Lecture 1

Tissues:
1. Epithelial Tissues continuous sheet like layer, bottom layer basement
membrane, which keeps cells in place, its a barrier between 2 diff compartments
& can separate diff. body fluids like blood vessels or a body fluid from outside
a. Exocrine glands- secrete to external environment
b. Endocrine glands- Hormones into blood stream
2. Connective Tissue extracellular matrix & scattered cells & provides structural
support & extracellular matrix is calcified so very strong
a. Ex: bone, blood, adipose, tendons, ligaments, lymph
3. Muscle cells that contract and create force
a. Skeletal- muscle moves bones voluntarily
b. Cardiac- makes heart contract just happens
c. Smooth muscle- lines blood vessels and digestive tract involuntary
4. Neural part of nervous system/ neurons and support cells glia cells & neurons
signal to each other and other cells to get stuff done

External environment- skin, lungs, urinary tract & digestive tract body uses
these to aid in the removal of wastes from the internal environment

Intracellular fluid water in cells/ 2/3

Extracellular fluid fluid outside of cells but still internal environment
In blood= plasma
Not in blood= interstitial fluid

Homeostasis neg. feedback (stimulus= body temp, sensor=hypothalamus,

integrating center= hypothalamus, effector=sweat glands, response=sweat)
Pos. feedback LH levels surge during ovulation

Lecture 2

Covalent bond- electrons shared b/w atoms

polar vs. non-polar/ hydrophobic/hydrophilic/lipophobic/lipophilic
in h2o partial pos. and partial neg. come together and form weak hydrogen
bonds
ions=charges molecules, so just take electrons completely instead of sharing
electrolytes
acids release H+ ions in h20
bases combine w/ protons

Biomolecules synthesized by living organisms/ contain Cs

many= polymers made up of repeating subunits
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
carbs polar, provide energy, in cell membranes
 lipids non-polar, energy storage, important in plasma membrane and
hormone steroids
o triglycerides- 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol
saturated- every c= 2Hs
unsaturated- at least one = b/w carbons
o PHOSPHOLIPIDS- 1 phosphate group=polar and nonpolar tails=
amphiphilic
o Steroids- carbon rings EX: cholesterol & some hormones
(testosterone)
proteins made of amino acids (20 essential for survival & less than
50=peptide/ workhorse of cell chemical messengers, receptors, carrier
proteins, structural support and enzymes
nucleic acids polymers of nucleotides (neg. charges P group, 5 carbon
sugar & base) & import. for cellular energy ATP, NAD, FAD & cAMP and
cGMP
o CTUAG
o EX: DNA AND RNA

Lecture 3

1) plasma membrane surrounds cell (phospholipid bilayer) creates barrier

so polar molecules cannot cross w/out help
2) nucleus two membranes/ pores for things to go in and out/ contains genetic
material in the form of chromatin- DNA & associated proteins
3) cytoplasm inside cell, minus nucleus/ organelles carry out particular functions
4) mitochondria 2 membranes, own DNA, CELLULAR ENERGY
5) ER rough ER (PROTEIN SYNTHESIS & ribosomes), smooth ER (lipid
synthesis)
6) golgi apparatus receives synthesized proteins, finishes processing them &
packages the for delivery
7) secretory vesicles carry proteins to plasma membrane/ two membranes fuse
& releases the vesicle stuff outside cell exocytosis
8) lysosome 1 membrane/ contains enzymes that digest debris/ old organelles/
important b/c lysosomal storage diseases can occur from mutations to single
lysosomal enzymes/ cells engulf extracellular debris via endocytosis
9) cytoskeleton made of specialized proteins which provide cell support
a. microfilaments(actin) near cell membrane/ cell movement and muscle
contraction/ found in microvilli(cell extensions)
b. intermediate filaments keratin in skin/hair, myosin in muscles
c. microtubules help give cell shape/ found in flagella

cell to cell adhesion

tight junctions epithelial tissue/ prevents molecules from passing in between
cells apical side (lumen side) & basolateral side
 desmosomes very strong/ hold cells together when tissue= stressed
BEATING HEART
gap junctions channels which connect cytoplasms of two cells (small
molecules and ions can move between them HEART (electrically coupling heart
cells) AND NERVOUS SYSTEM

specialized cells
1) red blood cells cytoplasm, cytoskeleton, special protein hemoglobin
carries O2 in blood
2) sperm nucleus, mitochondria (energy for flagellum= sperm can travel),
flagellum, specialized vesicle(makes way for sperm)

