Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Part - IV
Mrinal K Mandal
mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Department of E & ECE
I.I.T. Kharagpur. 721302.
www.ecdept.iitkgp.ernet.in
1
Operational Amplifier (Op-amp)
+Vps
Inverting Ro
vi1 - vi1
Ri
Non-inverting =v o A d (v i 2 v i 1 ) . +
vdep vo
-
vi2 + vi2
-Vps
Equivalent circuit.
Circuit symbol.
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Practical op-amp
A cm
v=
o A d (v i 2 v i 1 ) + (v i 2 + v i 1 ) .
1.0 2
Ad
10 Hz 1 MHz CMRR = ,
A cm
Log(Freq.)
Frequency response of an IC741C. Ad
= 20log10 dB.
A cm
Gain B.W. = 1 MHz.
Input voltage.
Output should be zero when the voltage difference between the inputs is zero
(e.g. inputs are grounded). Real op-amps have some amount of output offset
voltage.
Offset null adjustment: use a three terminals variable resistor between 1, 5 and
the variable point to +/-VCC.
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Non-inverting amplifier:
Rf 3
i2 + 6 Vo
R1 2
i1 2 Vi - Rf
- 6
3 Vo
+ R1
Vi Vi
vi 0 vi v o v i 2nd method:
=i1 = = , i2 .
R1 R1 Rf From the voltage divider formed by Rf and R1,
v v v i R1
Now, i 1 =i 2 i = o v = v ,
R1 Rf i o
R1 + Rf
v Rf vo Rf
o =+ 1 . 1
=+ .
vi R1 vi R1
Rf
Av =+ 1 ( closed loop voltage gain ) .
R1 6
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Given that R2 = R1||Rf. Calculate the closed loop Rf
i2
voltage gain. R1
Rf i1 2
Answer: A v = 1 + vi 2
- 6
R1 Vo
R1 vi1 3 +
finite Ad , v i 2
For= v o , v i 1 v i 2 and
R1 + Rf R2
Vi
(v i 2 v i 1 ) Ad =
vo.
vo 1 + Rf R1
Av = = .
v i 1 + (1 + Rf R1 ) A d
Ad Ro
Input resistance, Rin =
1 + Ri , output resistance, Rout = .
A v 1 + A d A v
Calculate Rin and Rout, and the bandwidth of the following non-inverting circuit.
A d =2 105 , Ri =2M , Ro =75 , R1 =1k , Rf =39 k , R 2 =1k , f unity =1 MHz.
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Answer: Av = 40, Rin 10 G, Rout 0.01 , and bandwidth = = 25 kHz.
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Inverting amplifier:
Rf Rule 1: input 2 is at zero virtually
i2
grounded.
R1
i1 2 Rule 2: i1 = i2.
- 6
Vi 3 Vo
+ vi 0 vi
=i1 = .
R1 R1
Virtually Rf
grounded v o =i 1Rf =v i .
R1
Inverting amplifier circuit. Rf
Av =
( closed loop voltage gain ) .
R1
Vi
Input resistance, R=
in = R1.
i1
R 2 R1
For finite Ad , Av = .
1 + (1 + R 2 R1 ) A d
Design an inverting amplifier with closed loop gain of 20 and input resistance of
10 k. Answer: R1 = 10 k, Rf = 200 k.
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Importance Of Feedback Resistor
Negative feedback:
Rf = 100 k Rf = 100 k
R1 = 10 k R1 = 10 k
2
- 6 Va
Vi 3 Vo Vi Vo
+
Transient response:
At
= t 0,=V i 0.1 V and= Vo 0.
From the voltage divider,
100 k
VA = 0.1 0.091V .
100 k + 10 k
Op-amp sees enormous input unbalance inputs force output to go negative
Va decreases continues until Vo = -1 V and Va = 0 V.
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Voltage follower:
Non-inverting amplifier with R1 , Rf 0.
2 Rf
- 6 Av =+
1 =1.
3 Vo R1
+
Unity gain amplifier with 100% negative feedback.
Vi
Rin , Rout 0.
Inverting amplifier circuit.
V1 V2 Vn
Weighted summer:
= I1 , I2
= In
, ...= .
