Rcs - Ii Plastic Moment Redistribution: Figure 1.2-1 Curvature

RCS II Plastic Moment Redistribution Chapter I
CHAPTER I
Plastic Moment Redistribution
1.1. Introduction
It is known that an indeterminate beam or frame normally will not fail when the ultimate
moment capacity of just one critical section is reached. After formation of plastic hinges at the
more highly stressed sections, substantial redistribution of moments occurs at the critical
sections as loads are further increased before collapse of the structure takes place.
Redistribution of moments permits the designer to modify, within limits, the moment diagrams
for which the members are to be designed. This enables the designer to reduce the congestion
of reinforcement, which often occurs in high moment areas, such as at the junction of girders
with columns.
Method of analysis allowed in EBCS -2
i. Elastic, optionally followed by inelastic (plastic) moment redistribution

ii. Plastic analysis
iii. Non Linear analysis
1.2. Moment curvature relationship

Although it is not needed explicitly in ordinary design, the relation between moment applied to
a given beam section and the resulting curvature, through the full range of loading to failure, is
important to the study of member ductility, understanding the development of plastic hinges,
and accounting for the redistribution of elastic moments that occur in most RC structures
before collapse.
Curvature is defined as the angle change per unit length at any given location along the axis of a
member subjected to loads as seen in figure 1.2-1.
Figure 1.2-1 Curvature
AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering Instructor: Misgun S.

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1

From similarity of triangles,

Moment of Inertia of Transformed Section
When a beam made of two materials is loaded, the different values of E for the two materials
lead to different stress distribution since one materials is stiffer and accepts more stress for a
given strain than the other .
However, the elastic beam theory can be used if the beam is hypothetically transformed to
either an all steel beam or an all concrete beam, customarily the later. This is done by replacing
the area of the steel with an equivalent area of concrete having centroid at the level of the
centroid of the steel. The replaced concrete will experience the same force and strain as the
steel.


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Figure 1.2-2 Transformed Sections
With the above transformed sections and the idealized stress-strain relationships for steel and
concrete figure 1.2-3 (b) and (c) the usual assumptions regarding perfect bond and plane
sections, it is possible to calculate the relation between M and for a typical under-reinforced
concrete beam section, subject to flexural cracking as follows.
Figure 1.2-3 Under-reinforced concrete beam section, subject to flexural cracking
In the limit case of figure 1.2-3b

$%
#
! " "
Where, lut is the moment of inertia of the un-cracked transformed section.

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Figure 1.2-4 Moment-Curvature relationship of reinforced beam
These values (cr , Mcr) provide information needed to plot point 1of the M- graph of
figure 1.2-4.
When the tensile cracking occurs at the section, the stiffness is immediately reduced, and
curvature increases to point 2 with no increase in moment. In the limit case, the concrete
strain just reaches the proportional limit as shown in figure figure 1.2-3 (c) and the steel is
below the yield strain.
' () , f', f() and 0 1 2
' () f() kjbd"

Hence () and M()
c! c! 2
(el , Mel) provides point 3 on the graph and the curvature at point 2 can be found from
the ratio Mcr/Mel.
Once the proportional limit is exceeded, the concrete is well into the inelastic range, although
the steel has not yet yielded. The NA depth, C1 is less than the depth a = Kd and is changing
with increasing load as the shape of the concrete stress distribution and the steel stress
changes.
It is now convenient to adopt a numerical solution to find the concrete compressive force 'C'
and the location of its centroid for any arbitrarily selected value of maximum concrete strain c
in the range el< c cu.
The compressive strain diagram is divided into an arbitrary number of steps and the
corresponding stress for each strain read from the stress-strain curve concrete. The stepwise
representation of the actual continuous stress block is integrated numerically to find C, and its
point of application is located taking moments of the concrete forces about the top of the
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section. The basic equilibrium requirement, C =T, can be used to find the correct location of the
NA, for the particular compressive strain selected, following an iterative procedure.
Alternative to numerical integration, formulae for determining the total compressive force as
stated in EBCS 2-1995 can be used and are given below.
i. cm 2 and N.A. within the section

= >6 @
= A
< BC
12
8 @
=
D B
4>6 @
= A C
ii. cm 2 and N.A. within the section
3
= @ 2
< BC
3
=

= >3
= @ 4A H 2
D B
2
= >3
= @ 2 A C
iii. cm 2 and N.A. outside the section
1
< >125 H 64
= @ 16
=
"
A
189
40 >
= @ 2A"
D 0.5 @
7 125 H 64
= @ 16
=
"
Then the total compressive force will be,
N < O P
1.3. Plastic hinges and collapse mechanisms

If a short segment of a reinforced concrete beam is subjected to a bending moment, continued
plastic rotation is assumed to occur after the calculated ultimate moment Mu is reached, with
no change in applied moment. The beam behaves as if there were a hinge at that point.
However, the hinge will not be friction free, but will have a constant resistance to rotation.
If such a plastic hinge forms in a determinate structure, as shown in figure 1.3-1, an

uncontrolled deflection takes place and the structure will collapse. The resulting system is
referred to as a mechanism. This implies that a statically determinate system requires the
formation of only one plastic hinge in order to become a mechanism.

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Figure 1.3-1
In the case of indeterminate structures, stability may be maintained even though hinges have
formed at several cross sections. The formation of such hinges in indeterminate structures
permits a redistribution of moments within the beam or frame.
W and P can be carried by any section strength combination at the supports and mid span as
long as the average of the support moment plus the positive moments at mid span 0.125Wl2.
This allows the designer to reduce moments at some critical sections as long as it maintains
equilibrium by increasing moments at adjacent critical sections. The following questions may be
raised: Why decrease in moment at critical section is essential while compensation for the
decrease is made by increasing moments at other sections?
Problem of congestion of reinforcement especially at supports can be addressed by adjusting

the moment diagram obtained through elastic analysis. Thus the sections at support can be
designed for less bending moment than predicted by elastic analysis implying less reinforcement
and therefore less congestion. The design load Wd is carried through inelastic moment
redistribution and the method of analysis involves adjustment of elastic bending moment
diagram.
N.B. Plastic Moment redistribution is applicable only to statically indeterminate structures

where major load transfer is through bending action.
For illustration let us see the behavior of an indeterminate beam of figure 1.3-2. It will be
assumed for simplicity that the beam is symmetrically reinforced, so that the negative bending
capacity is the same as the positive. Let the load P be increased gradually until the elastic
moment at the fixed support, 3PL/16 is just equal to the plastic moment capacity of the section,
Mu. This load is
16#% #%
Q QRS = 5.33 (1.1)
3T 3T
U
At this load the positive moment under the load is V" PL, as shown in figure 1.3-2.

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Figure 1.3-2
The beam still responds elastically everywhere but at the left support. At that point the actual
fixed support can be replaced for purpose of analysis with a plastic hinge offering a known
resisting moment Mu, which makes the beam statically determinate.
The load can be increased further until the moment under the load also becomes equal to Mu,
at which load the second hinge forms. The structure is converted into a mechanism, as shown
in figure 1.3-2 c, and collapse occurs. The moment diagram at collapse is shown in figure 1.3-2d.
The magnitude of the load causing collapse is easily calculated from the geometry of figure 1.3-
2d.
#% QT
#% H =
2 4
From which
6#%
Q = Q% = (1.2)
T
By comparison of equation 1.2 and 1.1, it is evident that an increase of 12.5% is possible
beyond the load which caused the formation of the first plastic hinge, before the beam will
actually collapse. Due to the formation of plastic hinges, a redistribution of moments has
occurred such that, at failure, the ratio between positive moment and negative moment is
equal to that assumed in reinforcing the structure.
1.4. Rotation Requirement

It may be evident that there is a direct relation between the amount of redistribution desired
and the amount of inelastic rotation at the critical sections of a beam required to produce the
desired redistribution. In general, the greater the modification of the elastic-moment ratio, the
greater the required rotation capacity to accomplish that change. To illustrate, if the beam of
figure 1.2-2a had been reinforced according to the elastic-moment diagram of figure 1.2-2.b, no

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inelastic-rotation capacity at all would be required. The beam would, at least in theory, yield
simultaneously at the left support and at mid-span. On the other hand, if the reinforcement at
the left support had been deliberately reduced (and the mid-span reinforcement
correspondingly increased), inelastic rotation at the support would be required before the
strength at mid-span could be realized.
Reinforced concrete members with bending are designed to have certain ductility, which
ensures that the member is capable of undergoing a certain amount of rotation after yielding of
the tension steel reinforcement and before crushing of the concrete in compression.
Generally, the amount of redistribution depends on
Hinge sections must be able to undergo necessary inelastic deformation. Since the
inelastic rotational capacity is a function of reinforcement ratio as in figure 1.4-1, this
implies an upper limit on the reinforcement,
Hinges should not occur at service load since wide cracks develop at hinge location, and
Equilibrium must be maintained.
Figure 1.4-1 Moment-curvature diagram
To ensure that designs remain under-reinforced (ductile), EBCS-2 recommends that the ratio
x/d, at sections of largest moment, does not exceed the values given by the following equations
as functions of percent plastic moment redistribution.
Y Y W 0.44
W 0.44 + 1.25 , [\ 35#Q
1.25
Y Y W 0.56
W 0.56 + 1.25 , [\ > 35#Q
1.25
Where

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^_\_P `[`
W
#[` P[\ \_\P_[
For example, for 20% redistribution
Y 0.8 0.44
W 0.8 = = 0.288 ([\ 35#Q
1.25
Y 0.8 0.56
= = 0.192 ([\ > 35#Q
1.25
In moment redistribution usually it is the maximum support moments, which are (adjusted)
reduced so that economizing in reinforcing steel and also reducing congestion of bars at the
column.
Requirements for applying moment - redistribution are:-
Equilibrium between internal and external forces must be maintained; hence it is

necessary to recalculate the span moments.
Maximum redistribution is 30% ... (W=ab = 0.7)
Redistribution kx * kz *
0 1.0 0.450 0.295 0.814
10 0.9 0.368 0.252 0.840
20 0.8 0.288 0.205 0.880
30 0.7 0.208 0.143 0.914
Table 1.4-1 Moment Redistribution Design Factors
Design procedure using table No. 1a & 1b (with moment redistribution)
Steps
d
c eg
f
Calculate B=
a) If B= 1 B= , where km* is the value of km shown shaded in general design table No. 1a,
corresponding to %age moment redistribution, section is singly reinforced.
Enter the general design table 1a using km and concrete grade.

