If the dominant aggressor is successful in
convincing others, including the Courts, that they are a victim of domestic and family
violence, increased levels of risk to the family can result. This can occur as:
the person who uses ongoing abusive behaviour is confirmed, in their view, that they
are a victim. This may consequently intensify their abusive behaviour as they are not
held accountable.
the person who experiences abusive behaviour is named as a perpetrator by police
and court officials. Consequently, they do not receive the protection they seek and
require in safety plans, from police, and through the Court system.

It is critical that child safety officers assess who the dominant aggressor is, so the person
most responsible for the ongoing use of violence is identified and recorded when
undertaking investigations and assessments. A thorough assessment incorporating
information on the factors listed below will also assist in supporting the victim who will then

62
Pence and McDonnell, (1999) in Mulroney, J. and Chan, C. (2005: 10) Men as victims of domestic violence.
63
White, J.G.; White, H.B.; and Larrington, J. (2005) Testifying about self-defense and predominant aggressors.

Page 39 of 71
not be blamed for the violence that occurred and increase their ability to address the
protection needs of any children.

To make a determination as to whom the dominant aggressor is in a relationship, child

safety officers need to consider the wider context of the history and relationship between the
parties. The following are some questions to consider:
Who is the person most likely to inflict injury in the relationship, not only within any
one incident?
Who is the person least likely to be afraid?
If there is history of domestic violence orders, who is listed as the aggrieved in this or
previous relationships?
What information is revealed in a criminal history check?
What led up to the violent episode?
Who has injuries that do not appear to be consistent with statements made?
Who could not make a legitimate claim for self-defence?
Who has access to, or control of, resources?
Who has the history of help-seeking behaviours?
Who has attempted to change their behaviour to stop the abuse?
Who has access to, or threatened use of weapons?

Other relevant factors that should also be considered are:

comparison of the type, location, and severity of injuries (offensive and defensive
injuries or wounds)
the type and use of force and intimidation by each party
history of domestic violence
comparable size and strength of the parties
character evidence or known propensity for, or record of, violence
plausibility of statements from parties, other witnesses, information from other
agencies in contact with the family
likelihood of future harm. 64

Practice tip

It can be difficult for child safety officers to gain the information needed to make a thorough
assessment that will indicate the dominant aggressor, as the information may initially have
been obtained by police and provided through an 0522 report. Where information has
been provided that both adults were involved in an abusive incident, direct contact with the
police officers who attended the incident may be beneficial in clarifying contextual
information. Establishing an ongoing relationship with local police officers will assist in the
effective gathering and sharing of information required.

Any assessment to identify the dominant aggressor needs to take into account the context
of the whole relationship and not just information based on the one incident. This is

64
White et al, (2005: 6)

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 because it is possible that, on a particular occasion, the victim used more substantial
actual force than the perpetrator. To assist in their assessments child safety officers
should gain information that includes: previous history of violence and / or protection
orders; presentations to Accident and Emergency Wards in hospitals; information from
schools or child care centres as to the familys presentation; and checks with other
agencies who may have been, or are, involved with the family. A referral to the SCAN
team may be actioned to access required information, and assist in providing a holistic
assessment and multi-agency response.

Factors affecting the ability to leave a relationship

impacted by domestic and family violence
For women experiencing domestic and family violence, the decision to leave a relationship is
a significant one. The myth of Why doesnt she just leave him? is a simplistic view of a
complex and traumatic choice, that does not take into account the fear that may be present.

Research undertaken with victims of violence has identified fear as a significant factor which
leads a victimised partner to stay in an abusive situation, or ultimately to leave. Fear about
what their partner would do to them if they found out they had sought help was a major
factor in their decision not to tell anyone about the abuse or to seek help. In other cases the
partner was fearful of how they would cope on their own if they left.

The fear of being alone worsened if the partner was dependent in some way on the
perpetrator, either financially, due to the ownership of assets including their residence, or
physically dependent because of personal care needs. For those from a culturally and
linguistically diverse background, this dependence can result in fear of being isolated due to
cultural expectations, and / or fear of the possibility of deportation due to the perpetrator
having authority as a sponsor.

Fear of being injured or killed, or fear associated with threats to take the children or kill them,
was enough for some to leave the relationship. This same fear can also lead to a partner
staying in the relationship as research has found that the safety risks to a partner and
children who have left the relationship can heighten the violence, leading to murder and
filicide. 65 Also, as fathers will most often have shared custody of children following
separation, women experiencing domestic and family violence will sometimes decide that
staying in the violent relationship will provide the best opportunity to protect their children.

Decision making around the issue of leaving or staying in a relationship impacted by

violence can be influenced by both individual and situational factors.

Individual factors
Individual factors which influence a partner to stay may include:
low self esteem and feelings of self-blame
fear of loneliness
lack of emotional support outside of the relationship

65
Filicide is the killing of a child by a parent.

Page 41 of 71
 guilt about the failure of the relationship
denial and disbelief of the seriousness of the violence
belief that the abusive partner will change or hope that they might
shame, embarrassment, or humiliation
having an emotional bond to the partner
fear that the abusive partner will not survive alone, or fear that they may suicide
where suicide threats have been used
belief that the perpetrator will carry out threats to kill
belief that it is safer for everyone if they know where the abusive partner is.

Situational factors
Situational factors influencing a partners ability to leave a relationship impacted by abusive
behaviour can also be present. These can include:
lack of job skills impacting on economic independence
staying for the sake of the children
social isolation
not wanting to move children away from supports, for example, schools
inability to access safe refuge accommodation due to the childrens ages, for
example, it may be difficult to gain refuge accommodation that includes adolescent
male children
lack of alternative housing
fear of losing custody of the children and involvement in court processes
lack of information regarding alternatives
cultural and religious constraints, for example, maintaining respect and pressure to
keep the family together
societal messages that children need a father, no matter how abusive
fear of a judgemental response from others, including extended family members
fear of retaliation
normalisation of the violence, not regarding it as unacceptable
depression, self loathing, low self-esteem and stress which may weaken their ability
to leave. 66

These factors can influence decision-making in relation to options that may be available to a
family and choices that are made. Child safety officers should consider these factors
together with the impacts violence can have on both individual family members and on
parenting, such as:
feelings of shame and degradation
fear of being alone
depression

66
Compiled from Seen but not heard (2003)

Page 42 of 71
 exhaustion from having to tiptoe around, keeping the peace, changing behaviour to
try to de-escalate the violence and trying to protect the children, who may exhibit
more difficult behaviours
little self-esteem and self-confidence
confusion about love and violence
insecurities about coping alone due to the amount of control the perpetrator has held
distrust of systems that exist for protection, especially where previous contact has
proved unhelpful including Child Safety, Police and the Magistrates and Family
Courts
feelings of loss, loneliness and depression, leading to a numbing of emotion and
ability to care (www.ncsmc.org.au/wsas).