R1 R2 Rn
R1 I1
Rf Applying KCL,
V1 If
R2 I2 I f = I 1 + I 2 + ... + I n
V2
0 Vo V1 V 2 V
2
- = + + ... + n
Vn
Rn In 6 Rf R1 R2 Rn
3 Vo
+
V V V
Vo =Rf 1 + 2 + ... + n
R 1 R2 Rn
Weighted summer circuit. = (V1 +V 2 + ... +V n ) For R 1 =R2 =... =Rn =Rf
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Implement the following function. The biasing voltage is 10 V. Current through
the feedback resistor should not exceed 1 mA.
vo = (v 1 + 5v 2 ) .
Answer:
10 10 k
Rf = =10 k . V1 10 k
min
10 3
v1 v 2 2 k
vo = Rf + = (v 1 + 5v 2 ) 2
R 1 R 2
V2 - 6
3 Vo
+
R 1 = Rf = 10 k , and
R=
2 Rf =
5 2 k .
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Capacitor-coupled inverting amplifier:
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Op-amp Applications
Capacitor-coupled non-inverting amplifier:
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Differencial amplifier:
Inverting amplifier R 1, R 2 , V i 1.
R2
Non-inverting amplifier R 1, R 2 , VR 4 .
R1 2
Vi1 - 6 Use superposition theorem:
R3
3 Vo R2
Vi2 + For V i2 = 0, output voltage V 01 = V i 1.
VR4 R1
R4
R
For V i1= 0, output voltage V 02= 1 + 2 VR 4 .
Difference amplifier circuit.
R1
R4 R R4
Now, VR 4 = V i 2 V 02 = 1 + 2 V i 2 .
R3 + R 4 R1 R 3 + R 4
R + R2 R4 R
Vo = V 01 +V 02 = 1 Vi 2 2 Vi 1
R1 R 3 + R 4 R1
R2
For
= R 3 R1 and = R 4 R= 2 , V o (Vi 2 Vi 1 ) .
R1
A d (V 3 V 2 ) A c (V 3 +V 2 ) 2.
Non-ideal op-amp: Vo =
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Differential input impedance:
R2 R2 R1 i 2
R1 2 R1 Virtually
Rin1 -
2
- Vi +-
6 6 R1 i short
R1 Vi + R1 3
3 - 3
Rin2 + Vo + Vo
VR2 R2
VR2 R2 VR2 R2
Inverting amplifier R in 1 R 1.
Non-inverting amplifier R in 2 R 1 + R 2 .
Vo {(R 1
R 2 )(V 2 V1 ) +V 2 (R1 R 2 )(V1 V 2 ) V1} (R 4 R 3 )
R
(V 2 V1 )(R 4 R3 ) 1 + 2 R 1
=
2 17
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Amplifier with a T-network:
vi 0
=i1 = i 2. ( 1)
vx R1
R2 i2 R3 i3
i4 Applying KCL at the T-junction,
R1
R4 i2 + i4 =
i3
vi
2
- 0 v x 0 v x v x v o
i1
6 + =
3 +
Vo R2 R4 R3
1 1 1 vo
v x + + = ( 2)
The amplifier circuit. R
2 R 3 R 4 R3
R2
Also v x =
0 i 2R 2 =
v i ( from eqn.1)
R1
R2 1 1 1 vo
v i + + =
R1 R 2 R 3 R 4 R 3
RR 1 1 1
Av = 2 3 + +
R1 R 2 R 3 R 4
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Current-to-voltage converter:
i2 Rf i 2= i 1= i s .
i1
v o = i 2Rf =i s Rf .
2
- 6
3 Vo 2nd method:
is Rs +
Transform the current source to a voltage
source becomes an inverting amplifier
The circuit. =
with v i i s R=
s, R1 R=
s, R2 Rf .
i2 Rf
iD
Applications: widely used in different types
2 of detectors, sensor applications.
- 6
3 Vo
+
iL
RL
vi
i L= i 1= .
i1
R1
2 R1
- 6
3 Vo Problem: floating load.
+
Vi vi
The circuit.
The circuit.
The circuit.
The non-inverting amplifier.
For A d 10 , biasing voltage =
5
12 V,
Vsat 12 1=
11 V Take Rf /R1 according to
Vth condition.
Vth 11 105 =
0.11 mV.
vth
Vo t (mS) vo
Vi t(mS) (V)
(mV)
t
Input voltage. Output voltage.