Read ks from general design table No. 1a corresponding to steel grade.
B#
Evaluate Oi
b) If B= > B= , the section has to be doubly reinforced.

Page 9
Calculate kmkm*
Read ks and ks' corresponding to kmkm* and steel grade from table No. 1b and No.
1a respectively.
Assume d2=d" and read (correction factor) from table No. 1a using kmkm* and
d2/d.
Read ' corresponding to d2/d and %age moment redistribution from table No. 1b.
Calculate
B #O
>_j \_[\À

B #O
>[`l\_m \_[\À

Design procedure using general design chart (with moment redistribution)
# O
Calculate n iP "
O

a) Ifn 1 n , section is singly reinforced.

Evaluate Z from chart using Bo p/

#
Evaluate Orp
O
b) Ifn > n , section is doubly reinforced.

Evaluate Z* from chart using Bo p /

Evaluate #% n O P "
Calculate
#% s#
! H >_j \_[\À
pO > @ " AO
s#
" >[`l\_[ \_[\À
> @ " A

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RCS II Continuous Beams, One-Way Solid And Ribbed Slabs Chapter II
CHAPTER II
CONTINUOUS BEAMS AND ONE-WAY RIBBED SLABS
2.1. Introduction
Continuous beams, one-way slabs and continuous one-way ribbed slabs are indeterminate
structures for which live load variation has to be considered. This is because dead load is always
there but live load might vary during the life time of these structures.
One-way slabs transmit their load mainly in one direction (i.e., the direction. of span). A 1m
strip is taken in the direction of span and treated similar to continuous beams.
Elastic analysis such as slope-deflection, moment distribution and matrix method or plastic
analysis or approximate method such as the use of moment coefficient or such methods as
portal or cantilever can be used.
2.2. Analysis and design of continuous beams

The three major stages in the design of a continuous beam are design for flexure, design for
shear, and design of longitudinal reinforcement details. In addition, it is necessary to consider
deflections and crack control and, in some cases, torsion. When the area supported by a beam
exceeds 37m2, it is usually possible to use a reduced live load in calculating the moments and
shears in the beam.
Figure 2.2-1 One-way slab and continuous beam
The largest moment in continuous beams or one-way slabs or frames occur when some spans
are loaded and the others are not. Influence lines are used to determine which spans should be
loaded and which spans should not be to find the maximum load effect.
Figure 2.2-2a shows influence line for moment at B. The loading pattern that will give the
largest positive moment at consists of load on all spans having positive influence ordinates.

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Such loading is shown in figure 2.2-2b and is called alternate span loading or checkerboard
loading.
The maximum negative moment at C results from loading all spans having negative influence
ordinate as shown in figure 2.2-2d and is referred as an adjacent span loading.
Figure 2.2-2 Influence line for moment and loading patterns
Similarly, loading for maximum shear may be obtained by loading spans with positive shear
influence ordinate and are shown in figure 2.2-3.

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Figure 2.2-3 Influence line for shear
In ACI code, it is required to design continues beam and one-way slabs to be design for the
following loading patterns,
1. Factored load on all spans with factored partition load and factored live load on two
adjacent spans and no live load on any other span. This will give the maximum negative
moment and maximum shear at the support between the two loaded spans. This
loading case is repeated for each interior support.
2. Factored dead load on all spans with factored partition load and a factored love load on
alternate spans. This will give maximum positive moment at the middle of the loaded
span, minimum positive moments (which could even be negative) at the middle of the
unloaded spans, and maximum negative moment at the exterior support.
3. Factored dead and live load on all spans. Although this condition represents the
maximum vertical loading possible, it is unlikely to cause the maximum reaction, shear
forces, or bending moment for continuous beams.
After obtaining the maximum load effects of continuous beams, the design of continuous
beams is carried out as discussed in reinforced concrete structures I course for no moment
redistribution case and as in chapter I of this course encase of moment redistribution. For
convince, design steps of no redistribution by using km-ks table is recalled below. Note that
charts can also be used for design given in EBCS 2-1995 Part 2.

Page 13
Steps for design using design table (no moment redistribution)
1. Evaluate Km
2. Enter the general design table No 1.a using Km and concrete grade.
a. If Km Km*, the value of Km show shaded in design Table No 1.a, then the section is
singly reinforced.
- Enter the design table No 1.a using Km and concrete grade
- Read Ks from the table corresponding to the steel grade and Km
- Evaluate As
b. If Km Km*, then the section should be doubly reinforced.
- Evaluate Km / Km * and d/d
- Read Ks, Ks, and from the same table corresponding to Km / Km *, d/d and
concrete grade
- Evaluate
t #O
u_j \_[\`

t #O
N[`l\_[ \_[\`

Design using general design chart
1. Calculate n O, =
dve
fOw xye
2. Enter the general design chart,
If n < n , section is singly reinforced.
Evaluate Z from Bo = p/ by reading value of Bo from chart using n
d
Evaluate = zxve
{e

If n > n , section is doubly reinforced.
Evaluate Z from chart using Bo = p/
Evaluate #%,
= n O P "
Calculate

#%,
# O, #%,
! = + (_j \_[\`)
pO ( " )O

# O, #%,
" = ([`l\_[ \_[\`)
( " )

Page 14
2.3. Analysis and design of one-way slabs
Slabs are flat plates used to provide useful horizontal surfaces mainly for roofs and floors of
buildings, parking lots, airfields, roadway etc.
Classification: Beam supported slabs may be classified as:
1. One-way slabs - main reinforcement in each element runs in one direction only. (Ly/Lx
>2). There are two types one way solid slabs and one way ribbed slabs.
2. Two-way slabs - main reinforcement runs in both directions where ratio of long to short
span is less than two. (Ly/Lx 2)
Others types of slab include flat slab, flat plates, two way ribbed or grid slabs etc.
One-ways slabs are considered as rectangular beams of comparatively large ratio of width to
depth and ratio of longer span to width (short span) is greater than two.
When Ly/Lx > 2, about 90% or more of the total load is carried by the short span, i.e., bending
takes place in the direction of the shorter span.
Figure 2.3-1 One-way slab

Page 15
Analysis and design is than carried out by assuming a beam of unit width with a depth equal to
the thickness of the slab, continuous over the supporting beam and span equal to the distance
between supports (in the short direction or strip A and B) as shown in figure 2.3-2. The strip
may be analyzed in the same way as singly reinforced rectangular sections. Near the ends the
panel adjacent to the girders, some load is resisted by bending in the longitudinal strips (strips
C) and less by the transvers strips (strip A). But for design purpose the effect is ignored and is
indirectly accounted by extending top reinforcements into the top of the slabs on each side of
the girders across the ends of the panel.
Figure 2.3-2 One-way and two-way slab action
The load per unit area on the slab would be the load per unit length on this imaginary beam of
unit width. As the loads being transmitted to the supporting beams, all reinforcement shall be
placed at right angles to these beams. However some additional bars may be placed in the
other direction to carry temperature and shrinkage stresses.
Generally the design consists of selecting a slab thickness for deflection requirements and
flexural design is carried out by considering the slab as series of rectangular beams side by side.
Remarks:
The following minimum thicknesses shall be adopted in design:

a) 60 mm for slabs not exposed to concentrated loads (e.g inaccessible roofs)
b) 80 mm for slabs exposed mainly to distributed loads.
c) 100 mm for slabs exposed to light moving concentrated loads (e.g slabs accessible to
light motor vehicles)
d) 120 mm for slabs exposed to heavy dynamic moving loads (eg. slabs accessible to heavy
vehicles)
Unless conditions warrant some change, cover to reinforcement is 15 mm.
The ratio of the secondary reinforcement to the main reinforcement shall be at least
equal to 0.2.
The geometrical ratio of main reinforcement in a slab shall not be less than
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0.5
=ab , |\ _ _ #Q

The spacing between main bars for slabs shall not exceed the smaller of 2h or 350 mm.
The spacing between secondary bars shall not exceed 400 mm.
2.4. Analysis and design of one-way ribbed slabs

Long-span floors for relatively light live loads can be constructed as a series of closely spaced,
cast-in-place T-beams (or joists or ribs) with a cross section as shown in figure 2.4-1. The joists
span one way between beams. Most often, removable metal forms referred to as fillers or pans
are used to form the joists. Occasionally, joist floors are built by using clay-tile fillers, which
serve as forms for the concrete in the ribs that are left in place to serve as the celling.
Figure 2.4-1 Typical ribbed slab cross-section
General Requirements:
Because joists are closely spaced, thickness of slab (topping),
40``
~ 1
j\ _ P| \_P
10
Ribs shall not be less than 70 mm in width

Ribs shall have a depth, excluding any topping, of not more than 4 times the minimum
width of the rib.
Rib spacing shall not exceed 1.0 m
The topping shall be provided with a reinforcement mesh providing in each direction a
cross sectional area not less than 0.001 of the section of the slab.
If the rib spacing exceeds 1.0 m, the topping shall be designed as a slab resting on ribs
considering load concentrations, if any.
Transverse ribs shall be provided if the span of the ribbed slab exceeds 6.0 m.
When transverse ribs are provided, the center-to-center distance shall not exceed 20
times the overall depth of the ribbed slab.