By child safety officers providing support and resources to the victim and family, and
addressing the issues surrounding domestic violence, parenting capacity can be enhanced.

Individuals with disabilities who experience abuse in their relationships face additional
difficulties in trying to leave. Many are socially isolated and have fewer informal supports
available to them, particularly if mobility restrictions mean they cannot easily get out into the
community. This may limit their ability to see a doctor, friends, family, community support
agencies or womens health services even at times of crisis.

If it is a disability that requires high cost medication, a personal carer or other forms of
assistance that have a financial impact, the person will be less likely to be able to access
help in the form of a Refuge or other accommodation situation. A person in this situation is
often financially dependent on their partner as well as dependent on them for transport,
personal care and other forms of daily living assistance.

Practice tip

Working with realities like domestic and family violence may challenge beliefs that child
safety officers personally hold about families and life in general. By becoming aware of the
extent of domestic violence and harm to a child, the notion of what a loving home life is like
may be challenged. Common reactions are I cant believe that anyone is capable of this
or What kind of person stays in that relationship? To work effectively with people in
violent situations, it helps to have an understanding of the values and attitudes that are
held personally, which may influence the way a person assesses a situation and responds
to it.

By understanding personal feelings in regard to some of the challenges that these

situations pose, a child safety officer is more likely to be mindful of when their own values
get in the way of an objective response. Planned supervision time should be used to clarify
personal values and identify how they may impact on assessments and responses to
families where domestic and family violence exists. In addition, child safety officers may
contact staff from a domestic and family violence agency to discuss these issues and / or
decide to access external supervision.

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Safety planning
Safety planning in the context of domestic and family violence is about exploring and
providing options for a family about keeping as safe as possible in an environment where
there is an abusive person. Safety planning in this context does not relate to the use of
Structured Decision Making tools. Providing information to a non-abusive parent and the
children about safety planning and resources can assist them to take action or remove
themselves from an abusive perpetrator, and also help to ensure their safety in other ways
during a high risk phase of violence.

A safety plan can be completed by both the non-abusive adult and appropriately aged
children with a child safety officer or domestic violence support worker, or be a checklist that
is left with the non-abusive partner for their consideration. It is important that any information
provided about safety planning, or the safety plan itself is not accessible to the perpetrator,
as this may put the family and others at further risk. This should be emphasised to the family
members, together with making them aware that their internet, telephone and mobile usage
may also be tracked by the perpetrator. Examples of safety plans are available at:
the Department of Communities, Child Safety and Disability Services website at
http://www.communities.qld.gov.au/communityservices/violence-prevention/about-
domestic-and-family-violence-prevention/safety-plan
through DVConnect at www.dvconnect.org/dvline/default.asp#Planning.

Queensland domestic and family violence legislation

Knowledge of legislation relating to domestic and family violence assists in understanding
the legal protections available to people subjected to violence and informs supportive
discussion with families about protective actions they may be able to take. The Domestic
and Family Violence Protection Act 2012 (the DFV Act) recognises that freedom from this
form of violence is a human right and that people subjected or exposed to domestic and
family violence can experience physical, emotional and psychological harm.

Commenced in September 2012, the DFV Act includes a principle that the safety, protection
and wellbeing of people, including children, experiencing or who fear domestic or family
violence, is paramount. In addition, it aims to hold people who commit domestic and family
violence accountable for their actions. This is achieved by a court being able to make a
domestic violence order that restricts the behaviour of the person (the respondent)
committing the violence, and in some instances identifying the behaviour as a criminal
offence. The Magistrates Court is the most likely court to be hearing these matters in
Queensland.

The DFV Act also provides the police with immediate powers to respond to domestic and
family violence incidents, through the issuing of a police protection notice (PPN). A PPN may
be issued if the police officer is present at the same location as the respondent and includes
standard conditions requiring the respondent to be of good behaviour towards the aggrieved
and not commit domestic violence against the aggrieved. A PPN may also include a cool-
down condition for up to 24 hours prohibiting the respondent from contacting or approaching
the aggrieved at any stated premises. If a respondent breaches a PPN or any domestic
violence order they can be charged with a criminal offence.

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There may be times when the DFV Act and the Child Protection Act 1999 work in
conjunction with each other. The DFV Act provides consideration for a child of the aggrieved,
or a child who usually lives with an aggrieved, to be named on a domestic violence order if a
court is satisfied it is necessary and desirable to protect the child. In some circumstances the
same child may be the subject of a child protection order, for example a supervision order or
directive order, under the provisions of the Child Protection Act 1999.

Legislative definition of domestic and family violence

The DFV Act provides protections to people within a broad range of relevant relationships,
defined as:
intimate personal relationships
family relationships and
informal care relationships (section13).

A child under eighteen years seeking protection from a parent or relative is not included
within the definition of a family relationship as it is recognised that the Child Protection Act
1999 provides for the safety, wellbeing and protection of children within their families.
Similarly, a child and parent cannot be the parties to a domestic violence order in an informal
care relationship (section 20(2))

Cultural considerations are provided for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people,
recognising their family relationships may be more broadly defined within traditions and
customs.

