4/4/2017 HeatexchangerWikipedia

Heatexchanger
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Aheatexchangerisadeviceusedtotransferheatbetweena
solidobjectandafluid,orbetweentwoormorefluids.The
fluidsmaybeseparatedbyasolidwalltopreventmixingorthey
maybeindirectcontact.[1]Theyarewidelyusedinspace
heating,refrigeration,airconditioning,powerstations,chemical
plants,petrochemicalplants,petroleumrefineries,naturalgas
processing,andsewagetreatment.Theclassicexampleofaheat
exchangerisfoundinaninternalcombustionengineinwhicha
circulatingfluidknownasenginecoolantflowsthroughradiator
coilsandairflowspastthecoils,whichcoolsthecoolantand
heatstheincomingair.Anotherexampleistheheatsink,which Tubularheatexchanger
isapassiveheatexchangerthattransferstheheatgeneratedbyan
electronicoramechanicaldevicetoafluidmedium,oftenairoraliquidcoolant.

Contents

1 Flowarrangement

2 Types

2.1 Shellandtubeheatexchanger

2.2 Plateheatexchangers

2.3 Plateandshellheatexchanger

2.4 Adiabaticwheelheatexchanger

2.5 Platefinheatexchanger

2.6 Pillowplateheatexchanger

2.7 Fluidheatexchangers

2.8 Wasteheatrecoveryunits

2.9 Dynamicscrapedsurfaceheatexchanger

2.10 Phasechangeheatexchangers

2.11 Directcontactheatexchangers

2.12 Microchannelheatexchangers

3 Optimization

4 HVACaircoils
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4 HVACaircoils

5 Helicalcoilheatexchangers

6 Spiralheatexchangers

6.1 Construction

6.2 Selfcleaning

6.3 Flowarrangements

6.4 Applications

7 Selection

8 Monitoringandmaintenance

8.1 Fouling

8.2 Maintenance

9 Innature

9.1 Humans

9.2 Birds,fish,marinemammals

9.3 Carotidrete

10 Inindustry

11 Inaircraft

12 Currentmarketandforecast

13 Amodelofasimpleheatexchanger

14 Seealso

15 References

16 Externallinks

Flowarrangement
Therearethreeprimaryclassificationsofheatexchangersaccordingtotheirflowarrangement.In
parallelflowheatexchangers,thetwofluidsentertheexchangeratthesameend,andtravelinparallel
tooneanothertotheotherside.Incounterflowheatexchangersthefluidsentertheexchangerfrom
oppositeends.Thecountercurrentdesignisthemostefficient,inthatitcantransferthemostheatfrom

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theheat(transfer)mediumperunitmassduetothefactthattheaveragetemperaturedifferencealong
anyunitlengthishigher.Seecountercurrentexchange.Inacrossflowheatexchanger,thefluidstravel
roughlyperpendiculartooneanotherthroughtheexchanger.

Forefficiency,heatexchangersaredesignedtomaximizethesurfaceareaofthewallbetweenthetwo
fluids,whileminimizingresistancetofluidflowthroughtheexchanger.Theexchanger'sperformance
canalsobeaffectedbytheadditionoffinsorcorrugationsinoneorboth
directions,whichincreasesurfaceareaandmaychannelfluidflowor
induceturbulence.

Thedrivingtemperatureacrosstheheattransfersurfacevarieswith
position,butanappropriatemeantemperaturecanbedefined.Inmost
simplesystemsthisisthe"logmeantemperaturedifference"(LMTD).
SometimesdirectknowledgeoftheLMTDisnotavailableandtheNTU
methodisused.
Countercurrent(A)and
parallel(B)flows
Types
Doublepipeheat
exchangersarethesimplest
exchangersusedin
industries.Ononehand,
theseheatexchangersare
cheapforbothdesignand
maintenance,makingthem
agoodchoiceforsmall
industries.Ontheother
hand,theirlowefficiency Fig.1:Shellandtube Fig.2:Shellandtube Fig.3:Shellandtube
coupledwiththehighspace heatexchanger,single heatexchanger,2pass heatexchanger,2pass
occupiedinlargescales, pass(11parallelflow) tubeside(12 shellside,2passtube
hasledmodernindustries crossflow) side(22
tousemoreefficientheat countercurrent)
exchangerslikeshelland
tubeorplate.However,
sincedoublepipeheatexchangersaresimple,theyareusedtoteachheatexchangerdesignbasicsto
studentsasthefundamentalrulesforallheatexchangersarethesame.