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The transverse ribs shall be designed for at least half the values of maximum moments
and shear force in the longitudinal ribs.
The girder supporting the joist may be rectangular or T-beam with the flange thickness
equal to the floor thickness.
Procedure for design of ribbed slabs
1. Thickness of toppings and ribs assumed based on minimum requirement.

2. Loads may be computed on the basis of centerline of the spacing of joists.
3. The joists are analyzed as regular continuous or T -beams supported by girders.
4. Shear reinforcement shall not be provided in the narrow web of joist thus a check for
the section capacity against shear is carried out. The shear capacity may be
approximated as 1.1 Vc of regular rectangular sections.
5. Determine flexural reinforcement and consider minimum provision in the final solution.
6. Provide the topping or slab with reinforcement as per temp and shrinkage requirement.
7. Design the girder as a beam.

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RCS II Columns Chapter IV
CHAPTER III
TWO-WAY SLABS
3.1. Introduction
Slabs with the ratio of the longer to the shorter span, between 1 & 2 transfer their load in
two orthogonal directions. i.e. some portion of the load in the short direction and the
remaining portion of the load in the long direction. These slabs are called two-way slabs and
they deflect into a dish shaped curvature. This means that they have curvature in both
directions and because moments are proportional to curvature, there are moments in both
directions, which require reinforcement in the tension zone.
3.2. Analysis and design of two way beam supported slabs

For the slab shown in figure 3.1.-1, if beams are incorporated within the depth of the slab
itself the slab carries load in two directions. The load at A may be thought of as being carried
from A to B and C by one strip of slab, and from B to D and E, and so on, by other slab strips.
Because the slab must transmit loads in two directions it is referred to as two way slab.
Figure 3.2-1 Two-way slab
Consider the simply supported panel under uniform load w.
Figure 3.2-2
Let wx and wy be load in the x and y direction in which,
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|C H | |
j |C BC | | B |
>BC H B A| |
>BC H B A 1
Where kx and ky are load distributing factors in the short and long directions respectively.
Because the imaginary strips actually are part of the same slab, their deflections at the
intersection point must be the same. Equating the center deflections of the strips in the
short (x) and long (y) directions gives
5 |C j C 5 | j
=
384 $ 384 $
|C j C BC
= =
| j B
TC
j < =
T
BC = < B
BC + B = 1
(< + 1)B = 1
1 <
B = , B C =
< + 1 < + 1
Analysis using Table coefficients [EBCS 2-1995]

The coefficients kx & ky as obtained using the previous discussion are approximate because
the actual behavior of a slab is more complex than the two intersecting strips. The outer
strips not only bend, but also twist. The twisting results in torsional moments and stress
pronounced near the corners.
Moments for individual panels with edge simply supported or fully fixed may be computed
from:-
#a <a lO T"C
Where: Mi : is the design initial moment per unit width at the point of reference.
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i : coefficient given in Table A-1 (EBCS 2-1995) as a function of Ly/Lx ratio and
support condition
pd: design uniform load
Lx ,Ly : shorter and longer span of the panel respectively
Figure 3.2-3 Notations of critical moments
The subscripts have the following meaning.
s Support
f - field (span)
y, x - directions in the long & short span, respectively.
Division of slabs into middle and edge strips is illustrated in Fig. A-4.
The maximum design moments calculated as above apply only to the middle strips and no
redistribution shall be made.
Reinforcement in an edge strip, parallel to the edge, need not be less than minimum areas
of tension reinforcement.
Page 21
Figure 3.2-4 Division of slab into middle strip and edge strip
Moment adjustment
For each support over which the slab is continuous, there will be two adjacent support
moments. The difference may be distributed between the panels at either side of support to
equalize their moments as in moment distribution method for frames.
There are two alternatives: -
a. When Ms 0.2 Ms,large
The average of initial moments may be used.
b. When Ms 0.2 Ms,large

Apply moment distribution only to adjacent spans.
Steps to be followed
1. Support and span moments are first evaluated for individual panels using
coefficients from Table A-1 .
2. The unbalanced moment is distributed using the moment distribution method.
3. When the support moment is decreased, the span moments Mxf and Myf are then
increased to allow for the changes of support moments (equilibrium). This increase
is computed as: -
s#Cx C s#C H C s#
s#x s#C H s#
Where cx and cy are coefficient from Table A-2 (EBCS-2)
Flexural reinforcement
The ratio of the secondary reinforcement to the main reinforcement shall be at least
equal to 0.2.
=C,ROR Z 5 =ab
The geometrical ratio of main reinforcement in a slab shall not be less than
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0.5
=ab , |}\ _ _ #Q

The spacing between main bars for slabs shall not exceed the smaller of 2h or 350
mm.
The spacing between secondary bars shall not exceed 400 mm.
Load on beams
The design uniform loads on beams supporting solid slabs may be computed using: -
C DC QO TC
D QO TC
Where DC and D are load transfer coefficient given in Table A-3 (EBCS-2)
The shear force carried by concrete in slab can be taken as the one given for beams.
. 25O B! B" P
3.3. Analysis and design of flat slabs
3.3.1. Introduction
Concrete two-way slabs may in some cases be supported by relatively shallow, flexible
beams, or directly by columns without the use of beams or girders. Such slabs are generally
referred as column supported two-way slabs. Beams may also be used where the slab is
interrupted as around stair, walls or at discontinuous edges.
In practice column supported two-way slabs take various forms:
Flat Plates: they are flat slabs with flat soffit. Such slabs have uniform thickness supported
on columns. They are used for relatively light loads, as experienced in apartments or similar
buildings. Flat plats are most economical for spans from 4.5m to 6m (see Fig. 3.3.1-1a).
Flat Slabs: they are slab systems with the load transfer to the column is accomplished by
thickening the slab near the column, using drop panels and/or by flaring the top of the
column to form a column capital. They may be used for heavy industrial loads and for spans
of 6m to 9m (see Fig. 3.3.1-1c)
Waffle Slabs: they are two-way joist systems with reduced self-weights. They are used for
spans from 7.5m to 12m. (Note: for large spans, the thickness required to transmit the
vertical loads to the columns exceeds that required for bending. As a result the concrete at
the middle of the panel is not efficiently used. To lighten the slab, reduce the slab moments,
and save material, the slab at mid span can be replaced by intersecting ribs. Near the
Page 23
columns the full depth is retained to transmit loads from the slab to the columns (see Fig.
3.3.1-1b)
In this chapter, consideration will be given to flat slabs with or without drop panels or
column capitals.
Figure 3.3.1-1 Types of two way column supported slabs
For analysis and design purpose the panel in flat slab is divided in to column strips and
middle strips as shown below (EBSC 2)
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Figure 3.3.1-2 Division of panels in Flat slabs
A column strip is a design strip with a width on each side of a column centerline equal to
0.25 Lx or if drops with dimension not less than Lx/3 are used, a width equal to the drop
dimension. A middle strip is a design strip bounded by two column strips.
The drop panels are rectangular (may be square) and influence the distribution of moments
in the slab. The smaller dimension of the drop is at least one third of the smaller dimension
of the surrounding panels, Lx/3 and the drop may be 25 to 50 percent thicker than the rest
of the slab.
3.3.2. Load Transfer in Flat Slabs

Consider the following column supported two way slabs. If a surface load w is applied (see
Fig. 3.3.2-1a), it is shared between imaginary slab strips la in the short direction and lb in the
longer direction. Note that the portion of the load that is carried by the long strips lb is
delivered to the beams B1 which in turn carried in the short direction plus that directly
carried in the short direction by the slab strips la, sums up to 100 percent of the load applied
to the panel. The same is true in the other direction.
A similar situation is obtained in the flat plate floor (see Fig. 3.3.2-1b) where broad strips of
the slab centered on the column lines in each direction serve the same function as the
Page 25
beams. Therefore; for column supported construction, 100 percent of the applied load must
be carried in each direction, jointly by the slab and its supporting beams.
Figure 3.3.2-1 Column Supported two-way slabs (a) with beams (b) without beams
3.3.3. Moments in Flat Slabs Floors