Lecture 4

DNA in the nucleus provides code do making proteins

1.) DNA mRNA = transcription in nucleus

transcription factors bind to promoter to help initiate transcription. RNA

polymerase also binds to promoter region
then mRNA skedaddles out of the nucleus

2.) mRNA protein = translation by ribosomes in cytoplasm

amino acid per tRNA/ 3 nucleotides per amino acid anti-codon(interacts w/
nucleotides in the mRNA) genetic code

AUG

DNA: ___Promoter__________gene_____
Gene: instructions for making proteins

A-U, C-G, G-C, T-A

*No T in transcription

Nascent proteins= further processed in ER and Golgi

insulin usually peptide hormones are initially translated into a long inactive
form, but then cleaved in ER and Golgi

Lecture 5

All chemical reactions in cells metabolism

catabolic occur spontaneously BUT not abruptly b/c of activation energy

anabolic need energy put into them (happen in cells b/c coupled w/ cata reactions)

hydrolysis h20 used to break bonds (A-OH + B-H) CATA

condensation h2o used to make bonds (A-OH + B-H AB & H20) ANA
phosphorylation phosphate added to a molecule (A +P AP)
oxidation/reduction OIL RIG
cata exergonic (breaking bonds= releasing heat)
ana endogonic (need energy to proceed= making bonds)

activation energy caused by intermediate between reactant and product/

allows cell to regulate all of its reactions
activation energy barrier can increase or decrease the rate of chemical
reaction
ENZYMES LOWER ACTIVATION ENERGY OF REACTIONS and they are not
consumed or altered in chemical reactions
o reactants(substrates) bind to active site of enzyme/ site= highly specific in
shape/ enzymes bring these reactants together in the same space and
stabilize high E intermediate stage
o some enzymes need cofactors small molecules (iron/zinc) or larger
organic molecules (FAD & NAD+ = donate or accept electrons OR CoA
(donates acetyl groups))
o Enzyme reaction rate increases as substrate concentration increases BUT
will reach a point where is cannot react faster b/c it eventually becomes
saturated with the substrate
o enzymes must also be regulated
destroyed, inactivated, enzyme expression can be changed,
activated/inhibited
allosteric regulation activators/inhibitors bind to enzyme,
change its shape, changing its affinity for substrates
phosphorylation covalent addition of P, changes activity
level (phosphates come from ATP= nucleotide)
How is ATP made:
1. substrate-level phosphorylation: X-P + ADP X + ATP
2. oxidative phosphorylation: ADP+ P(energy)
ATP

eat foodbody breaks it downreleases energysome energy storedenergy

used to make ATPATP then donates phosphates to enzymes to activate so
chemical reactions can occur

Lecture 6

Cellular respiration= glucose oxidation (process of breaking down glucose & other
energy sources to make ATP)

glycolysis, krebs cycle & oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain &
chemiosmotic coupling)
 1. glycolysisNO OXYGEN in cytoplasm/ from glucose produces 2ATP,
2Pyruvate and 2NADH(way to storing electrons)
2. pre-krebs cycleMITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX each pyruvate (2) goes
through this once/ pyruvate travels into mitochondrial matrix converted to
acetyl CoA, CO2 and 2NADH (one for each pyruvate)
a. Acetyl CoA this goes on into the Krebs cycle
3. krebs cycle for every acetyl CoA 2CO2, 3NADH, 1FADH2, 1ATP
4. oxidative phosphorylation at this point have 4ATP and glucose has been
consumed
a. rest of ATP comes from electrons stored in NADH and FADH2 these
electrons enter the electron transport chain (INNER MITOCHONDRIAL
MEMBRANE), release energy (this energy is harnessed to make ATP) via
chemiosmotic coupling/ each electron pass releases a little bit of
energy, O2 is the final electron acceptor & combines with H+ to make
H20
5. H+ concentration builds up in intermembrane space, and ATP synthase
(enzyme) allows H+ to flow back into matrix, releasing energy used to make
ATP
Inner-inter-atp synthase-matrix