Behaviours that constitute domestic and family violence within these relevant relationships
include:
physical or sexual abuse
emotional or psychological abuse
economic abuse
threatening behaviour
coercive behaviour (eg a series of behaviours like stalking, threats, or other
unwanted behaviour to force a person to change their mind about something or to act
in a certain way)
behaviour that in any way controls or dominates or causes a person to fear for their
personal safety or wellbeing or the safety of someone else.

Examples of these behaviours are provided within the DFV Act (section 8).

In addition, the DFV Act recognises that a child is exposed to domestic and family violence if
the child sees, or hears, or otherwise experiences the effects of domestic violence. For this
definition, it does not matter whether the perpetrator intended to expose the child to
domestic violence, or whether the child was present when the violence occurred. Within the
legislation, examples of a childs exposure to violence include:
overhearing threats of physical abuse
overhearing repeated derogatory taunts, including racial taunts
experiencing financial stress arising from economic abuse

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 seeing or hearing an assault
comforting or providing assistance to a person who has been
physically abused
observing bruising or other injuries of a person who has been
physically abused
cleaning up a site after property has been damaged
being present at a domestic violence incident that is attended by
police officers. (section 10)

Information about Domestic Violence Orders

The term Domestic Violence order is used to collectively identify two types of orders:
(1) a temporary protection order, when a court is still considering the making of a final
order but is satisfied the aggrieved and respondent are in a relevant relationship and
domestic violence has been committed and
(2) a protection order, when the court has made a final decision and is satisfied that the
aggrieved and respondent are in a relevant relationship, domestic violence has been
committed against the aggrieved and a protection order is necessary or desirable to
protect the aggrieved.

A protection order may be made for a period of up to two years, however in special
circumstances an order may continue for a longer period.

Where a relevant relationship exists under the DFV Act, an application for a protection order
may be made to the Magistrates Court by:
the person subjected to the domestic or family violence (the aggrieved)
an authorised person for the aggrieved (for example a friend, relative or a worker at a
domestic violence service)
a police officer
a person acting under another Act, such as a guardian for a personal matter of the
aggrieved, or an attorney for a personal matter under an enduring power of attorney
(section 25) or
a party to a child protection proceeding in the Childrens Court (section 43).

Domestic and family violence services, community legal services, and Queensland Police
Service Domestic Violence Coordinators are able to provide information and advice about
the domestic violence order application process. 67 Application forms for domestic violence
orders are available to download at http://www.courts.qld.gov.au/courts/magistrates-
court/domestic-and-family-violence.

The DFV Act allows a Magistrate to make a domestic violence order if they are satisfied that:
domestic and family violence has occurred
a relationship as defined under the Act exists and

67
Information about the role of the police Domestic Violence Coordinator is included in Appendix 5.

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 the order is necessary or desirable to protect the individual from domestic or family
violence (section37).

A Supreme or District Court Judge may also make a domestic violence order where that
court has convicted a person of a criminal offence involving domestic and family violence.

In addition, a Childrens Court may make or vary a domestic violence order against a parent
of a child for whom an order is sought in a child protection proceeding if:
the court is satisfied a protection order could be made against the parent
the person who would be named as the aggrieved is also a parent and party to the
child protection proceedings (section 43).

In these circumstances, the court may make or vary an order on its own initiative or on the
application by a party to the child protection proceedings. This option provides for
consistency between any conditions of the domestic violence order and the terms of the
child protection order.

A domestic violence order can protect a child of the aggrieved, a child who usually lives with
the aggrieved, a relative or an associate, such as a friend or work colleague. During
proceedings, if the court becomes aware of the existence of a child of the aggrieved, or a
child that normally lives with the aggrieved, the court is required to consider whether that
child should be named in the domestic violence order. This is regardless of whether the
initial application named the child. In these circumstances, the respondent is provided with
the opportunity to provide a response to this consideration.

An applicant must tell the court of any Family Court applications or orders relating to a child
so these can be considered during the domestic violence hearing. Where contact between a
respondent and a child is provided for under a Family Court order, it is possible, in limited
circumstances, for the Magistrate to temporarily suspend earlier Family Court orders to
protect the aggrieved and children.

It needs to be acknowledged that applying for a protection order may not necessarily be the
safest option for the aggrieved and family, and further additional options may need to be
considered.

Conditions imposed by a domestic violence order

The DFV Act recognises that some people may not want to end their relationship but do
want the violence to stop. To meet the protective needs of the aggrieved and any other
named persons, all domestic violence orders include mandatory conditions stating:
the respondent must be of good behaviour and must not commit domestic violence
and
if a child of the aggrieved is a named person, the respondent must not expose the
child to domestic violence.

The court can impose extra conditions it considers necessary and desirable, to help protect
the aggrieved, and any named child, relative, or associate from further domestic and family

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violence. These conditions may prevent the respondent from:
approaching or attempting to approach the aggrieved or a named person, including
stating a distance for the respondent to stay away from the aggrieved or a named
person
contacting (for example, by telephone, SMS message, email or social networking
site) or attempting to contact, or asking someone else to contact, the aggrieved or a
named person
locating or attempting to locate the aggrieved or a named person
possessing an item used as a weapon when committing domestic violence, or
threatening to use it
other behaviour towards a child of the aggrieved, such as going to a childs school or
day care centre.

A condition limiting contact between a respondent and a child may be imposed by the court
however the limitation must only be to the extent necessary for the childs safety, protection
and wellbeing (section 62). When working with families, enquire whether any conditions
limiting contact exist to ensure case planning meets the requirements of the court order.
Where changes to contact are considered necessary, an application may be made to vary
conditions or revoke an order by the aggrieved, the respondent, a named person, an
authorised person, a person acting under another Act, or a police officer.

A court may also impose a condition for the protection of an unborn child where the
aggrieved is pregnant at the time of the domestic violence order and regardless of whether
the respondent is the father of the child (section 67). This condition takes effect when the
child is born and recognises that around the time of birth is when an aggrieved and newborn
child are particularly vulnerable.

The court can make an ouster condition prohibiting the respondent from remaining at, or
entering, particular premises, or approaching within a certain distance of the premises. This
can be the home of the aggrieved, or where the aggrieved, or a named person, lives, works
or frequently goes. Ouster conditions can be made regardless of whether the premises are
owned or rented by the respondent or the premises are ones where the aggrieved and
respondent live together.