Non-ideal op-amp takes finite time to respond because of bandwidth limitation.22
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Negative impedance converter:
Vs
R2 Rin =
Is
R1 i2 Vs Vo V V I R
2
- Now, I s = o s =
= 2 2
6
Vo
R3 R3 R3
3 +
Vs R 2
is is = .
R3 R1R 3
Vs
1 R2
=
.
Negative impedance Rin R1R 3
converter.
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
RC Integrator
Consider the output across the capacitor at high frequency i.e. f >>1/Ton.
vin
Loop current is i = ...(1)
R + 1 jC
1 t
vC
RC 0
vin dt ...(4) Low pass filter at high frequency
At high frequency, the voltage across the capacitor is proportional to the time
integration of the input voltage.
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
RC Integrator Waveforms
Integrator circuit
at very high
vc frequency
at medium
vc frequency
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Integrator:
+ vc -
R C
iR 2
- 6
vi + Vo
- 3 +
vi dv
iR = = iC = C o [v C = v o ]
R dt
t
1
v o v i (t ) dt .
RC 0
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Problem with the integrator circuit:
The output saturates if
input Vin has a non-zero DC component,
input bias current is non-zero,
input offset voltage is non-zero.
- vc + Let at t = 0, vc = 0,
t1
R 1
C
v i (t ) dt
RC 0
iR 2 v o = Vos + v C = Vos +
- 6
Vo
3 + V
Vos + os t 1
= [v i Vos ].
=
Vos
RC
+ vc -
R1 C
2
vi - 6 Rf /R1 dB
3 Vo
R2=R1 ||Rf
+
R2 0 dB
fa fb Log (f)
vo Rf || 1 sC Rf Rf = vo Rf
= = . = 1.
vi R1 v R1 1 + C Rf
2 2 2
R1 1 + 2C 2Rf 2 R1 2 i
2
1 R
fa = . 2C 2Rf 2 =
f
1.
2 R f C R
1
1
fb = .
2 R 1 C 29
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Draw the output voltage waveforms for the two following cases:
1 M
vc vc
1V 10 k 10 nF 10 k
2 2 10 nF
- 6 - 6
3 Vo Vo
t (mS) + 3 +
1
Solutions: 1 1
For circuit 1: let at t = 0, vc = 0, t (mS) t (mS)
1
t 1 1
-10 V 2
RC 0
v o( t ) = 1 dt in 0 t 1 mS -10 V
vin i
Differentiator circuit i vin =
vc
1 jC jC ...(2)
dvc
Now, voltage across the resistor is vR= iR= C R ...(3)
dt
dvin
vR R C ...(4)
dt High pass filter at low frequency.
At low frequency, the voltage across the resistor is proportional to the time
differentiation of the input voltage.
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
RC Differentiator Waveforms
Some other waveforms.
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Differentiator:
R
vC v i ,
+ vc -
v o = v R = i R R
2
vi - 6
C
3 +
Vo dv
iC = C C R
dt
dv
= RC i .
Differentiator circuit (simplified). Frequency response. dt
Problems:
At low frequencies, the gain is very small.
At high frequencies, the gain is high: instability.
Noise problem: since the output voltage is proportional to the slope of the
input voltage (dvi/dt), the contribution of noise voltage across C may be more
than the actual input at low frequency (higher slope associated with high
frequency components).
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Improved differentiator:
Cf
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications: Non-Linear
Logarithmic amplifier:
VD
=i D I 0 ( exp (v D VT ) 1) I 0 exp (v D VT )
vi vi
R1 =v D VT ln=
i
D R
I 0R1
2
Vi - 6 1
Vo
3
+ v
vo =
v D =
VT ln i
I 0R 1
Logarithmic amplifier. Limitation: The output voltage is a function
of temperature.
Exponential amplifier:
R1
i D I 0 exp (v D VT ) =
I 0 exp (v i VT )
VD
Vi
2
- 6 v o =R 1 i D = I 0R 1 exp (v i VT ) .
Vo
3
+
Limitation: The output voltage is a function
of temperature.
Exponential amplifier.
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications: Non-Linear
Precision rectifier:
for v i V A d , vo =
V and v L =
0. ( Diode: OFF)
CC
Problems:
Low slew rate: when the feedback path is open, the op-amp output saturates
to vo = -Vcc. It takes some time to change to positive voltage: ringing.