Consider the flat slab floor supported by columns at A, B, C, and D as shown in Fig. 3.3.3-1a
Figure 3.3.3-1 Moment Variation (a) critical-moment section (b) moment variation along a
span (c) moment variation along the width of critical section
Page 26
Longitudinal Distributions of moments
For the determination of moment in the direction of span l1, the slab may be considered as a
broad, flat beam of width l2.
The load, P2 = wl2 per m length of span.
From the requirement of statics:
In the longitudinal direction (see fig. 3.3.3-1b)
>#f + #O A + #Rx >|j" j!" A

! !
"
In the perpendicular direction
1 1
(# + #fO ) + # = (|j! j"" )
2 8
From the above static moment in each direction, the moment in the long direction is larger
than those in the short direction unlike to the situation for the slab with stiff edge beams.
Lateral Distributions of moments
The moments across the width of critical sections such as AB or EF are not constant as
shown qualitatively (see fig. 3.3.3-1c). For design purpose, moments may be considered
constant within the bounds of a middle strip or column strip, unless beams are present in
column lines.
3.3.4. Practical Analysis of Flat slab Floors

The two methods for the analysis of flat slabs are:
a) Direct Design method

b) Equivalent Frame Method
Generally, for both methods of analysis, the negative moments greater than those at a
distance hc/2 from the center-line of the column may be ignored provided the moment Mo
obtained as the sum of the maximum positive design moment and the average of the
negative design moments in anyone span of the slab for the whole panel width is such that:
>O + O AT" 2 "

# T!
8

3
Where L1 is the panel length parallel to span, measured from centers of columns.
L2 is the panel width, measured from centers of columns
hc is the effective diameter of a column or column head (see below)
Page 27
When the above condition is not satisfied, the negative design moments shall be increased.
The effective diameter of a column or column head hc is the diameter of a circle whose area
equals the cross-sectional area of the column or, if column heads are used, the area of the
column head based on the effective dimensions as defined below. In no case shall hc be
taken as greater than one-quarter of the shortest span framing in to the column.
The effective dimensions of a column head for use in calculation of hc are limited according
to the depth of the head. In any direction, the effective dimension of a head Lh shall be
taken as the lesser of the actual dimension Lho or Lh,max, where Lh,max is given by:
T,=C = T + 2
For a flared head, the actual dimension Lho is that measured to the center of the reinforcing
steel (see Fig. 3.3.4-1)
Figure 3.3.4-1 Types of Column Head
3.3.5. Direct Design Method as per EBCS 2, 1995

According to the EBCS 2 specification, the direct design method of analysis is subjected to
the following restrictions.
Design is based on the single load case of all spans loaded with the maximum design
ultimate load.
There are at least three rows of panels of approximately equal span in the direction
being considered.
Successive span length in each direction shall not differ by more than one-third of
the longer span
Maximum offsets of columns from either axis between center lines of successive
columns shall not exceed 10% of the span (in the direction of the offset)
Page 28
Longitudinal Distribution
The distribution of design span and support moments depends on the relative stiffness of
the different sections which in turn depends on the restraint provided for the slab by the
supports. Accordingly, the distribution factors are given in the following table.
Outer support Near First Center of Interior

Column Wall center of interior interior support
first span support span
Moment -0.040FL -0.020FL 0.083FL -0.063FL 0.071FL -0.055FL
Shear 0.45F 0.40F - 0.60F - 0.50F
Total Column 0.040FL - - 0.022FL - 0.022FL
moments
Table 3.3.5-1 Bending Moment and Shear Force Coefficients for Flat slabs of Three or
More Equal Spans.
NOTE:
F is the total design ultimate load on the strip of slab between adjacent columns
considered.
L is the effective span = L1-2hc/3
The limitations of Section A.4.3.1(2) of EBCS 2, need not be checked
The moments shall not be redistributed
Lateral Distribution
The design moment obtained from the above (or equivalent frame analysis) shall be divided
b/n the column and middle strips according to the following table.
Apportionment been column and middle strip expressed as

percentages of the total negative or positive design moment
Column Strip (%) Middle Strip (%)
Negative 75 25
Positive 55 45
Table 3.3.5-2 Distribution of Design Moments in Panels of Flat Slabs
NOTE: For the case where the width of the column strip is taken as equal to that of the drop
and the middle strip is thereby increased in width, the design moments to be resisted by the
middle strip shall be increased in proportion to its increased width. The design moments to
be resisted by the column strip may be decreased by an amount such that the total positive
and the total negative design moments resisted by the column strip and middle strip
together are unchanged.
Page 29
3.3.6. Equivalent Frame Method
The direct design method is applicable when the proposed structures satisfy the restrictions
on geometry and loading. If the structure does not satisfy the criteria, the more general
method of elastic analysis is the equivalent frame method.
In the equivalent frame method, the structure is divided in to continuous frames centered
on the column lines on either side of the columns, extending both longitudinally and
transversely. Each frame is composed of abroad continuous beam and a row of columns.
Figure 3.3.6-1 Building idealization for equivalent frame analysis
Equivalent Frame Method as per EBCS 2, 1995
According to the EBCS 2 specification, Equivalent Frame Method of analysis is treated as

follows:
(1) The width of slab used to define the effective stiffness of the slab will depend upon
the aspect ratio of the panels and the type of loading, but the following provisions
may be applied in the absence of more accurate methods:
In the case of vertical loading, the full width of the Panel, and
For lateral loading, half the width of the panel may be used to calculate the
stiffness of the slab.
(2) The moment of inertia of any section of slab or column used in calculating the
relative stiffness of members may be assumed to be that of the cross section of the
concrete alone.
Page 30
(3) Moments and forces within a system of flat slab panels may be obtained from
analysis of the structure under the single load case of maximum design load on all
spans or panels simultaneously, provided:
The ratio of the characteristic imposed load to the characteristic dead load does
not exceed 1.25.
The characteristic imposed load does not exceed 5.0 kN/m2 excluding partitions.
(4) Where it is not appropriate to analyze for the single load case of maximum design
load on all spans, it will be sufficient to consider following arrangement of vertical
loads:
All spans loaded with the maximum design ultimate load, and
Alternate spans with the maximum design ultimate load and all other spans
loaded with the minimum design ultimate load (1.0Gk).
(5) Each frame may be analyzed in its entirety by any elastic method. Alternatively, for
vertical loads only, each strip of floor and roof may be analyzed as a separate frame
with the columns above and below fixed in position and direction at their
extremities. In either case, the analysis shall be carried out for the "appropriate
design ultimate loads on each span calculated for a strip of slab of width equal to the
distance between center lines of the panels on each side of the columns.
Equivalent Frame Method as per ACI Code
According to the ACI Code specification, the Equivalent Frame method was developed with
the assumption that the analysis would be done using the moment distribution method.
A. Basis of Analysis
The equivalent Frame method was developed with the assumption that the analysis would
be done using the moment distribution method. For vertical loading, each floor with its
columns may be analyzed separately by assuming the columns to be fixed at the floors
above and below.
B. Moment of Inertia of Slab Beam
The slab beam includes the portion of then slab bounded by panel centerlines on each side
of the columns, together with column line beams or drop panels (if used).
The moment of inertia used for analysis may be based on the concrete cross-section,
neglecting reinforcement, but variations in cross section along the member axis should be
accounted for (see below).
Page 31
Figure 3.3.6-2 EI values for slab with drop
Page 32
Figure 3.3.6-3 EI values for slab and beam
C. The equivalent Column
In the equivalent frame method of analysis, the columns are considered to be attached to
the continuous slab beam by torsional members transverse to the direction of the span for
which moments are being found. Torsional deformation of these transverse supporting
members reduces the effective flexural stiffness provided by the actual column at the
support.
Page 33
Figure 3.3.6-4 Frame action and twisting of edge member
The above effects can be considered by replacing the actual beam and columns with an
equivalent column having the following stiffness:
1 1 1
+
tR t t
Where: Kec = Flexural stiffness of equivalent column
Page 34
Kc = flexural stiffness of actual column
Kt = torsional stiffness of edge beam
The torsional Stiffness Kt can be calculated by:
9 N
t
V
j" 1 "ij
"
Where: Ecs = modulus of elasticity of slab concrete
c2 = size of rectangular column, capital, or bracket in the direction of l2.
C = cross sectional constant (roughly equivalent to polar moment of inertia)
The torsional constant C can be calculated by:
Y Y V
N 1 0.63
3
Where: x is the shorter side of a rectangle and y is the longer side.
C is calculated by sub-dividing the cross section of torsional members in to component

rectangles and the sub-division is to maximize the value of C.
The torsional members according to ACI Code are as follows:
Page 35
Figure 3.3.6-5 Torsional members
D. Arrangement of Live Load for Analysis