Should the applicant or aggrieved ask for an ouster condition to be included on the order in
relation to the aggrieveds usual place of residence, the court is required to consider various
matters including preventing or minimising disruption to the living arrangements of the
aggrieved and any child, their social connections and support, continuity of care for the child,
and continuity of child care, education and training. The court will also consider the
respondents accommodation needs.

If the respondent does not comply with the ouster condition, they are considered to be in
breach of the domestic violence order which is a criminal offence.

The court may also make conditions relating to the recovery of personal property belonging
to the aggrieved, to enable access to a former home to retrieve the property. This recovery
of property may be supervised by a police officer.

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Additional powers under the legislation
Voluntary Intervention Orders
A principle of the DFV Act is to hold perpetrators accountable for their behaviour and, if
possible, provide them with an opportunity to change. In order to help respondents change
their behaviour, and increase the ongoing protection of the aggrieved, the court may make a
voluntary intervention order, requiring the respondent to attend an approved intervention
program and/or counselling where this has been agreed to by the respondent. If the
respondent fails to comply with an intervention order, the court may take this into account if
making or varying domestic violence orders in the future.

After the court makes a voluntary intervention order, the respondent is assessed by the
approved service provider to determine their suitability to participate in a program or
counselling. The assessment takes into account the respondents character, personal
history, language, as well as any disabilities, psychiatric or psychological conditions, alcohol
or drug problems and the respondents location, to ensure it is reasonably convenient for the
respondent to attend.

Requests for information from Department of Communities, Child Safety and

Disability Services (Child Safety)

A court has the power to request information from Child Safety about a child, aggrieved or
respondent when:
there is an application for a domestic violence protection order or a variation of a
domestic violence order, that seeks to name a child in the order or the court is
considering naming a child in a domestic violence protection order and
the respondent contests the naming of the child in the order or the imposition of any
conditions concerning the child and
the court considers that the chief executive (Child Safety) may have information
relating to the child, the aggrieved or the respondent that may help the court in
deciding whether to name the child in the order or impose a condition relating to the
child (section 55(1)).

Where information is held by Child Safety, any relevant information will be provided to assist
the court in deciding these matters.

Protections for witnesses

To protect vulnerable witnesses the court must consider putting in place special
arrangements when the aggrieved, child or another person who can be protected by a
domestic violence order is giving evidence. These measures assist to reduce the stress or
trauma that the witness might otherwise experience.

The safeguards the court might use include:

giving evidence from another location by a video-link
a screen or one-way glass being placed so the witness cannot see the respondent
while giving evidence
a person approved by the court providing emotional support to the witness in the
courtroom

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 ensuring that where the witness has a physical or mental disability they can give
evidence in a way that will minimise the witness distress (section 150).

The court also has the ability to make other arrangements it considers appropriate.

A child must be over the age of 12 years to be called to give evidence, must agree to give
evidence and can only do so with the leave of the court. The child must also be represented
by a lawyer and cannot be cross-examined by the respondent in person.

Police powers and functions

Police officers are often the first to respond to domestic and family violence. In addition to
their responsibility to investigate any criminal offence relating to a domestic violence
incident, the DFV Act supports the capacity for police to provide for the safety of an
aggrieved and family, and respond to those who perpetrate violence.

Police powers under the Domestic and Family Violence Protection Act 2012 include:
the requirement to investigate domestic violence, and if no further action is taken
after the investigation, a rationale needs to be recorded and kept (section 100)
issuing a Police Protection Notice to the respondent at the time the police officer
attends an incident, as referred to above. This provides for the immediate protection
of a person until the application for a domestic violence order can be heard in a
Magistrates Court.
detaining a respondent for up to eight hours, if intoxicated, where it is assessed there
is a high risk situation; or up to four hours where a respondents demeanour may
present an ongoing danger of injury or property damage. Other appropriate action
may be taken, such as taking the respondent to hospital for treatment.
directing a person to remain at a location for a reasonable time for the police officer
to serve the respondent or advise them of the conditions of an order so protection
orders can be enforced
entering and searching premises without a warrant if violence has occurred or there
is a risk of it occurring, and seizing anything that may have been used
investigating breaches of a domestic violence order and charging a respondent with
a criminal offence if there is evidence a breach has occurred.

Penalties
Maximum penalties for contravening a domestic violence order is two years imprisonment, or
three years where a respondent has previous history of breaching an order within the
previous five years.

Practice tip

During an investigation and assessment or ongoing intervention and a child safety officer
suggests, or directly refers, an aggrieved to the police or domestic violence service for
assistance with an application for a domestic violence order, the outcome of this contact
needs to be ascertained. The rationale for any decisions made, action taken, and
timeframes for any court action is to be recorded as part of the investigation and
assessment or as a case note for future reference.

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Child as an aggrieved or respondent under the Domestic and
Family Violence Protection Act 2012
A young person under the age of 18 years may be named as an aggrieved or respondent in
an application for a domestic violence order, a domestic violence order, or a police
protection notice only if an intimate personal relationship or an informal care relationship
exists between the young person and the other party named in the application, order or
notice.

In Queensland, a child or young person cannot be named as an aggrieved or respondent

where there is a family relationship between the child and the other party. This means they
are unable to apply for an order against a sibling, parent or extended family member. Where
violence is occurring within these relationships, it is deemed a child protection issue and
must be responded to under the provisions of the Child Protection Act 1999. Similarly, a
parent cannot apply for a domestic violence order against their child aged under 18 years.
These latter matters may be a child protection matter or require police investigation under
the criminal code. However, a parent may apply for a domestic violence order with their adult
child as a respondent if there is an informal care or family relationship.

Some state and territory jurisdictions have a provision to name a child as an aggrieved or
respondent within a family relationship. These interstate orders can be registered within
Queensland under the DFV Act.

Where a young person under the age of eighteen is a respondent in a domestic violence
matter, taking the child into custody must be a last resort and for the least amount of time
that is justified in the circumstances. The child should only be held in custody that provides
for being held separately from adults and the police officer must notify certain people that the
action has been taken.