*cofactors are converted back to their original form

anaerobic respiration producing ATP via glycolysis only glycolysis converts

pyruvate into lactate(NADH can unload its electrons here), instead of acetyl CoA/
PROCESS ONLY FUELS BODY FOR SHORT PERIOD OF TIME

*fats and proteins can also be used to make ATP

Lecture 7

O2 and glucose must pass through the plasma membrane (amphiphillic) for cellular
respiration

PASSIVE TRANSPORT (NO ENERGY)

gases like O2 can just pass through (simple diffusion)
glucose (big non-polar) facilitated diffusion
sometimes water, because it is small can also pass through
molecules move from high to low concentration, until their concentration is
equalized (diffusion)
Factors affecting rate of diffusion:
1. driving force delta C (concentration gradient)
2. surface area of the membrane (greater the surface area, the faster the
rate of diffusion occurs) EXAMPLE: intestines- lumen increases surface
area
 3. membrane permeability the greater the permeability, the higher the rate
of diffusion/ the smaller the molecule the faster it can get through the
membrane/ lipid solubility, is it polar or non-polar
4. distance the larger the distance the slower the rate of diffusion
diffusion rate: PxdeltaCxSA/distance squared

Facilitated diffusion (non permeable molecules):

1. carrier proteins/transporters carriers like enzymes, bind to a substrate/solute
on one side of the membrane(high concentration side) and causes a change in
the protein and this allows it to be exposed to the other side of the membrane,
where the molecule is in lower concentrations/ carrier proteins CAN BE
SATURATED AT HIGH CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTE
2. channels (unlike transporters, channels have pores that extend from one side of
the membrane to the other)
a. aquaporin channels channels that allow h2o to cross, increasing the
permeability of the membrane for h20/ H2O moves from more pure to less
pure
b. ion channels channels that allow ions to cross, ions are small but they
are charged so they cannot just cross on their own
i. ligand gated open when a molecule binds to them
ii. voltage-gated open when cells gets more positively charged inside
3. osmosis passive transport of h2o high water concentration to low
concentration
a. diffusion more solute concentration to less solute concentration OSM
(OSMOLARITY)
b. isosmotic two solutions have same osmolarity
c. hypososmotic means more water so h2o enters cell and it begins to
swell up
d. hyperosmotic means less water so water leaves cell and cell shrink

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
(against concentration gradient, low to high concentration) EXAMPLE: H ions in the
electron transport chain
pumps mediate active transport (allowing molecules to move across membrane
in a specific direction)
o primary active transport directly uses ATP to transport substances HAVE
enzymatic activity to hydrolyze EX: PUMP
o secondary active transport couples the flow of a substance down its
concentration gradient to that of another going against its gradient
cotransport (symport)
countertransport (antiport)

Lecture 8

Diffusion=slow over long distances so there is CELL SIGNALING

intercellular communication between cells= important for maintaining homeostasis
some cells are connected via gap junctions, but most are not so they
communicate via chemical messenger ligand released, binds receptor on
target cell and this initiates intracellular transduction
three types of chemical messengers
1. paracrine chemical that diffuses locally and acts on neighboring cell
2. neurotransmitters chemicals released from cells of the nervous system
called neurons SYNAPSES
3. hormones main function of primary endocrine glands and release hormones
into blood stream, can travel very long distances to their target cells
(neurohormones= hormone like molecules that are released by neurons into
blood stream)
lypophillic molecules= receptors are intracellular
lipohobic molecules= receptors are in the membrane

steroid hormones lipophilic (non-polar), so can cross the plasma membrane BUT
b/c they are not soluble in h20 they bind to a carrier protein, which shield them from
the h20/ diffuse into cells and bind to intracellular receptors/ receptor hormone complex
enters nucleus, binds to DNA, activates transcription= NEW PROTEINS CAN BE
MADE

