Endocrine System
can synthesize
- Coordinates and integrates with diff. physiological
systems
- Maintains homeostasis
o Role begins with hormones
Secreted from ductless endocrine
glands
Endocrine Glands
Tissues with Epithelial
origin
Secrete hormones into ECF
compartments
Blood carries hormones
sometimes attached with plasma
proteins to target cells
Target cells may be close
or far from the source
Hormones bind to receptors
Receptors located:
o on target cells
surface
o Cytosol
o Nucleus
Receptors are sensitive
Hormone receptor
complex can exert
biological action through
signal-transduction
cascades and alteration of
gene transcription at
target cell
Peptide & catecholamine Hormones
- Fast-acting hormones
- Attaches to plasma membrane receptor
- Causes second messenger cascade in cytoplasm of
target cell
- Example cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate)
o Synthesized from ATP
o Synthesis of this makes cell more
metabolically active and responds to
stimulus
Steroid Hormones and Thyroxine (Thyroid horomone)
- Slow acting
- Enter target cell and interact with the nucleus
- Affects transcription of various proteins that cell
- Attaches to DNA
o Attachment causes production of specific
mRNA
o Moves to cytoplasm
Where ribosomes translate to
mRNA to protein
Endocrine glands act out together does NOT function
independently
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
- Regulates hormone secretion, synthesis and
effectiveness at target ells
- Ensures if body needs hormone, it will be
produced
- Too much would cause inhibition
The Body rarely makes use of the Positive Feedback
Mechanism
-release of oxytocin from posterior pituitary is an example
Oxytocin
- Causes muscle layer of uterus (myometrium) to
contract during childbirth
- Contraction of myometrium causes additional
production of oxytocin
- Increased levels of oxytocin does not inhibit its
secretion
ACTIVITY 1: Metabolism and Thyroid Hormone
Metabolism
- Range of biochemical reactions in body
- Includes anabolism and catabolism
o Anabolism
Build up of small molecules into
larger more complex molecules
thru enzymatic reactions
Energy is stored in chemical bonds
formed when larger more complex
molecules are formed
o Catabolism
Breakdown of molecules via
enzymatic reactions
 Releases energy so cell can secretion of
perform various activities thyroxine
Eg. Formation of ATP o Increased
Sometimes released as thyroxine
heat to maintain body stimulates
temp. hypothalamus to
Humans are reduce prod. of
homeothermic organisms TRH
to maintain body temp
o Travels from hypothalamus to pituitary
Thyroxine gland via the hypothalamic pituitary
portal system
- Thyroid hormone
System consists of a single portal
- Hormone for maintaining metabolism and body
vein
heat
connects 2 capillary beds
- Also known as tetraiodothyronine (T4)
transports other hormones too
- Secreted by thyroid gland in neck
- hypothalamus primarily secretes tropic hormones
- Production controlled by pituitary
o TRH is a tropic hormone
gland/hypophysis
Stimulates secretions of other
Pituitary Gland hormones
o TSH is also a tropic hormone
- Secretes TSH (Thyroid stimulating hormone)
o Causes thyroid gland to increase in size Rats metabolic Rate
and secrete thyroxine into general
- Measured in this expt
circulation
- Indicated by amount of oxygen rat consumes per
o If TSH is too high, thyroid gland enlarges
time per body mass (BMR)
GOITER glandular swelling in
- Use of 3 rats:
neck from too much TSH
o Normal rat
Hypothalamus o Thyroidectomized rat (rat with no thyroid
gland)
- Participant in Thyroxine and TSH production o Hypophysectomized rat (rat with no
- Primary endocrine gland pituitary gland)
- Secretes several hormones that affect the
hypophysis Equipments used:
- Releases Thyrotropin releasing Hormone (TRH)
1. 3 refillable syringes
o Directly linked to thyroxine and TSH
a. Rats injected with 3 things:
secretion
i. propylthiouracil (inhibits prod. of
o Stimulates anterior pituitary to produce
thyroxine by blocking the
TSH
incorporation of iodine into the
TSH then stimulates thyroid to
hormone precursor molecule)
produce thyroxine
ii. TSH
Part of negative feedback
iii. Thyroxine
mechanism
2. Glass Animal Chamber
Level of thyroxine are low
a. T-connector on right tube connected to
o Hypothalamus
manometer
secretes more TSH
b. Left tube allows outside air into chamber
o Increased TSH
c. This chamber provides a sealed system to
stimulates
measure amount of oxygen consumed
 3. Soda Lime
a. Absorbes Carbon Dioxide given off by rat
4. Manometer
a. Tube containing fluid
b. Rat consumes oxygen, fluid will rise on left
side and fall on right side
Calculate Oxygen Consumption per hour:
(ml O2 consumed/ 1 minute) x (60 minutes/hour) = mL O2 /
hour
Metabolic rate:
(ml O2 / hr) / (weight in kg) = ml O2 / kg/hr
BMR
- Indicator of thyroid function
- Hypothyroid (BMR below 1600; low thyroid levels)
- Euthyroid (Good/Normal Thyroid levels; BMR from
1650 150)
- Hyperthyroid (High thyroid Levels BMR above
1800)
- Normal Rat = Hypothyroid
- Hypox Rat = Hypothyroid
- Tx Rat = Hypothyroid
Which developed a goiter from propylthiouracil injection:
- The Normal Rat
Post Lab
1. How would u treat Tx rat so it functions into a normal
animal?
- Provide T4 supplements
2. What is the result of missing hormones in Hypox rat?
- Decreased metabolic rate
3. Injection of thyroxine on a normal rat will cause:
- Hyperthyroidism
4. Why didnt any rats develop a goiter after thyroxine
injection?
- TSH levels were not elevated by thyroxine injection