Further information and resources about the Domestic and Family Violence Act 2012 is
available on the Department of Communities, Child Safety and Disability Services website at
http://www.communities.qld.gov.au/communityservices/violence-prevention.

A practice framework for child safety officers when

domestic and family violence is an identified harm to
children
The following practice framework should be used as a guide by child safety officers to
achieve the safest intervention possible for children and families impacted by domestic and
family violence:
(1) Child safety officers should routinely inquire about the existence of domestic and family
violence with every adult client whether or not there are allegations of domestic
violence in the initial child protection notification. This inquiry should take place without
the possible perpetrator present, and should occur even if there is no other adult living
in the home.
(2) Child safety officers should conduct thorough assessments in cases involving domestic
and family violence. The assessment should include information on the perpetrators
abusive and coercive conduct; the severity of the abusive behaviour; any history of

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 abuse in this or previous relationships; the impact of the abuse on all the children and
the adult victim; and identification of any protective factors that exist.
(3) When domestic violence is suspected or confirmed, child safety officers should plan to
interview the child and suspected adult victim before interviewing the suspected
perpetrator. The investigation and assessment plan should be discussed with the team
leader, to identify where the safest environment is for interviews to take place.
Following on from the initial contact, the adult victim should be informed of further
arrangements and appointments where possible, as these times can mean an
escalation in the perpetrators abuse or coercion. Ask the victim about possible
consequences to them and the children if interviews with the perpetrator take place.
(4) When there is domestic and family violence identified, assistance should be provided in
developing a safety plan with the adult victim and the children, assessing immediate
risk to the family members, and actions that can be taken. A domestic violence support
service may also assist in the development of a comprehensive safety plan.
(5) If the adult victim and / or children disclose domestic and family violence, this
information should be kept confidential and should not be shared with the perpetrator
unless the adult victim requests, and then only after the consequences of such
disclosure are discussed with the adult victim. Adult victims and children should be told
that information may not be kept confidential in court proceedings. In these cases, child
safety officers should help victims plan for their safety during and following any court
proceeding, as research indicates this is a time of high risk of violence for family
members.
(6) If the perpetrator reveals information to the child safety officer about domestic and
family violence, then this should be discussed with the adult victim and a safety plan
with the adult victim and the children developed. The safety plan information should
never be discussed while the perpetrator is present.
(7) Where there is domestic and family violence, if safety can be reasonably assured, the
relationship between the adult victim and children should be supported and preserved
and the adult victim should be supported in their efforts to protect the children and
themselves.
(8) Where safety issues have been identified for the family, there should not be an
expectation that family group meetings will take place with the adult victim and
perpetrator together. Separate meetings should occur, and the recorded case plans
should maintain confidentiality of decisions made as to the identity of, and
appointments with, service providers, counsellors and support agencies. This will assist
in maintaining the safety of the family outside their usual residence.
(9) Interventions that require discussion of the domestic and family violence with both the
perpetrator and the adult victim present, such as couples counselling or court
mediation, should not be utilised or recommended by child safety officers, as they can
increase the danger to the adult victim and the children.
(10) Child safety officers should be wary of placing children with the abusive partners
parents or extended family. This can result in the adult victim having to have contact
and negotiate contact on terms set by the abusive parent and their family of origin. This
can result in the power, control and violence being continued by both the perpetrator
and other relatives.

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(11) Child safety officers should understand the Domestic and Family Violence Protection
Act 2012 and related legislation and should use this legislation as a resource to provide
information on protection for adult victims and their children.
(12) Child safety officers should collaborate with domestic and family violence services and
programs, perpetrator programs, police and the justice system both to increase safety
for adult victims and children, and to hold the perpetrator responsible for the violence. 68
(13) Relationships with local domestic and family violence programs and services should be
developed by child safety service centres as a resource for both child safety officers
and adult victims and children. Expertise on child protection matters and domestic and
family violence matters can then be shared across the agencies.

Conclusion
Child safety officers face a continuous challenge to incorporate domestic and family violence
knowledge and its associated issues into their child protection practice. To fail to identify this
type of violence within a family as a harm, or minimise or ignore its presence will lead to a
child being placed at further risk with the violence continuing.

This paper has provided information to assist child safety officers in identifying the key
elements and characteristics of domestic and family violence as harm to a child. A child-
centred family-focussed response that addresses all violence within the family and the safety
of all family members must be maintained, together with a commitment to build strong links
with domestic and family violence agencies and programs.

68
Adapted from Ganley and Schechter, 1996.

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Appendix 1
Common behavioural and emotional indicators of children
who experience domestic and family violence.
The following information has been resourced from Seen but not heard: children who live
with domestic or family violence.

School or child care personnel might In the home you might see:
see:

General fearfulness Nightmares and sleep problems

Hypervigilance (exaggerated and Nervous or withdrawn demeanour

constant fear of impending danger

Nervous or withdrawn demeanour Mixed feelings about fathers

Indiscriminate, quickly formed Increased levels of anxiety

attachments to adults

Confusion over parent loyalties Psychosomatic illnesses including

headaches, stomach complaints, asthma,
stuttering

Mixed feelings about fathers angry, Increased internalised problems such as

abusive, powerless depression

Mixed feelings about mother angry, Self-harming behaviours such as cutting,

over-protective, upset mutilating body parts

Unable to deal with changes or No reaction to Police attending the home

separations staring into space

Increased levels of anxiety General fearfulness

Psychosomatic illnesses including Difficulty concentrating at home

headaches, stomach complaints,
asthma, stuttering

Increased internalised problems such Bed wetting

as depression

Adjustment problems, few interests, Feelings of powerlessness

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fewer social activities

Difficulty in completing school work, Excessive cruelty to animals

lowered school performance

Difficulty concentrating at school Mimicking aggressive language and

behaviour in their play

Bed wetting Exposure to dating violence

Feelings of powerlessness Running away from home

Inability to form stable relationships Committing suicide

Excessive cruelty to animals Suicidal thoughts or expressions

Mimicking aggressive language and Believe that they are the cause of the
behaviour in their play violence