lipophobic
1. amino acids glutamate and glycine NEUROTRANSMITTERS
2. amines chemicals derived from amino acids, dopamine, norepiepherine &
serotonin NEUROTRANSMITTER
3. peptide/protein messengers gene-mRNA-protein cleaved into active forms,
HORMONES OR NEUROTRANSMITTERS
all of these are membrane bound receptors ligand gated channels
enzyme linked receptors (tyrosine kinase-Phosphate group makes it active)
G protein coupled receptors when ligand binds to receptor, activated G protein,
triggers intracellular cascade to activate enzymes or open channels/ leads to activation
of second messenger (cAMP ATP) then activated protein kinase and a bunch of other
stuff

Lecture 9

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (all cells and tissues of the body that secrete hormones)

3 diff. hormones
1. peptide insulin, ADH, oxytocin
2. amine epinephrine (thyroid hormones)
3. steroid hormones cortisol, aldosterone, testosterone, estrogen

2 types of endocrine organs

1. primary: main function= secrete hormones ex: pancreas, hypothalamus,
pituitary gland, thryroid, thymus, adrenal gland
 2. secondary: secrete hormones BUT NOT MAIN FUNCTION ex: heart, liver,
stomach, kidney

Hypothalamus & Pituitary (primary) posterior pituitary (extension of neural tissue

extending in hypothalamus Vasopressin (ADH), oxytocin)
anterior pituitary true endocrine gland that makes and releases hormones prolactin,
GH, TSH, ACTH, LH+FSH

hormones made in cell body of neurons in hypothalamus travel down to posterior

pituitary neurohormones here 1. Vasopressin(ADH) acts on kidneys to regulate h20
balance AND 2. Oxytocin is milk letdown and uterus contractions

anterior pituitary contains endocrine cells that make hormones hypothalamus

releases hormone that goes to anterior and causes the release of a hormone from
anterior into the blood stream TROPIC HORMONES= hormones that cause the release
of other hormones

*connection between two sets of capillaries in anterior= portal system

Adrenal gland (activated by stress) on top of kidney

CRH ACTH cortisol
CRH and ACTH are both peptide hormones, cortisol can inhibit the anterior pituitary and
hypothalamus via negative feedback loops
CRH is released by stress and cortisol helps the body mobilize fuels by sparking
glucose and stimulating the breakdown of fat and protein for energy

Hyper/hypo secretion

Hypo cortisol= addisons disease

Hyper cortisol= cushings syndrome

Lecture 10

insulin & glucagon= peptide hormones released by pancreas, opposing effects on

how to maintain blood glucose levels

insulin released by beta cells and glucagon released by alpha cells in the
pancreas

fed/absorptive state after meal when food is being digested and stored/ during a meal
we intake more food energy than can be used immediately

DRIVEN BY INSULINso glycogenesis occurs and forms glycogen, which is a storage

polymer of glucose in the liver and muscles, insulin causes increased synthesis of
glucose transporters GLUT4/ brain and liver do not need transporter for glucose intake,
transporter already in membrane
ALSO lipogenesis occurs for fat storage of lipids in the liver and adipose tissue

Fasted/postabosorptive state needs glucose so glycogenolysis driven by the hormone

glucagon = breakdown of glycogen and lipid and get glucose back from storage

Pancreas has exocrine glands secretes hormones into the small intestine to aid with
digestion
endocrine glands beta release insulin and alpha release glucagon into blood stream

Diabetes

Type 1 juvenile body starts attacking Beta cells, insulin is not produced so patients
must inject themselves with insulin
Type 2 insulin receptors become less receptive to insulin so you exercise and insulin
receptor sensitivity increase, and utilizes glucose and removes it from your bloodstream

Lecture 11

Nervous system uses chemical messengers and electrical signaling to communicate

from cell to cell (more complicated than endocrine system)

2 cells in nervous system

1. neurons (basic unit of nervous system)
2. glia cells (provide support for neurons) schwann cells and oligodendrocytes wrap
around neurons as part of myelin and astrocytes form part of the blood brain barrier

Nervous system
Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) can integrate info. and initiate
actions
Peripheral nervous system (has a lot of branches of neurons going in and out of
CNS)