Bandwidth limitation.
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications: Non-Linear
Improved rectifier:
Problems:
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Lowpass filter : R2
R2
+ vc -
+ vc -
R1 R1 C
C 2
2 vi - 6
- 6 Vo
Vo 3 +
3 +
vi
Non-inverting lowpass filter. Inverting lowpass filter.
1 R || X C
Non-inverting: fC = , A dc = 1 + R 2 R1 , and A ac =1+ 2 .
2 R 2C R1
1 R || X C
Inverting: fC = , A dc = R 2 R1 , and A ac = 2 .
2 R 2C R1
R2 /R1 dB
R2 /R1 dB
0 dB
0 dB fc Log (f)
fc Log (f)
Ideal response: non-inverting Ideal response: inverting 38
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Highpass filter :
R2
R2
C R1
C R1 2
2 vi - 6
- 6
3 Vo
3 Vo +
+
vi
Non-inverting highpass filter. Inverting highpass filter.
1 R2
Non-inverting: fC = , A dc = 1, and A ac = 1 + .
2 R 1C R1 + X C
1 R2
Inverting: fC = , Adc = 0, and Aac = .
2 R1C R1 + XC
R2 /R1 dB R2 /R1 dB
0 dB 0 dB
fc Log (f) fc Log (f)
2 vi t
Vi - 6 Vo
3 + Rf Vsat
R1 vo t 2Vsat
-Vsat
Basic Schmitt trigger circuit.
Response of an inverting Schmitt
Note that positive feedback has been trigger circuit.
used.
vo
The triggering points can be given as Vsat
R1 vi
Upper triggering point (UTP
=) v o sat , and
R 1 + R f
-Vsat
R1 LTP UTP
Lower triggering point (LTP ) =
v o sat .
R 1 + R f I/O characteristics.
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Op-amp Applications
Schmitt trigger with adjustable triggering points:
2 vo
Vi - 6 Vo Vsat
3 + D1 D2 vi
R2 R3
-Vsat
R1 LTP UTP
Vo V z R 2V z
=I5 = .
R5 R1R 5
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Departure From Ideal Op-amp
Output should be zero when the voltage difference between the inputs is zero
(e.g. inputs are grounded). Real op-amps have some amount of output offset
voltage.
Bias currents: an offset output voltage as before.
Finite bandwidth.
Slew rate.
CMRR.
vi
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Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Departure From Ideal Op-amp
Effect of input bias current:
3
+ 6 Vo
IB1 3
+ 6 Vo Vi 2 - Rf
Vi 2 - Rf
IB2 IB1 IB2 R1
R1
Gain (dB)
Ad
3
vi1 + 6
2 vo 0 Log(Freq.)
vi2 - f1 fu
Rf
1 Ad + 1 .
R1 + Rf
An op-amp without
the feedback. Frequency response.
The frequency response of the op-amp can be represented by a first-order
system.
vo Ad
( s )= .
v i 1 v i 2 1 + s 1 where 1 is the 3-dB cutoff frequency.
Therefore, the gain of a non-inverting amplifier (closed loop) with finite gain op-amp
is
Ad
Av = .
s Rf
+ A +1
1 R 1 + R f d
Rf
The new cutoff frequency: 1 Ad + 1 .
R + R
1 f 45
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Departure From Ideal Op-amp
Slew rate: The maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit of time.
Vo
SR = V/S.
t
vo
To avoid distorted output signal: t vo
SR 2 f V peak .
Typical SR for IC741 is 0.5V/ S. t
Output voltage.
Slew rate vs. GBP:
Slew-rate and the GBP both represent the
high speed capability of an op-amp. Required
waveform
A high GBP is required when signal
bandwidth is high. The GBP takes into vo t
account the gain of your application. Slewed
Slew rate corresponds to the slope of the waveform
signal and is expressed in V/s. Both the
frequency of operation and the maximum Large signal - high frequency
effect.
output swing are considered.
46
Department of Electronics & Electrical Communication Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Departure From Ideal Op-amp
?
mkmandal@ece.iitkgp.ernet.in
Ph. +91-3222-283550 (o)
Department of E. & E.C.E.
I.I.T. Kharagpur, 721302.
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