Exposure to dating violence May cringe at loud voices or express fear at

discipline

Unable to express emotions May tune out and appear distant

appropriately

Unable to express anger appropriately Abusing substances such as drugs and

alcohol

Suicidal thoughts or expressions Exaggerated sense of responsibility to

protect other family members

Low self esteem Mimicking abusive behaviour towards the

mother

Has a poor self image Divided loyalties of siblings against parents

Express beliefs that they can control Express beliefs that they can control the
the situation by changing their situation by changing their behaviour
behaviour

May cringe at loud voices or express Hypervigilance to moods of abusive parent

fear at discipline

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May be overly accommodating to Early home or school leaving
requests, overly cooperative

May tune out and appear distant Difficulties in forming adult relationships

Defying authority figures Expressing distress by screaming, crying,

shaking

Using violence as a way to resolve Post-traumatic stress disorder

conflict or gain control

Physically abusive towards other

children or adults

Inability to trust other people

Lack of confidence in themselves and

their abilities

Early home or school leaving

Self-harming behaviours such as

cutting, mutilating body parts

Lack of respect towards women/

female teachers

Has no friends, lacks the social skills to

make friends

Inaccurate diagnosis of Attention Deficit

Disorder due to behaviour

Hyperactive behaviour

Indicators of other types of abuse

physical, sexual, emotional, verbal

Indicators of being neglected at home

Not bothering about anything, ceases

to try

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Appendix 2
General effects on children exposed to domestic and
family violence
The following information has been resourced from Seen but not heard: children who live
with domestic or family violence.

GENERAL EXPLANATION
EFFECTS

Children may lose As someone they know carries out the violence, children lose their
their sense of sense that their family is safe and that they can trust the people in
personal safety their family to care for them appropriately. This loss of trust is often
extended to other relationships as well, particularly if children know
that other family members are aware that the violence is occurring,
but are not doing anything to help them or to stop it.

Children may When a child feels powerless to stop a situation, which is causing
become fearful pain and fear, they may withdraw into their own world in order to
and withdrawn cope with the stress caused by the violence. These children may
show fear around a variety of situations, which other children find
normal. A raised voice by a teacher may be enough to trigger a child
to shut down as a mode of self-protection. These children will often
do anything to blend into the crowd and will avoid situations where
attention may be placed on them. At home their means of survival
may be to disappear to avoid unwanted attention being placed on
them by the perpetrator of the violence.

Children may Children can experience a wide range of feelings related to

experience experiencing violence in their family. The way that these feelings
feelings of anger, may be expressed will vary from child to child and may swing from
depression, grief, one extreme to another, depending on the impact that the violence is
shame, despair having on them. Boys are more likely to express their feelings in a
and distrust physical way, often becoming violent and aggressive. As their play is
more likely than girls to be directed this way, boys can often cover up
their feelings of helplessness by acting out physically in school yard
games or fights. As it is less socially acceptable for girls to act out
violently, they are more likely to have to repress their feelings of
anger and shame and hence may withdraw, become depressed or
shut down altogether.

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Children may feel The inability of a child to influence the actions of an aggressive
a sense of parent can result in feelings of blame and guilt for being unable to
powerlessness, stop the abuse or help the victim parent. Some children overcome
guilt and blame this by aligning themselves with the abusive parent, to the extreme of
joining in with the violence or taking it over once they become young
adults. Many children fear that they have somehow caused the
violence to occur by behaving unacceptably or by not being good
enough. Some parents will use this as a justification for violence.
This heightens the stress for the child who now carries the blame but
is unable to express this to anyone else due to the violence being
kept a secret.

Children may take Some children have the maturity to understand that their mother and
on the siblings are all unwilling victims of the violence and in this case, may
responsibility of act as protector or ally when the perpetrator is around. These
protecting their children place themselves in a precarious position as they are often
mother or siblings drawn into the violence by the nature of their support to their mother.
Many children are victims of domestic violence because they
indicated support for the less powerful family members and in turn
are punished for this. The weight of this responsibility also places an
unrealistic burden on a child, and it can perpetuate their feelings of
helplessness and blame for being unable to stop the violence.

Children may School problems may manifest in many different ways. Children may
develop have trouble concentrating on work due to lack of sleep which can
performance result if they listen to the violence or lie awake in fear of their safety.
problems at Some children worry about what will happen when they have to go
school home, or what might be occurring whilst they are not there. Many
cannot keep up with school work as their attention is continually
diverted to the more pressing need to survive each day. Anxiety will
affect the childs ability to complete work, absorb new information
and maintain levels of performance. They may also switch off
altogether as they do when at home in order to cope with the
pressure.

Children may Typical stress reactions in children who experience violence include
demonstrate stomach cramps, headaches, sleeping and eating difficulties and
physical reactions frequent illness. These reactions can be a silent cry for help, or an
understandable physiological response to the violence occurring at
home.

Post-traumatic stress disorder is being more frequently diagnosed for

children who live with domestic and family violence. It is a collection

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 of symptoms which are the bodys natural response to experiencing
an event which produces intense fear and helplessness. The
symptoms include re-experiencing the event, a heightened state of
arousal such as hypervigilance and avoidance such as dissociation
or withdrawal.

Children may Some children do more than act out aggressively to manage their
experience conflicting feelings. They may run away from home, begin to abuse
behavioural substances such as drugs or alcohol and in a number of cases,
problems contemplate or attempt suicide. Kids Helpline statistics for causal
factors for 10-14 year olds who rang about a suicide-related problem,
indicate that 13% of callers identified domestic violence as being one
of a range of problems that caused them to consider suicide as an
option.

Children may A study by Kilpatrick, K., Litt, M., & Williams, L. (1997), Post
experience post- traumatic stress disorder in child witnesses to domestic violence,
traumatic stress found that PTSD symptomatology was strongly evident in the child
disorder witnesses to violence in the study. The factors thought to contribute
to PTSD in child witnesses includes the fact the stressor is of human
design, that the aggressor is usually a member of the childs family
and frequently a parent and that the struggle over how to assign
human accountability after witnessing an act of violence may add to
the childs traumatic burden. The study confirms that the stress of
witnessing domestic violence is similar in its potential psychological
impact to that of child physical and sexual abuse.