Neurons
afferent sends signals toward CNS (sense outside or internal environment)
efferent sends signals away from the CNS (tell muscles and target cells to do
something)
interneurons (located in CNS=processing)
composed of cell body(soma), dendrites (receive incoming signals),
axon(sends signals to other cells), axon hillock
dendrites and cell body have electrical signal GRADED POTENTIAL
axons have ACTION POTENTIAL

resting membrane potential -70vm, and there is more K+ inside than outside.
More NA+ outside the cell
Ek potential -90vm
ENA potential +60vm

Concentration gradient would drive K+ out but electrical gradient would drive it
back in

Equilibrium potential when the electrical and chemical driving forces are equal
and opposite and the ion is at equilibrium

Log of a number less than 1 is negative

Vm negative b/c more K+ inside so closer to EK and also more K+ ion channels
and less NA+ channels

NA/K Pump more every ATP hydrolyzed 3NA+ go out and 2K+ come in so net
positive charge

Depolarize when a cell becomes more positive inside

Hyperpolarize when a cell becomes more negative inside

Lecture 12

Graded potentials when dendrites receive signal from other neurons it causes the
other ion channels to open up, bigger the signal, the more ion channels that will open
up/ can cause depolarization or hyperpolarization depending on the channels that open
up/ decremental (loses signal strength over distance AND time) PURPOSE if the graded
potential is strong enough in the dendrites, it will travel through the cell body and initiate
action potential at the action hillock (initial segment/trigger zone)

Axon hillock has a high concentration of voltage gated NA+ channels and voltage
gated channels open only when the cell is depolarized to -55vm (threshold for action
potential)

WHEN the threshold for the action potential is reached at the axon hillock, voltage
gated NA+ channels will open and the NA will rush in and make the cell even more
depolarized, which opens more NA channels and more NA rushes in (POSITIVE
FEEDBACK)

Vm would not surpass ENA and the vg NA channels only stay open for a short period of
time, 1msec and the inactivation gates close

Refractory period limited time after an action potential where another AP cannot be
triggered (Na+ channels cannot reopen during this time)
Absolute (2 msec)/ relative (5-15)

Action potentials can travel really fast because of myelin (made up of glia cells)
schwann cells in the PNS and oligodendrocytes in the brain and spinal cord
AP jumps from node to node in salutatory conduction

Lecture 13

Neurons can signal to neighboring neurons via electrical synapse or chemical synapse
Electrical Synapse: some neurons have gap junctions so direct electrical
connection
o AP can go through gap junctions of one neuron to the next, pushing it to
threshold
Chemical Synapse: MOST COMMON TYPE OF SYNAPSE action potential
causes the release of a chemical messenger from the presynaptic cell binds to
receptors of the post synaptic cell and causes graded potential (chemical
messenger is neurotransmitter and receptor is ligand gated ion channels of
GPCRs)
How AP causes NT release: AP vg CaCh open Ca+2 into axon terminal
exocytosis of synaptic vesicles NT released NT binds to receptors on dendrites of
postsynaptic cell
How to stop the signal NT releases a cleft, NT take up by axon terminal or by glia and
reused or enzymes in synaptic cleft inactivate NT
How does NT binding to postsynaptic receptor lead to a graded potential in the
postsynaptic neuron: either ligand gated channels aka ionotropic receptors open
when the NT binds to them OR g protein coupled receptors aka metabotropic
receptors can cause ion channels to open or activate second messenger systems
that will cause the ion channels to open or close

Two types of synapses

1. excitatory brings membrane potential closer to the threshold for action potential
(do so by 1. Opening only NA+ ion channels and opening cation channels that let all +
ions in and closing K+ channels)
2. inhibitory decreases likelihood that post synaptic neuron will reach the threshold
(opening K+ channels and opening Cl- channels so K+ leaves cell and more Cl- enters
cell)

Grading potential can summate to bring neuron closer to the threshold for AP and the
axon hillock is an integrator that adds up all the arriving signals

Temporal summation if one synapse generates two post synaptic graded

potentials in rapid succession, then the signal can summate

Spatial summation two post synaptic potentials from nearby synapses that are
generated and nearly the same time and can summate