(1) If the un-factored live load does not exceed 0.75 times the un-factored dead load, it
is not necessary to consider pattern loadings, and only the case of full factored live
load and dead load on all spans need to be analyzed.
(2) If the un-factored live load exceeds 0.75 times the un-factored dead load the
following pattern loadings need to be considered.
a. For maximum positive moment, factored dead load on all spans and 0.75
times the full factored live load on the panel in question and on alternate
panels.
b. For maximum negative moment at an interior support, factored dead load on
all panels and 0.75 times the full factored live load on the two adjacent
panels.
The final design moments shall not be less than for the case of full factored dead and live
load on all panels.
Page 36
3.3.7. Shear in Flat Slabs, as per EBCS 2
The concrete section (thickness of the slab) must be adequate to sustain the shear force,
since stirrups are not convenient.
Two types of shear are considered
a) Beam type Shear: Diagonal tension Failure and critical section is considered at d
distance from the face of the column or capital and Vc is the same expression given
earlier for beams or solid slabs.
0.25O B! B" P
b) Punching Shear: perimeter shear which occurs in slabs without beams around
columns. It is characterized by formation of a truncated punching cone or pyramid
around concentrated loads or reactions. The outline of the critical section is shown in
Fig. below.
Figure 3.3.7-1 Critical section remote from a free edge
The shear force to be resisted can be calculated as the total design load on the area
bounded by the panel centerlines around the column less the load applied with in the area
defined by the critical shear perimeter.
The punching shear resistance without shear reinforcement is:
0.25O B! B"
B! = (1 + 50R ) 2.0
"
R = RC R 0.015
= l\_`\ [ \__j _[
1
= (C + ), m\ _m l
2
Page 37
CHAPTER IV
COLUMNS
4.1. Introduction
A column is a vertical structural member transmitting axial compression loads with or
without moments. The cross sectional dimensions of a column are generally considerably
less than its height. Column support mainly vertical loads from the floors and roof and
transmit these loads to the foundation
In construction, the reinforcement and concrete for the beam and slabs in a floor are place
once the concrete has hardened; the reinforcement and concrete for the columns over that
floor are placed followed by the next higher floor.
Columns may be classified based on the following criteria:
a. Classification on the basis of geometry; rectangular, square, circular, L-

shaped, T-shaped, etc. depending on the structural or architectural
requirements.
b. Classification on the basis of composition; composite columns, in-filled
columns, etc.
c. Classification on the basis of lateral reinforcement; tied columns, spiral
columns.
d. Classification on the basis of manner by which lateral stability is provided to
the structure as a whole; braced columns, un-braced columns.
e. Classification on the basis of sensitivity to second order effect due to lateral
displacements; sway columns, non-sway columns.
f. Classification on the basis of degree of slenderness; short column, slender
column.
g. Classification on the basis of loading: axially loaded column, columns under
uni-axial bending, columns under biaxial bending.
Composite/In-filled Columns
a) Composite Columns: Columns in which steel structural members are encased in a

concrete. Main reinforcement bars positioned with ties or spirals are placed around the
structural member.
b) In-filled Columns: Columns having steel pipes filled with plain concrete or lightly
reinforced concrete.
Page 38
Figure 4.1-1 Composite Columns and in-filled columns
Tied/Spiral Columns
a) Tied Columns: Columns where main (longitudinal) reinforcements are held in position by
separate ties spaced at equal intervals along the length. Tied columns may be, square,
rectangular, L-shaped, circular or any other required shape. And over 95% of all columns
in buildings in non-seismic regions are tied columns.
Figure 4.1-2 Tied Columns
b) Spiral Columns: Columns which are usually circular in cross section and longitudinal bars
are wrapped by a closely spaced spiral.
Figure 4.1-3 Spiral Columns
Behavior of Tied and Spiral columns
The load deflection diagrams (see Fig. 4.1-4) show the behavior of tied and spiral columns
subjected to axial load.
Page 39
Figure 4.1-4 Load deflection behavior of tied and spiral columns
The initial parts of these diagrams are similar. As the maximum load is reached vertical
cracks and crushing develops in the concrete shell outside the ties or spirals, and this
concrete spalls off. When this happens in a tied column, the capacity of the core that
remains is less than the load and the concrete core crushes and the reinforcement buckles
outward between the ties. This occurs suddenly, without warning, in a brittle manner.
When the shell spalls off in spiral columns, the column doesnt fail immediately because the
strength of the core has been enhanced by the tri axial stress resulting from the
confinement of the core by the spiral reinforcement. As a result the column can undergo
large deformations before collapses (yielding of spirals). Such failure is more ductile and
gives warning to the impending failure.
Accordingly, ductility in columns can be ensured by providing spirals or closely spaced ties.
4.2. Classification of Compression Members
4.2.1. Braced/Un-braced Columns

a) Un-braced columns
An un-braced structure is one in which frames action is used to resist horizontal loads. In
such a structure, the horizontal loads are transmitted to the foundations through bending
action in the beams and columns. The moments in the columns due to this bending can
substantially reduce their axial (vertical) load carrying capacity. Un-braced structures are
generally quit flexible and allow horizontal displacement (see Fig. 4.2.1-1). When this
displacement is sufficiently large to influence significantly the column moments, the
structure is termed a sway frame.
Page 40
Figure 4.2.1-1 Sway Frame/ Un-braced columns
b) Braced columns:
Although, fully non sway structures are difficult to achieve in practice, EBCS-2 or EC-2 allows
a structure to be classified as non-sway if it is braced against lateral loads using substantial
bracing members such as shear walls, elevators, stairwell shafts, diagonal bracings or a
combination of these (See Fig. 4.2.1-2). A column with in such a non-sway structure is
considered to be braced and the second order moment on such column, P-, is negligible.
This may be assumed to be the case if the frame attracts not more than 10% of the
horizontal loads.
Figure 4.2.1-2 Non-sway Frame / Braced columns
4.2.2. Short/Slender Columns

a) Short columns
They are columns with low slenderness ratio and their strengths are governed by the
strength of the materials and the geometry of the cross section.
b) Slender columns
They are columns with high slenderness ratio and their strength may be significantly
reduced by lateral deflection.
Page 41
When an unbalanced moment or as moment due to eccentric loading is applied to a
column, the member responds by bending as shown in Fig. below. If the deflection at the
center of the member is, , then at the center there is a force P and a total moment of M +
P. The second order bending component, P, is due to the extra eccentricity of the axial
load which results from the deflection. If the column is short is small and this second order
moment is negligible. If on the other hand, the column is long and slender, is large and P
must be calculated and added to the applied moment M.
Figure 4.2.2-1 Forces in slender column
4.3. Classification of Columns on the Basis of Loading
4.3.1. Axially loaded columns

They are columns subjected to axial or concentric load without moments. They occur rarely.
When concentric axial load acts on a short column, its ultimate capacity may be obtained,
recognizing the nonlinear response of both materials, from:
QO O > A + O
Where Ag is gross concrete area
TRi
Ast is total reinforcement area
When concentric axial load acts on a long column ( P 12), its ultimate capacity may be
obtained from:
QO%S = N lO |\ N = 1.25 TR /48P
4.3.2. Column under uni-axial bending

Almost all compression members in concrete structures are subjected to moments in
addition to axial loads. These may be due to the load not being centered on the column or
Page 42
may result from the column resisting a portion of the unbalanced moments at the end of
the beams supported by columns.
Figure 4.3.2-1 Equivalent eccentricity of column load
When a member is subjected to combined axial compression Pd and moment Md, it is more
convenient to replace the axial load and the moment with an equivalent Pd applied at
eccentricity ed as shown below.
Interaction diagram
The presence of bending in axially loaded members can reduce the axial load capacity of the
member
To illustrate conceptually the interaction between moment and axial load in a column, an
idealized homogenous and elastic column with a compressive strength, fcu, equal to its
tensile strength, ftu, will be considered. For such a column failure would occurs in a
compression when the maximum stresses reached fcu as given by:
Q #
% +
$
Dividing both sides by fcu gives:
Q #
1 +
% % $
Page 43
Figure 4.3.2-2 Interaction Chart for an elastic column
The maximum axial load the column could support is obtained when M = 0, and is Pmax =
fcuA.
Similarly the maximum moment that can be supported occurs when P=0 and is Mmax = fcuI/C.
Substituting Pmax and Mmax gives:
Q #
1= +
Q=C #=C
This is known as interaction equations because it shows the interaction of or relationship

between P and M at failure. It is plotted as line AB (see Fig.). A similar equation for a tensile
load, P, governed by ftu, gives line BC in the figure. The plot is referred to as an interaction
diagram.
Points on the lines represent combination of P and M corresponding to the resistance of the
section. A point inside the diagram such as E represents a combination of P and M that will
not cause failure. Load combinations falling on the line or outside the line, such as point F
will equal or exceed the resistance of the section and hence will cause failure.
Page 44
Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced concrete Columns
Since reinforced concrete is not elastic and has a tensile strength that is lower than its
compressive strength, the general shape of the diagram resembles Fig. 4.3.2-3
Figure 4.3.2-3 Interaction diagram for column in combined bending and axial load
Balanced condition: For a given cross section the design axial force Pb acts at one specific
eccentricity eb to cause failure by simultaneous yielding of tension steel and crushing of
concrete (see Fig. 4.3.2- 3)
Tension failure controls: For a very large eccentricity of the axial force Pn, the failure is
triggered by yielding of the tension steel. The horizontal axis corresponds to an infinite
value of e, i.e. pure bending at moment capacity Mo (see Fig. 4.3.2-3)
Compression failure controls: For a very small eccentricity of the axial force Pn, the failure is
governed by concrete compression. The vertical axis corresponds to e = 0 and Po is the
capacity of the column if concentrically loaded (see Fig. 4.3.2-3)
Interaction diagrams for columns are generally computed by assuming a series of strain
distributions, each corresponding to a particular point on the interaction diagram, and
computing the corresponding values of P and M (strain compatibility analysis).
The calculation process can be illustrated as follow for one particular strain distribution.
Page 45
Figure 4.3.2-4 Stress-Strain relationship for column
In the actual design, interaction charts prepared for uniaxial bending can be used. The
procedure involves:
Assume a cross section, d and evaluate d/h to choose appropriate chart