Children may Children who experience violence repeatedly often learn that this is
repeat the an acceptable way for resolving conflict, or for getting someone to do
violence something that they want them to do.

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Appendix 3
The effects and resulting harms for children exposed to
domestic and family violence at different developmental
stages
The following information has been resourced from Seen but not heard: children who live
with domestic or family violence and was adapted from M. James, 1994, Domestic Violence
as a Form of Child Abuse: Identification and Prevention.

Developmental Stage Potential effects and harms of violence

Infants 0 to 12 months Infants who experience domestic violence

Normal development
Developmentally, children learn the
importance of emotions for communication
and regulation early in the first year of life.
They look for cues from their primary
caregiver to recognise the appropriate
emotion. Therefore they are aware of
others negative emotions and will mirror
these in their own responses.
are often characterised by poor health, poor
sleeping patterns, continuous and distressed
crying, disruption to normal feeding and
sleeping routines, and early signs of
maternal deprivation if the mother is too
traumatised to respond effectively to her
babys needs.

Toddlers 12 months to 2 years Young children will show distress when

Normal development
Young children attempt to relate causes to
emotional expressions. Toddlers rely on a
secure social environment for healthy
development. When this environment is
threatened, they can show signs of stress.
expressions of anger are directed at them, or
other family members. They may have
disturbed sleeping and eating patterns,
increased separation anxiety from their
mother, demonstrate a high level of
aggression towards other children, and show
fear by crying or screaming if voices are
raised.

Three year olds Behavioural problems are more defined by

Normal development
By the age of three, children are becoming
more social and play tends to be less
solitary as they become aware of others
around them. Language development is
becoming clearer and children build on the
trust they have established in adults to
the age of three as children attempt to relate
to others more socially. This is often evident
in child care situations where children have
difficulty in playing alongside others without
exerting control over the game or other
children. This is often done aggressively by
hitting, biting, screaming or hair pulling.
Boys tend to demonstrate aggressive

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further explore their environment.
Preschoolers four to five year olds
Normal development
Children at this age interpret most events
in relation to themselves. They are likely to
model adults behaviour in their play and
will do so in friendship-type relationships.
Their cognitive abilities are still limited in
the way they interpret events around
them, so they tend to relate every event to
themselves, without understanding the
broader factors which influence events.
Primary School Age:
Normal development
Children have firm role models in their
parents and mirror what they have been
taught in relation to the way people relate
to one another. They are able to express
themselves more succinctly and find their
cognitive abilities developing rapidly in
relation to broader concepts and
relationships. Friendships become a
significant part of life, particularly in school
and they show interest in current trends
and peer influences relevant to their age
group.
behaviour more than girls, who tend instead
to internalise their stress by becoming
clinging, anxious, withdrawn, passive and
overly compliant.
Both genders may exhibit frequent illness,
severe shyness and low self esteem.
Children may be affected more profoundly in
their ability to make friendships with other
children and trusting relationships with
adults. They may exhibit distrust of any new
adult, and show reluctance to participate in
normal social experiences. Their level of
distress may become more evident in
situations of conflict where behaviour
becomes more aggressive or more
withdrawn. Some do not relate to the
activities or interests of their age group.
Some may show hypervigilance at any sign
of conflict and may cower at raised voices.
They may express themselves in role plays
by acting out the violence in the home using
dolls or dress-ups. Bullying behaviour to gain
control over situations becomes more
pronounced. They may take on blame for
situations that they did not cause.
Children are likely to model their learnt way
of resolving conflict in schools and in their
relationships. The use of violence to gain
control over a situation is seen as
acceptable. They are more likely to be able
to express their fears and anxieties
regarding the violence occurring, however
may lack the trust in others to do so safely.
Many have problems with school work,
difficulty concentrating, not wanting to go
home and lowered performance in class.
Bullying behaviour and poor social skills are
often evident as is depression, withdrawal
and anxiety in new situations.
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Adolescents:
Normal development
Young people have reached a point where
their cognitive skills and resources for
adaptation have developed enough for
them to realise that there are other ways
of relating in the world, other than what
they have seen or been exposed to. They
become more individualised as they
attempt to try on different personas and
ways of being. Conflict is a normal
experience as adolescents work out what
being an adult is all about and where they
fit in the adult world.
Whilst not all adolescents exposed to
domestic violence will grow up to repeat their
experiences, some will continue to see
violence as an acceptable and normal part of
having a relationship. The normal testing
time for adolescents may become more
difficult for those who are still experiencing
parental conflict at home and depression,
stress, aggressive behaviour, hostility,
running away from home and substance
abuse, are some of the potential effects of
this. Some adolescent sons mimic their
fathers behaviour and assault their mothers
or siblings. Girls may seek solace in a
relationship outside the family, which may
also be abusive. Suicide, early school
leaving and homelessness are other
consequences as young people attempt to
escape the violence.
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Appendix 4
Links to other services and resources
A list of regional domestic and family violence services is available online at DV Web Link at:
http://qlddomesticviolencelink.org.au/

Court Support Services

Court support services provide information, support and assistance to people affected by
domestic and family violence in relation to a domestic violence order and who come before
the Magistrates Court. Some services only assist women. Others also provide information to
men on domestic and family violence matters and court processes. Refer to:

http://www.communities.qld.gov.au/communityservices/violence-prevention/contacts/court-
support-services

Queensland Police Service Domestic and Family Violence Coordinators

QPS have District Domestic and Family Violence Coordinator (DFVC) positions across the
State. These officers deliver education and training to operational police and engage in
problem solving with other government and non government agencies to address domestic
violence related issues. They are also instrumental in formulating and implementing reactive,
proactive and preventative strategies and providing advice and assistance to members of
the community.

Legal services
Legal Aid Queensland Information Line on Ph: 1300 651 188 (and request the Domestic
Violence Unit) or at http://www.legalaid.qld.gov.au/legalinformation/Relationships-and-
children/Pages/Family-and-domestic-violence.aspx for family law and domestic violence
order information.