Neurotransmitters
 Acetylcholine ACH main excitatory neuron used by the neuromuscular junction
and in the autonomic nervous system. Ionotropic PNS and metabotropic
CNS
GLUTAMINE main excitatory NT in CNS
GABA main inhibitory NT in CNS

Lecture 14

CNS Brain and Spinal Cord

The brain is protected by the skull and the spinal cord is protected by the
vertebrae
Between the outer bones and the CNS are three connective tissue membranes
called the meninges/ the space between the meninges layers is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
CSF is also found in cavities within brain called the ventricles
The CSF surrounds the entire CNS, so the brain kind of floats in this fluid, which
prevents the brain from smashing into the hard skull.
CSF is also the interstitial fluid, so it has the correct extracellular ionic
concentrations and provides neural cells with essential nutrients (which it gets via
the circulatory system)
The blood supply to the brain is super important, because all those neurons need
oxygen and glucose (brain cant use glycogen or fats) to survive. Permanent
damage to the brain tissue can result from blockage of a blood vessel in the brain
= stroke.
The blood-brain barrier physically separates the blood from the CSF and
involves the glia cells called astrocytes
The blood-brain barrier protects the CNS from harmful substances in blood BUT
makes it hard to get meds to the brain

Spinal cord
The spinal cord is a column of nerves, which branch off and go to the periphery/
white matter on the outside and the grey matter in the interior.
o White matter clusters of myelinated axons. Myelin is white.
o Grey matter the cell bodies and dendrites

Sensory neurons (afferent) enter the spinal cord via the dorsal root and the motor
neurons (efferent) leave via the ventral root

Sensory information from the periphery travels along ascending tracts of axons to the
brain, whereas information from the brain travels to the spinal cord in descending tracts
(like for controlling movement of muscles)

a collection of cell bodies in periphery is called a ganglion and a collection of cell

bodies in the CNS is called a nucleus
Brain
The brain consists of the forebrain, cerebellum and brainstem
Brainstem connects to the spinal cord and regulates autonomic nervous system and
other unconscious physiological functions
Midbrain: controls eye movement
Pons: relay between cerebellum and cerebrum
Medulla: controls blood pressure, breathing, etc
Cerebellum involved in motor coordination and balance
Forebrain largest part of the brain, divided into hemispheres. Consists of
diencephalon,
cerebrum and limbic system
Diencephalon: lies under cortex, made up of thalamus and hypothalamus
Thalamus: relay station for sensory information
Hypothalamus: regulates homeostasis, link between endocrine and neural systems

Cerebrum: made up of cerebral cortex and basal ganglia

Basal ganglia (or more correctly, basal nuclei): collection of cell bodies deep inside
brain that controls movement

Cerebral cortex: outermost part of brain, highly convoluted, most advanced part of the
brain

The cerebral cortex is divided into 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal

limbic system, which is part of the forebrain and the most evolutionarily primitive part
of the cerebrum

Amygdala: emotions
Hippocampus: learning, memory

Lecture 15

Peripheral Nervous system

General we have the CNS & PNS (afferent and efferent somatic and autonomic)

Somatic= muscle

AFFERENT
Touch is felt in the dendrites of 1 neuron and causes AP which causes a NT to be sent
to the brain for coding
Sensory systems reception of stimulus sensory transduction (physical stimulus so
AP) goes to CNS undergoes sensory coding

1.) Reception: when sensory receptors (which are cells) detect a specific form of energy
b/c they are sensitive to certain forms of energy
2.) Sensory transduction: when the stimulus energy is transformed into electrical
response (change in membrane potential, which is graded potential which is receptor
potential) *sensory receptors can be specialized cells or be specialized endings
of an afferent neuron
3. Transmission to the CNS: any neuron stimulated along this following path with be
perceived as a sensory stimulus:
First order neuron is the afferent neuron which sends its axon to the brain stem
Second order neuron is the brain stem sends its axon to the thalamus
Third order neuron is when the thalamus sends its axon to the cerebral cortex
3. Sensory coding and integration:
a. Stimulus type: encoded by particular PATHWAY to the brain that is
activated
b. Stimulus intensity: encoded by # of receptors activated and frequency of
APs in the receptors
c. Stimulus location: based on which receptors are activated