Compute:
o Normal force ratio: % /O P}

o Moment ratios: n #% /O P}"

Enter the chart and pick (the mechanical steel ratio), if the coordinate (, ) lies
within the families of curves. If the coordinate (, ) lies outside the chart, the cross
section is small and a new trail need to be made.
Compute , = O /O
Check Atot satisfies the maximum and minimum provisions
Determine the distribution of bars in accordance with the charts requirement
4.3.3. Column under bi-axial bending

There are situations in which axial compression is accompanied by simultaneous bending
about both principal axes of the section. This is the case in corner columns, interior or edge
columns with irregular column layout. For such columns, the determination of failure load is
extremely laborious and making manual computation difficult.
Consider the Rc column section shown under axial force P acting with eccentricities ex and
ey, such that ex = My/p, ey = Mx/P from centroidal axes (Fig. 4.3.3-1c).
In Fig. Fig. 4.3.3-1a the section is subjected to bending about the y axis only with eccentricity
ex. The corresponding strength interaction curve is shown as Case (a) (see Fig. 4.3.3-1d).
Such a curve can be established by the usual methods for uni-axial bending. Similarly, in Fig.
4.1-16b the section is subjected to bending about the x axis only with eccentricity ey. The
corresponding strength interaction curve is shown as Case (b) (see Fig. 4.3.3-1d). For case
(c), which combines x and y axis bending, the orientation of the resultant eccentricity is
defined by the angle
Page 46
C #b
arctan arctan
#bC
Bending for this case is about an axis defined by the angle with respect to the x-axis. For
other values of , similar curves are obtained to define the failure surface for axial load plus
bi-axial bending.
Any combination of Pu, Mux, and Muy falling outside the surface would represent failure.
Note that the failure surface can be described either by a set of curves defined by radial
planes passing through the Pn axis or by a set of curves defined by horizontal plane
intersections, each for a constant Pn, defining the load contours (see Fig. 4.3.3-1).
Figure 4.3.3-1 Interaction diagram for compression plus bi-axial bending
Computation commences with the successive choice of neutral axis distance c for each value
of q. Then using the strain compatibility and stress-strain relationship, bar forces and the
concrete compressive resultant can be determined. Then Pn, Mnx, and Mny (a point on the
interaction surface) can be determined using the equation of equilibrium
Since the determination of the neutral axis requires several trials, the procedure using the
above expressions is tedious. Thus, the following simple approximate methods are widely
used.
1. Load contour method: It is an approximation on load versus moment interaction

surface (see Fig. 4.3.3-1). Accordingly, the general non-dimensional interaction
equation of family of load contours is given by:
#OC #O

+ 1
#OC #O
Page 47
QO
<b 0.667 + 1.667 1.15 <b 2
QO
where: Mdx = Pdey

Mdy = Pdex
Mdxo = Mdx when Mdy = 0 (design capacity under uni-axial bending about x)
Mdyo = Mdy when Mdx = 0 (design capacity under uni-axial bending about y)
2. Reciprocal method/Breslers equation: It is an approximation of bowl shaped failure

surface by the following reciprocal load interaction equation.
1 1 1 1
+
QOC QOC QO QO
Where: Pd = design (ultimate) load capacity of the section with eccentricities edy and
edx
Pdxo = ultimate load capacity of the section for uni axial bending with edx only
(edy = 0)
Pdyo = ultimate load capacity of the section for uni axial bending with edy only
(edx = 0)
Pdo = concentric axial load capacity (edx = edy = 0)
However interaction charts prepared for biaxial bending can be used for actual design. The
procedure involves:
Select cross section dimensions h and b and also h and b

Calculate h/h and b/b and select suitable chart
Compute:
Normal force ratio: % /O P}

Moment ratios: n # /O } and nf #f /O P

Select suitable chart which satisfy and ratio:
Enter the chart to obtain
Compute , = O /O

Check Atot satisfies the maximum and minimum provisions
Determine the distribution of bars in accordance with the charts requirement
Page 48
4.4. Analysis of columns according to EBCS 2 (short and slender)
Classification of Frames
A frame may be classified as non-sway for a given load case if the critical load ratio for that
load case satisfies the criterion:
O
0.1

Where: Nsd is the design value of the total vertical load

Ncr is its critical value for failure in a sway mode
In Beam-and-column type plane frames in building structures with beams connecting each
column at each story level may be classified as non-sway for a given load case, when first-
order theory is used, the horizontal displacements in each story due to the design loads
(both horizontal and vertical), plus the initial sway imperfection satisfy the following
criteria.
W
0.1
T
Where: is the horizontal displacement at the top of the story, relative to the
bottom of the story
L is the story height
H is the total horizontal reaction at the bottom of the story
N is the total vertical reaction at the bottom of the story,
For frame structures, the effects of imperfections may be allowed for in frame analysis by
means of an equivalent geometric imperfection in the form of an initial sway imperfection
(assuming that the structure is inclined to the vertical at an angle) determined by:
a. For single story frames or for structures loaded mainly at the top
tan = 1i150
b. For other types of frames
tan = 1i200
Where the effects of imperfections are smaller than the effects of design horizontal actions,
their influence may be ignored. Imperfections need net be considered in accidental
combinations of actions.
The displacement in the above equation shall be determined using stiffness values for
beams and columns corresponding to the ultimate limit state. As an approximation,
Page 49
displacements calculated using moment of inertia of the gross section may be multiplied by
the ratio of the gross column stiffness Ig to the effective column stiffness Ie (see the
following section) to obtain .
All frames including sway frames shall also be checked for adequate resistance to failure in
non-sway modes
Determination of story buckling Load Ncr
Unless more accurate methods are used, the buckling load of a story may be assumed to be
equal to that of the substitute beam-column frame defined in Fig. and may be determined
as:
$R

T"R
Where: EIe is the effective stiffness of the substitute column designed using the
equivalent reinforcement area.
Le is the effective length. It may be determined using the stiffness properties of the
gross concrete section for both beams and columns of the substitute frame (see Fig.
4.4-1c )
In lieu of a more accurate determination, the effective stiffness of a column EIe may be
taken as:
$R 0.2 $ + $
Where: Ec = 1100fcd
Es is the modulus of elasticity of steel
Ic, Is, are the moments of inertia of the concrete and reinforcement sections,
respectively, of the substitute column, with respect to the centroid of the concrete
section (see Fig. 4.4-1c)
or alternatively
#f
$R 0.4 $
>1i\f A
Where: Mb is the balanced moment capacity of the substitute column

1/rb is the curvature at balanced load and may be taken as
1i = 5 10V
\f
The equivalent reinforcement areas, As, tot, in the substitute column to be used for
calculating Is and Mb may be obtained by designing the substitute column at each floor level
to carry the story design axial load and amplified sway moment at the critical section. The
Page 50
equivalent column dimensions of the substitute column may be taken as shown in Fig,
below, in the case of rectangular columns. Circular columns may be replaced by square
columns of the same cross-sectional area. In the above, concrete cover and bar
arrangement in the substitute columns shall be taken to be the same as those of the actual
columns.
The amplified sway moment, to be used for the design of the substitute column, may be
found iteratively taking the first-order design moment in the substitute column as an initial
value.
In lieu of more accurate determination, the first-order design moment, Mdl, at the critical
section of the substitute column may be determined using:
" + 3
#OS T
! + " + 6
Where: 1 and 2 are defined before and shall not exceed 10.
Figure 4.4-1 Substitute Multi-Story Beam-Column Frame
Page 51
Slenderness Ratio
The significance of P (i.e. whether a column is short or slender) is defined by a slenderness

ratio.
In EBCS 2, the slenderness ratio is defined as follows:
TR
a) For isolated columns, the slenderness ratio is defined by:

_
where: Le is the effective buckling length
i is the minimum radius of gyration. The radius of gyration is equal to
_ c$i
Where: I is the second moment of area of the section

A is cross sectional area
b) For multistory sway frames comprising rectangular sub frames, the following expression
may be used to calculate the slenderness ratio of the columns in the same story.
c12it T
a
where: A is the sum of the cross-sectional areas of all the columns of the story
Kl is the total lateral stiffness of the columns of the story (story rigidity), with
modulus of elasticity taken as unity
L is the story height
Limits of Slenderness
The slenderness ratio of concrete columns shall not exceed 140

Second order moment in a column can be ignored if
a) For sway frames, the greater of
25

15/O
O = O /O
b) For non-sway frames
#!
50 25
#"
Page 52
Where: M1 and M2 are the first-order (calculated) moments at the ends, M2 being
always positive and greater in magnitude than M1, and M1 being positive if member is
bent in single curvature and negative if bent in double curvature
Effective Length of Columns
Effective buckling length is the length between points of inflection of columns and it is the
length which is effective against buckling. The greater the effective length, the more likely
the column is to be buckle.
The effective length of the column, Le, can be determined from Fig 4.4-2, alignment charts
(see Fig. 4.4-3), or using approximate equations.
i. Figure for idealized condition is used when the support conditions of the column can be
closely represented by those shown in the figure below.
Figure 4.4-2 Effective length factors for centrally loaded columns with various idealized
conditions
Page 53
ii. The alignment chart (see Fig. 4.4-3) is used for members that are parts of a framework.
Figure 4.4-3 Alignment Charts/Nomo graph for effective length of columns in continuous
frames
iii. Approximate equations. The effect of end restrained is quantified by the two end
restrain factors 1 and 2
Figure 4.4-4 Model for computing stiffness coefficients
Page 54
= $S /TS
<! [\ <"
= D$f /Tf
Where Ecm is modulus of elasticity of concrete