Womens Legal Service Ph: (07) 3392-0670 (Brisbane) or Ph: 1800-677-278 at

http://www.wlsq.org.au/

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Womens Legal and Advisory Service (ATSIWLAS),
Brisbane Ph 07 3720 9089 at www.atsiwlas.org.au

Crisis support and counselling

DVConnect make available a contact number for referrals from agencies, including the
Department of Communities, Child Safety, and Disability Services. This number must not be
provided to clients / family members.

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Also DVConnect are unable to accept referrals for refuge accommodation from child safety
officers without talking to the victims themselves.

Name: DVConnect - Womensline

Freecall: 1800 811 811

Operating hours: 24 hours a day, 7 days a week

Information: provides information, counselling, support and services to people

experiencing domestic and family violence
provides referral, including refuge referral to women and their children
who are in danger.

Name: DVConnect - Mensline

Freecall: 1800 600 636

Operating hours: 9am to midnight, 7 days a week

Information: provides a confidential telephone counselling referral and support

service for men
offers specialist assistance for men seeking strategies to address their
use of violence
provides Magistrates Court support to men who use violence in some
areas of Queensland including Brisbane.

Name: Lifeline

Telephone: 13 1114

Operating hours: 24 hours a day, 7 days a week

Web site: www.lifeline.org.au/

Information: provides crisis telephone counselling service.

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Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples:
Department of Communities, Child Safety and Disability Services have produced help cards
for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples located at
http://www.communities.qld.gov.au/communityservices/violence-prevention/publications-
and-resources
Immigrant Womens Support Service (IWSS)
www.iwss.org.au/ - 07 3846 3490 (Mon Fri 9am - 5 pm)

IWSS is a community based organisation which works with women and children of non-
English speaking background who are or have been in abusive domestic situations and/or
have experienced rape and/or sexual assault. It is a crisis and support service which
provides culturally appropriate support, information, short-term counselling and referral.

Safe Women Queensland

http://www.communities.qld.gov.au/women/about-us/find-a-service -
1800 177 577 (Mon Fri 9am to 5pm)

Provides the contact details of government and community organisations in Queensland

that assist women and girls who are experiencing, or have experienced, domestic, family or
sexual violence.

Elder abuse
Department of Communities, Child Safety and Disability Services have specific resources
relating to elder abuse at
http://www.communities.qld.gov.au/communityservices/violence-prevention/act-as-one-
against-domestic-and-family-violence-campaign/elder-abuse

Further counselling options

The following websites can be accessed to obtain information about counselling options.
Information about referral options and local support groups can also be obtained from
regional domestic and family violence services.

Relationships Australia
www.relationships.com.au

Centacare
www.centacarebrisbane.net.au

Lifeline
www.lifeline.org.au

Anglicare
www.anglicarebrisbane.com

Brisbane Rape & Incest Survivors Support Centre

at http://www.brissc.org.au/ Ph: (07) 3391-0004 (Mon - Thurs 9am - 1pm)

Kids Helpline
www.kidshelp.com.au Ph 1800 551 800

Zig Zag Young Womens Resource Centre

at http://www.zigzag.org.au/ Brisbane Ph: (07) 3843-1823 (Mon - Fri 9am - 5pm)

Page 65 of 71
Appendix 5
Website resources for further information
Australian websites
The Department of Communities, Child Safety and Disability Services website provides
information and resources about domestic and family violence and violence prevention at
http://www.communities.qld.gov.au/communityservices/violence-prevention. The site
includes information about domestic and family violence, safety planning, services and
support agencies, and links to forms required for domestic violence order applications.
Further information can be obtained through contact with Violence Prevention Unit staff.

Information about protocols for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island communities and services
available in specific communities is located at
http://www.datsima.qld.gov.au/atsis/everybodys-business/protocols-for-consultation-and-
negotiation-with-aboriginal-people.

Immigrant Womens Support Service, Brisbane at www.iwss.org.au

DVConnect website at www.dvconnect.org/dvline

Brisbane Domestic Violence Advocacy Service is the regional domestic violence service for
the Brisbane Metropolitan area at http://www.dvrc.org.au/advocacy-service.html

Queensland Centre for Domestic and Family Violence Research, based in Mackay,
at www.noviolence.com.au

Australian Institute of Criminology plays an important role in conducting timely and proactive
research on crime and criminology, and disseminating information to provide the Australian
Government with a unique knowledge base from which to inform policy at
http://www.aic.gov.au/en/crime_types/violence/domestic.aspx

Australian Domestic and Family Violence Clearinghouse is a national resource on issues of

domestic violence and family violence. The resources on this site reflect the Clearinghouse
role as a central point for the collection and dissemination of Australian domestic and family
violence policy, practice and research. A Queensland resource directory is also available at
http://www.austdvclearinghouse.unsw.edu.au

National Child Protection Clearinghouse, an information, advisory and research unit

focused on the prevention of child abuse and neglect and associated family violence,
at http://www.aifs.gov.au/nch

Family Court of Australia at www.familycourt.gov.au provides information about family law

issues and their Family Violence Strategy.

Centrelink information including payments if in severe financial hardship because a person

has been forced to leave their home and find a new home because of an extreme event like
domestic violence at http://www.humanservices.gov.au/customer/subjects/domestic-and-
family-violence

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Secretariat of National Aboriginal and Islander Child Care (SNAICC), advocating for the
needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children at http://snaicc.asn.au

Acknowledgment
The Department of Communities, Child Safety and Disability Services acknowledges the
contributions of members of the Domestic and Family Violence Issues in Child Protection
Reference Group convened to assist in the development of this practice paper.

The work completed in 2003 by the Communities Caring for Kids Coalition - Toowoomba
and South West Region, has also significantly informed the development of the paper. As a
Lighthouse Project funded by the then Department of Families, the Coalition, a group of non-
government agencies and staff from Child Safety, produced a training CD-Rom entitled
Seen but not heard Children who live with Domestic or Family Violence. The content from
Seen but not heard has been used and updated, with additional information included, to
produce this practice paper.

Page 67 of 71
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