5. why did the normal rat develop a goiter with TSH

No Injection
injection?
Normal Rat = Euthyroid
- TSH receptors on thyroid gland were stimulated
Thyroidectomized (Tx) Rat = Hypothyroid excessively

Hypophysectomized (Hypox) Rat = Hypothyroid 6. Injection of propylthiouracil in a normal animal will

cause:
Syringe with Thyroxine
- Goiter development
Normal Rat = Hyperthyroid
7. Why did the normal rat develop a palpable goiter with
Tx Rat = Hyperthyroid the propylthiouracil injection?
Hypox Rat = Hyperthyroid - Injection decreased the negative feedback
TSH Injection mechanism on TSH

Normal Rat = Hyperthyroid Activity 2: Plasma Glucose, Insulin and Diabetes Mellitus

Tx Rat = Hypothyroid Insulin

Hypox Rat = Hyperthyroid - Hormone produced by beta cells of endocrine

portion of pancreas
Developed goiter after TSH injection: - Vital to regulation of plasma glucose levels/ blood
sugar
- Normal rat and Hypox rat - Enables cells to absorb glucose from bloodstream
Injected with Propylthiouracil - Glucose
 o Used as fuel for metabolism
o Stored as glycogen (animal starch)
In liver and muscle cells
75% of glucose in a meal is stored
as glycogen
Prod. of glycogen ensures a supply
of glucose even after a meal
o Opposes action of insulin
Glucagon
- Produced by alpha cells of pancreas
- Stimulates breakdown of stored glycogen into
glucose
Type 1 Diabetes Melllitus
- Pancreas does not produce enough insulin
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
- Pancreas produces enough insulin but body does
not respon
**Both cases glucose remains in bloodstream
**Body cells unable to take it up to serve as primary fuel
for metabolism
Kidneys
- Filter the excess glucose out of the plasma
- Reabsorption of filtered glucose involves a finite
number of kidney tubule cells
- Excess glucose sometimes not reabsorbed,
resulting to Diabetes Mellitus (= sweet urine)
What happens when body cells cant take up glucose?
- Skeletal muscles undergo protein catabolism
o Frees up amino acids to be used in forming
glucose in liver
o This causes a negative nitrogen balance
from protein depletion
Glucose Standard Curve
- Measure fasting plasma glucose (FPG) levels
- FPG > 126 mg/dl WITH DIABETES
- FPG between 110 126 mg/dl indicate borderline
impairment of insulin-mediated glucose
- FPG <110 mg/dl considered NORMAL
Deionized water
- Adjusts volume so that it is the same for each
reaction
Glucose standard curve:
- X axis glucose mg/dl
- Y axis Optical density
Barium Hydroxide
- Clears both proteins and cell membranes so the
glucose readings can be obtained
Heparin
- Prevents blood clot
Fasting Plasma Glucose
- Intersection of glucose concentration and optical
density
Post Lab
1. Patient has 115, 110, 122 mg/dl the person has?
a. Appears to have impairment/borderline
impairment of insulin
2. To obtain an accurate spectrophotometric
measurement of glucose concentration
a. Heparin is added to prevent blood clot
3. The optical density increases as glucose
concentration increases
4. Female patient has 130, 140, 128 patient has?
a. Developed diabetes
5. To maintain plasma glucose homeostasis
a. Insulin mediated transport of glucose
into cells act as negative feedback
mechanism
6. Plasma glucose concentration will be the same for
the arm vein and index finger
Activity 3: Hormone Replacement Therapy
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
- Anterior pituitary peptide hormone
- Stimulates ovarian follicle growth
o Ovarian follicle growth produces and
secrete a steroid hormone called estrogen
in the plasma
Estrogen
- Stimulates bone growth and protection against
osteoporosis
o Reduction in quantity of bone
characterized by decreased bone mass and
increased susceptibility to fractures
Menopause effects:
- Loss of bone density that can result in osteoporosis
and bone fractures