Lcol is column height
Lb is span of the beam
Icol, Ib are moment of inertia of the column and beam respectively
is factor taking in to account the condition of restraint of the beam at the opposite
end
= 1.0 opposite end elastically or rigidly restrained
= 0.5 opposite end free to rotate
= 0 for cantilever beam
Note that: if the end of the column is fixed, the theoretical value of is 0, but an value of
1 is recommended for use. On the other hand, if the end of the member is pinned, the
theoretical value of is infinity, but an value of 10 is recommended for use. The rationale
behind the foregoing recommendations is that no support in reality can be truly fixed or
pinned.
The following approximate equations can be used provided that the values of 1 and 2
dont exceed 10 (see EBCS 2).
T <= + 0.4
(a) Non-sway mode

T
0.7
<= + 0.8
(b) In Sway mode

T 7.5 + 4><! + <" A + 1.6<! <"

T
1.15
7.5 + <! + <"
Or Conservatively,
T
= 1 + 0.8<= 1.15
T
Where 1 and 2 are as defined above and m is defined as:
<! + <"
<= =
2
Note that: for flats slab construction, an equivalent beam shall be taken as having the width
and thickness of the slab forming the column strip.
Page 55
Design of columns, EBSC-2 1995
General
The internal forces and moments may generally be determined by elastic global analysis
using either first order theory or second order theory.
a) First-order theory, using the initial geometry of the structure, may be used in the
following cases
Non-sway frames
Braced frames
Design methods which make indirect allowances for second-order effects.
b) Second-order theory, taking into account the influence of the deformation of the
structure, may be used in all cases.
A. Design of Non-sway Frames
Individual non-sway compression members shall be considered to be isolated elements and

be designed accordingly.
Design of Isolated Columns
For buildings, a design method may be used which assumes the compression members to be
isolated. The additional eccentricity induced in the column by its deflection is then
calculated as a function of slenderness ratio and curvature at the critical section
Total eccentricity
1. The total eccentricity to be used for the design of columns of constant cross-section at
the critical section is given by:
R + + "
Where: ee is equivalent constant first-order eccentricity of the design axial

load
ea is the additional eccentricity allowance for imperfections. For isolated
TR
columns:
20``
300
e2 is the second-order eccentricity
First order equivalent eccentricity
i. For first-order eccentricity e0 is equal at both ends of a column
R
ii. For first-order moments varying linearly along the length, the equivalent
eccentricity is the higher of the following two values:
Page 56
R 0.6" + 0.4!
R 0.4
Where: e01 and e02 are the first-order eccentricities at the ends, e02 being positive and
greater in magnitude than e01. e01 is positive if the column bents in single curvature and
negative if the column bends in double curvature.
Figure 4.4-5
iii. For different eccentrics at the ends, (2) above, the critical end section shall be
checked for first order moments:
" +
Second order eccentricity
i. The second-order eccentricity e2 of an isolated column may be obtained as
B! T"R 1
" > i\A
10
Where: Le is the effective buckling length of the column
k1= /20 - 0.75 for 15 35
k1= 1.0 for >35
l/r is the curvature at the critical section.
ii. The curvature is approximated by:

1 5
= B" 10V
\
Where: d is the effective column dimension in the plane of buckling
k2 =Md /Mb
Md is the design moment at the critical section including second-order
effects
Page 57
Mb is the balanced moment capacity of the column.
iii. The appropriate value of k2 may be found iteratively taking an initial value
corresponding to first-order actions.
B. Design of Sway Frames
The second order effects in the sway mode can be accounted using either of the following
two methods:
a. Second-order elastic global analysis: When this analysis is used, the resulting forces and
moment may directly be used for member design.
b. Amplified Sway Moments Method: In this method, the sway moments found by a first-
order analysis shall be increased by multiplying them by the moment magnification
1
factor:
W

1 O

Where: Nsd is the design value of the total vertical load

Ncr is its critical value for failure in a sway mode.
O
The amplified sway moments method shall not be used when the critical load ratio
i > 0.25 Sway moments are those associated with the horizontal translation of the

top of story relative to the bottom of that story. They arise from horizontal loading and may
also arise from vertical loading if either the structure or the loading is asymmetrical.

As an alternative to determining Oi direct, the following approximation may be used

O
in beam and-column type frames i = WiT

In the presence of torsional eccentricity in any floor of a structure, unless more accurate
methods are used, the sway moments due to torsion should be increased by multiplying
them by the larger moment magnification factor s, obtained for the two orthogonal
directions of the lateral loads acting on the structure.
Effect of Creep
Creep effects may be ignored if the increase in the first-order bending moments due to
creep deformation and longitudinal force does not exceed 10%.
The effect of creep can be accounted by:
a) For isolated columns in non-sway structures, creep may be allowed for by multiplying
the curvature for short-term loads( see the expression of curvature in second order
eccentricity) by (1 + d), where d, is the ratio of dead load design moment to total
design moment, always taken as positive.
b) For sway frames, the effective column stiffness may be divided by (1 + d), where d, is
as defined above.
Page 58
Slender columns bent about the major axis
A slender column bent about the major axis may be treated as bi-axially loaded with initial
eccentricity ea acting about the minor axis
Biaxial Bending of Columns
a) Small Ratios of Relative Eccentricity
Columns of rectangular cross-section which are subjected to biaxial bending may be

checked separately for uni-axial bending in each respective direction provided the relative
eccentricities are such that k 0.2; where k denotes the ratio of the smaller relative
eccentricity to the larger relative eccentricity.
The relative eccentricity, for a given direction, is defined as the ratio of the total eccentricity,
allowing for initial eccentricity and second-order effects in that direction, to the column
width in the same direction.
b) Approximate Method
Columns of rectangular cross-section which are subjected to biaxial bending may be

checked separately for uni-axial bending in each respective.
If the above condition is not satisfied, the following approximate method of calculation can
be used, in the absence of more accurate methods.
For this approximate method, one-fourth of the total reinforcement must either be
distributed along each face of the column or at each corner. The column shall be designed
for uni-axial bending with the following equivalent uni-axial eccentricity of load, eeq along
the axis parallel to the larger relative eccentricity:
R >1 + B<A
Where: etot denotes the total eccentricity in the direction of the larger relative eccentricity
k denotes the relative eccentricity ratio as defined in above.
may be obtained from the following table as a function of the relative normal
force
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

0.6 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.5
Detailing
The minimum lateral dimension of a column shall be at least 150 mm.
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Page 59
The area of longitudinal reinforcement shall neither be less than 0.008Ac nor more
than 0.08AC. The upper limit shall be observed even where bars overlap.
For columns with a larger cross-section than required by considerations of loading, a
reduced effective area not less than one-half die total area may be used to
determine minimum reinforcement and design strength
The minimum number of longitudinal reinforcing bars shall be 6 for bars in a circular
arrangement and 4 for bars in a rectangular arrangement
The diameter of longitudinal bars shall not be less than 12 mm
Lateral Reinforcement
The diameter of ties or spirals shall not be less than 6 mm or one quarter of the
diameter of the longitudinal bars.
The center-to-center spacing of lateral reinforcement shall not exceed:
12 times the minimum diameter of longitudinal bars.

least dimension of column
300 mm
Ties shall be arranged such that every bar or group of bars placed in a corner and
alternate longitudinal bar shall have lateral support provided by the corner of a tie
with an included angle of not more than 1350 and no bar shall be further than 150
mm clear on each side along the tie from such a laterally supported bar( see Fig. )
Up to five longitudinal bars in each corner may be secured against lateral buckling by
means of the main ties. The center-to-center distance between the outermost of
these bars and the corner bar shall not exceed 15 times the diameter of the tie (see
Fig.)
=C 350 ``
Spirals or circular ties may be used for longitudinal bars located around the
perimeter of a circle. The pitch of spirals shall not exceed 100 mm.
Figure 4.4-6 a) Measurement between laterally Supported column bars (b) Requirements
for main and intermediate ties
Page 60
RCS II Design for Torsion Chapter V
Design for Torsion
5.1. Introduction
Many type of loading produce torsion in reinforced concrete members. The resultant torsion may be
classified into two types; equilibrium torsion and compatibility torsion.
Equilibrium Torsion: It is that which is required to maintain equilibrium of the member. In such
situations, the external load has no option but to be carried by torsion. There exists no alterative
load path or mechanism by which the load can be transferred through the member. Equilibrium
torsion is of primary interest in design because failure of the member is inevitable, if it has
insufficient torsion.
Compatibility Torsion: This type of torsion occurs in intermediate structures having rigid connected
members. It results from the compatibility of deformation of members meeting at a point owning to
the monolithic nature of their construction. Most members in concert structures undergo a certain
degree of compatibility torsion.
Figure 5.1-1 a) Equilibrium torsion b) Compatibility torsion
EBCS-2, 1995 allows compatibility torsion to be ignored in ultimate state calculation. However, the
resulting secondary effects such as cracking shall be considered in serviceability limit sate and
detailing.
5.2. Behavior of concrete members subjected to torsion