Somatosensory receptors, somatosensory receptors sense body sensations such as

touch, temp., pain (nociception) and body position (proprioception)
1. mechanoreceptors sense light touch & pressure/ have ion channels that are
mechanically-gated and open when cell is deformed (cell becomes more + inside (NA+)
causing gradients and AP)
2. Thermoreceptors sense temp. have thermo ion channels sensitive to temp.
warm channels activated by capsaicin (chemical found in hot peppers)
cold channels activated by methol and eucalyptus oil
ION channels will open when you touch something hot or even when you touch
something that has the chemical capsaicin
3. Nociceptors pain receptors and also rely on TRP ion channels and they respond
to chemicals released by damaged tissue or to extreme temp or pressure
pathways: mechanorecpetors start on left 1st order in dorsal column the medulla on
the left side of dorsal column ganglia and then side of somatosensory cortex. Thermo
and nocio start on left and then right throughout

receptor adaptation take a hot shower and eventually you get used to it (only sends
signal at the onset and at the end of stimulus) EX: thermoreceptors

Touch sensation: mecha has diff. pathway

Somatasensory cortex: organized by body position (activate hand neuron feels like
hand is being touched)
Mouth, face, hands=more space in the brain b/c these are more sensory neurons with
smaller receptive fields in periphery

Receptor fields afferent neurons have them (its the area over which a stimulus will
produce a response in a specific neuron) SO the smaller the receptive filed, the more
sensitive the sensory receptor
Areas with small SA need more space in the cortex like the mouth
This allows for finer discrimination TWO-POINT DISCRIMINATION TEST

Gate control theory touch sensation can modulate pain perception & the brain
can also send signals to the spinal cord to block pain signals

Lecture 16

EYE: pupil, lens, retina, fovea, optic nerve

Cornea is on the outside in front of the pupil, which is surrounded by the iris and the
lens is right behind the pupil

Lens focuses light on the retina which is where signal transduction occurs (retna is part
behind lens) LENS changes shape for near vs. far objects

Near sighted: myopia far sighted: hyperopia b/c of diff. lens and shape of eye

Retina has multiple specialized cells that transduce light into APs which are then sent to
the visual cortex part of the brain
Has cones, rods
Cones are for color vision
Rods are sensitive in low light
It goes photocreceptors bipolar cells retinal ganglion cellsAPs to the brain

Light energy is converted into electrical signals by protein rhodopsin (found in

photoreceptors)
-rhodopsin is made up of opsin (GPCR embedded in intracellular membrane,
like an organelle)
-retinal which is the derivate of vitamin A, which absorbs light (light changes =
from cis to trans which activated opsin, which activated G protein
this g protein activates an enzyme going from cGMP to GMP and b/c less cGMP
cant open cGMP channel so channels are closed so less NA goes in making the cell
hyperpolarized in light. In dark cell depolarizes. Overall change in vm = electrical signal
so signal sent to bipolar and retinal ganglion cells and then to the cortex via the optic
nerve
part of optic nerve crosses over and part does no on the way to the thalamus and then
the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe
right of the visual feed foes to left cortex and vice versa

crossover b/w two visual hemispheres occurs at the optic chiasm

Lecture 17

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (innervates most or organs and tissues in the body)
cant consciously control it, hence auto and it helps maintain body homeostasis
Parasympathetic rest and digest
Sympathetic fight or flight

Autonomic control centers in the brain hypothalamus, pons, medulla

2 efferent neurons from CNS to target tissue
1. preganglionic neuron goes from CNS to auntonomic ganglion (cluster of cell bodies
outside nucleus) and then to 2. postganglionic neuron which goes to the target

sympathetic (originate and thoracic and lumbar regions of spinal cord) has short pre
ganglionic and long post ganglionic, happening parallel to spinal cord and the
sympathetic chain is there the ganglia are linked together so ganglia close to SC

parasympathetic (originate in brain stem or bottom of spinal cord) has long pre and
short post so ganglia close to target. Cranial preganglionic nerve vagus nerve