Postmenopausal treatments
- Prevent osteoporosis
- Includes hormone replacement therapy
- Estrogen administered to increase bone density
Calcitonin
- Secreated by C cells in thyroid gland
- Counteracts osteoporosis
- Inhibits osteoclast activity
- Stimulates calcium uptake and deposition in long
bones
Ovariectomized rats
- No longer producing estrogen
- Ovaries surgically removed
T score
- Quantitative measurement of mineral content of
bone
- Indicator of structural strength of bone
- T score of 3 rats = -2.61 (indicating osteoporosis)
- Interpreted as:
o Normal = +1 to 0.99
o Osteopenia (bone thinning) = -1 to -2.49
o Osteoporosis = -2.5 and below
Hormone replacement therapy
- Administer estrogen therapy
- Calcitonin therapy
Dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA)
- Used to obtain T score
- Measurement of Vertebral Bone Density (VBD) of
each rat
Tscores from Experiment:
Control Rat = -2.54
Calcitonin Rat = - 2.18
Estrogen Rat = -1.54
Post Lab
1. Saline injections were used to measure the effect
of:
a. Placebo on bone density
2. Ovariectomized rats used in the experiment
a. Osteoporosis was evident prior to
injections of estrogen
3. Injection of Calcitonin
a. Inhibits osteoclast activity and stimulates
calcim uptake and deposition in long bones
4. As the Rats Bone Density increases
a. X-Ray scanning shows less negative Tscore
Activity 4: Measures Cortisol and Adrenocorticotropic
Hormone
Cortisol
- Secreted by adrenal cortex
- For bodys response to stress
- Release is stimulated by Adrenocorticotropic
Hormone (ACTH)
o ACTH released by anterior pituitary
o ACTH release stimulated by Corticotropin
releasing hormone (CRH)
- CRH (Corticotropin releasing hormone)
o A tropic hormone from hypothalamus
o Increased cortisol negatively feed backs to
inhibit release of ACTH and CRH
Hypercortisolism
- Increased cortisol in blood
- Referred to as Cushings Syndrome
o If increase is caused by adrenal gland
tumor
o Can also be iatrogenic (physician induced)
When glucocorticoid hormones
such as prednisone are
administered to treat arthritis
- Cushings Syndrome
o Aka steroid diabetes
o Results in hyperglycemia
 - Cushings disease
o Hypercortisolism is caused by anterior
pituitary tumor Cortisol Level ACTH Level
Cushings High Low
o Exhibit increased ACTH and cortisol
syndrome
** Cushings syndrome refers to hypercortisolism which (Primary
hypercortisolism)
could be iatrogenic
Iatrogenic High Low
- Addisons disease Cushings
Syndrome
o Decreased cortisol in blood
Cushings Disease High High
o Hypocortisolism (Secondary
Occurs because of adrenal Hypercortisolism)
insufficiency Addisons Disease Low High
o Low cortisol is directly caused by gradual (Primary Adrenal
destruction of adrenal cortex and ACTH Insufficiency)
levels Secondary Low Low
Adrenal
- Secondary Adrenal Insufficiency
Insufficiency
o Results in low levels of cortisol (Hypopituitarism)
o Caused by damage to anterior pituitary
- HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography)
column
o Used in quantitatively measure the
amount of cortisonl and ACTH in patient
samples

High levels of Cortisol inhibits ACTH and CRH

CRH stimulates the pituitary gland to release ACTH

Post Lab:

1. Under normal conditions, if amount of CRH

increases then
a. Secreted ACTH will increase
2. Under normal conditions, if secreted ACTH
increases then
a. Secreted CRH will decrease
3. Under normal conditions, if secreted cortisol
increases
a. Amount of secreted ACTH will decrease
4. If a hypersecreting pituitary tumor develops the
expected outcome is
a. Cushings disease
5. If the hypersecreting adrenal cortex tumor
develops the outcome is
a. Abnormally low levels of CRH due to
negative feedback
6. A patients chart lists the diagnosis of Addisons
disease
a. Expect abnormally high levels of ACTH