Consider the rectangular member subjected to a torsion T. Since there is no other external force and
ignoring self-weight, the member is considered to be in pure torsion. The torque causes the member
to twist and develop shear stress. Consider a small element on each face of the member, as for
members with applied shear, shear stresses act on the side of each element in the direction shown
in figure.
Page 61
Figure 5.2-1 Stress caused by torsion
The principal stress cause the development of cracks inclined at an angle. These cracks form spiral all
around the member. Since the shear stresses in the member with torsion are greatest at the surface,
these cracks develop inward from the surface of the member.
Figure 5.2-2 Torsional cracks
The torsional strength of the concrete member can be significantly increased by providing suitable
reinforcement across the crack. These are usually provided in the form of closed stirrups and
longitudinal bars distributed around the periphery of the section.
5.3. Equivalent Truss Analogy

To quantify the behavior of members with torsional reinforcement, an equivalent space truss model
can be used. This theory assumes that solid members can be designed as equivalent hollow
members.
Extensive tests indicate that this is a fair assumption because the presence of the concrete at the
center of the member does not have a very significant effect on its torsional resistance. The
thickness of the wall, t is

.2.1

Where: Ag is the cross sectional area of the member

U The length of the perimeter
Page 62
Figure 5.3-1 Space truss analogy
Each leg of the closed stirrups act as a tension element, the longitudinal bar acts as continuous top
and bottom chords and the concert in the compression between cracks act as compression struts.
Figure 5.3-2 Detail of space truss analogy
Traverse reinforcement
The number of stirrups crossing a side face of the height yo is
cot
! 5.2

Assume reinforcement has yielded; the total vertical shear transmitted across the cracks by the
stirrups on one face is,
! = ! SR O
cot
! = SR O 5.3

Similarly, the shear force transmitted across the top face or bottom face is,
Page 63
Y cot
" SR O 5.4

The shear force on the side wall of thin-walled members is the product of the average stress due to
the applied load and the surface area. Hence the shear on the side wall is,
! = > A 5.5
Where is the shear stress in the thin-wall can be obtained by,
u
= 5.6
2Rx
Where Aef - area in the permitted bounded by the center line of the wall
T Applied torsion
Substituting for from equation 5.6,
u
! = , Rx Y
2Rx
u 2! Y 5.7
u 2" 5.8
Substituting equation 5.3 into equation 5.6,
2Y cot
u= SR O 5.9

Thus the stirrups required to resist the torsion is,
u u
SR = 5.10
2Y cot O 2Rx cot O
Longitudinal Reinforcement
In addition to the stirrups required, longitudinal reinforcement is required to resist torsion. Referring
to figure 5.3-2, equilibrium at a joint of the truss where members meet,
! ! cot
Substituting equation 5.3 in the above expression,
cot
! SR O cot

The total force in the longitudinal members from all four joint at a given cross-section becomes,
2! cot + 2" cot = 2>! + " Acot
If the total area of the longitudinal reinforcement is Along , then
Page 64
Sb O 2>! + " Acot
Substituting the values of V1 and V2,
uRx cot
Sb
2Rx O
Compressive force in the struts
Considering the compressive force in the struts or diagonal members,
!
N
sin
This force should be resisted by the concrete between diagonal cracks. The surface area to which
this forces is applied is,> cos A. Hence the stress in struts becomes C/A.
! / sin !
Z O . .
cos sin cos
Where is the effectiveness factor for torsion given by,

X ~0.7>0.7 @ 200A
0.35
From equation *,
! Z sin cos O
" Z Y sin cos O
Hence the allowable torque which the section can sustain is,
u ! Y H " 2Y sin cos O
Some codes recommend that 22o 68o
5.3.1. Members with combined actions

For members with combined torsion and shear, the section should satisfy the interaction equation,
u " "
H Z 1.0
u O
Where: T and V applied torsion and shear force respectively,

Tw and VRD allowable section capacity.
Page 65
5.4. Design for torsion according to EBCS2-1995
To limiting the value of the ultimate torsion in order to prevent diagonal compression failure in the
concrete, the torsion capacity of the section shall not be less than the applied torsion.
u 0.8O Rx Rx
Rx
Rx =
5
Where: Aeff area enclosed within the center line of the thin-wall section
def diameter of the largest circle which can be inscribed within the outer perimeter.
Ag Gross cross-sectional area of concrete.
Figure 5.4-1 Equivalent hollow section
The torsional resistance of the concrete shall be taken as,
u 1.2O Rx Rx
The torsional resistance of the stirrups shall be taken as,
2Rx O SR

uRx =

The torsional resistance of the longitudinal reinforcement shall be taken as,
2Rx O Sb

uRx =
Rx
Where: Tef The net torsional force to be designed for, Tsd - Tc

Aleg The cross-sectional area of the stirrups
Along The cross-sectional area of the longitudinal reinforcement
Uef The mean perimeter enclosing the area Aef
5.4.1. Combined action effects

For torsion and bending acting together, simple superposition can be applied. When torsion exists
with shear the interaction of the two action effects should be considered. This can be done by
applying reduction factors for torsion and shear capacity.
The limiting values of torsional and shear resistance become,
Page 66
u,=f D u ,=f D
ve /e " ve /e "
D 1ic1 + > A D 1ic1 + > A
ve /e ve /e
Further the torsional and shear resistance of the concrete becomes,
u,=f D u ,=f D
ve /y " ve /y "
D 1ic1 + > A D 1ic1 + > A
ve /y ve/y
5.4.2. Design consideration

The minimum web reinforcement for torsion is,
0.4

Spacing of stirrups shall not be exceeding Ueff/8.

The longitudinal bars required for torsion shall be distributed uniformly around the
perimeter of the enclosed stirrups at a spacing not exceeding 350mm.
At least one longitudinal bar shall be placed in each corner of the enclosed stirrups.
Page 67

Rcs - Ii Plastic Moment Redistribution: Figure 1.2-1 Curvature

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RCS II Plastic Moment Redistribution Chapter I

Plastic Moment Redistribution

Method of analysis allowed in EBCS -2

i. Elastic, optionally followed by inelastic (plastic) moment redistribution

1.2. Moment curvature relationship

Figure 1.2-1 Curvature

AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering Instructor: Misgun S.

From similarity of triangles,

Moment of Inertia of Transformed Section

AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering Instructor: Misgun S.

Figure 1.2-2 Transformed Sections

Figure 1.2-3 Under-reinforced concrete beam section, subject to flexural cracking

In the limit case of figure 1.2-3b

Where, lut is the moment of inertia of the un-cracked transformed section.

AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering Instructor: Misgun S.

Figure 1.2-4 Moment-Curvature relationship of reinforced beam

' () , f', f() and 0 1 2

' () f() kjbd"

i. cm 2 and N.A. within the section

ii. cm 2 and N.A. within the section

iii. cm 2 and N.A. outside the section

Then the total compressive force will be,

1.3. Plastic hinges and collapse mechanisms

If such a plastic hinge forms in a determinate structure, as shown in figure 1.3-1, an

AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering Instructor: Misgun S.

Problem of congestion of reinforcement especially at supports can be addressed by adjusting

N.B. Plastic Moment redistribution is applicable only to statically indeterminate structures

AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering Instructor: Misgun S.

1.4. Rotation Requirement

AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering Instructor: Misgun S.

Generally, the amount of redistribution depends on

Figure 1.4-1 Moment-curvature diagram

AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering Instructor: Misgun S.

For example, for 20% redistribution

Requirements for applying moment - redistribution are:-

Equilibrium between internal and external forces must be maintained; hence it is

Design procedure using table No. 1a & 1b (with moment redistribution)

Enter the general design table 1a using km and concrete grade.

b) If B= > B= , the section has to be doubly reinforced.

AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering Instructor: Misgun S.

a) Ifn 1 n , section is singly reinforced.

Evaluate Z from chart using Bo p/

Evaluate Z* from chart using Bo p /

AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering Instructor: Misgun S.

CONTINUOUS BEAMS AND ONE-WAY RIBBED SLABS

2.2. Analysis and design of continuous beams

Figure 2.2-1 One-way slab and continuous beam

AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering Instructor: Misgun S.

Figure 2.2-2 Influence line for moment and loading patterns

AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering Instructor: Misgun S.

Figure 2.2-3 Influence line for shear

AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering Instructor: Misgun S.

AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering Instructor: Misgun S.

Classification: Beam supported slabs may be classified as:

Figure 2.3-1 One-way slab

AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering Instructor: Misgun S.

Figure 2.3-2 One-way and two-way slab action

The following minimum thicknesses shall be adopted in design:

2.4. Analysis and design of one-way ribbed slabs

Figure 2.4-1 Typical ribbed slab cross-section

Because joists are closely spaced, thickness of slab (topping),

Ribs shall not be less than 70 mm in width

AAiT, Department of Civil Engineering Instructor: Misgun S.

=ab , |}\ _ _ #Q

>#f + #O A + #Rx >|j" j!" A

>O + O AT" 2 "