Shellandtubeheatexchanger

Shellandtubeheatexchangersconsistofseriesoftubes.Oneset
ofthesetubescontainsthefluidthatmustbeeitherheatedor
cooled.Thesecondfluidrunsoverthetubesthatarebeingheated
orcooledsothatitcaneitherprovidetheheatorabsorbtheheat
required.Asetoftubesiscalledthetubebundleandcanbemade
upofseveraltypesoftubes:plain,longitudinallyfinned,etc.
Shellandtubeheatexchangersaretypicallyusedforhigh
pressureapplications(withpressuresgreaterthan30barand
temperaturesgreaterthan260C).[2]Thisisbecausetheshell
andtubeheatexchangersarerobustduetotheirshape. Ashellandtubeheatexchanger
Severalthermaldesignfeaturesmustbeconsideredwhen
designingthetubesintheshellandtubeheatexchangers:There
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canbemanyvariationsontheshellandtubedesign.Typically,theendsofeachtubeareconnectedto
plenums(sometimescalledwaterboxes)throughholesintubesheets.Thetubesmaybestraightorbent
intheshapeofaU,calledUtubes.

Tubediameter:Usingasmalltubediametermakestheheatexchangerbotheconomicaland
compact.However,itismorelikelyfortheheatexchangertofoulupfasterandthesmallsize
makesmechanicalcleaningofthefoulingdifficult.Toprevailoverthefoulingandcleaning
problems,largertubediameterscanbeused.Thustodeterminethetubediameter,theavailable
space,costandfoulingnatureofthefluidsmustbeconsidered.
Tubethickness:Thethicknessofthewallofthetubesisusuallydeterminedtoensure:
Thereisenoughroomforcorrosion
Thatflowinducedvibrationhasresistance
Axialstrength
Availabilityofspareparts
Hoopstrength(towithstandinternaltubepressure)
Bucklingstrength(towithstandoverpressureintheshell)
Tubelength:heatexchangersareusuallycheaperwhentheyhaveasmallershelldiameteranda
longtubelength.Thus,typicallythereisanaimtomaketheheatexchangeraslongasphysically
possiblewhilstnotexceedingproductioncapabilities.However,therearemanylimitationsfor
this,includingspaceavailableattheinstallationsiteandtheneedtoensuretubesareavailablein
lengthsthataretwicetherequiredlength(sotheycanbewithdrawnandreplaced).Also,long,thin
tubesaredifficulttotakeoutandreplace.
Tubepitch:whendesigningthetubes,itispracticaltoensurethatthetubepitch(i.e.,thecentre
centredistanceofadjoiningtubes)isnotlessthan1.25timesthetubes'outsidediameter.Alarger
tubepitchleadstoalargeroverallshelldiameter,whichleadstoamoreexpensiveheatexchanger.
Tubecorrugation:thistypeoftubes,mainlyusedfortheinnertubes,increasestheturbulenceof
thefluidsandtheeffectisveryimportantintheheattransfergivingabetterperformance.
TubeLayout:referstohowtubesarepositionedwithintheshell.Therearefourmaintypesoftube
layout,whichare,triangular(30),rotatedtriangular(60),square(90)androtatedsquare(45).
Thetriangularpatternsareemployedtogivegreaterheattransferastheyforcethefluidtoflowin
amoreturbulentfashionaroundthepiping.Squarepatternsareemployedwherehighfoulingis
experiencedandcleaningismoreregular.
BaffleDesign:bafflesareusedinshellandtubeheatexchangerstodirectfluidacrossthetube
bundle.Theyrunperpendicularlytotheshellandholdthebundle,preventingthetubesfrom
saggingoveralonglength.Theycanalsopreventthetubesfromvibrating.Themostcommon
typeofbaffleisthesegmentalbaffle.Thesemicircularsegmentalbafflesareorientedat180
degreestotheadjacentbafflesforcingthefluidtoflowupwardanddownwardsbetweenthetube
bundle.Bafflespacingisoflargethermodynamicconcernwhendesigningshellandtubeheat
exchangers.Bafflesmustbespacedwithconsiderationfortheconversionofpressuredropand
heattransfer.Forthermoeconomicoptimizationitissuggestedthatthebafflesbespacednocloser
than20%oftheshellsinnerdiameter.Havingbafflesspacedtoocloselycausesagreaterpressure
dropbecauseofflowredirection.Consequently,havingthebafflesspacedtoofarapartmeansthat
theremaybecoolerspotsinthecornersbetweenbaffles.Itisalsoimportanttoensurethebaffles
arespacedcloseenoughthatthetubesdonotsag.Theothermaintypeofbaffleisthediscand
doughnutbaffle,whichconsistsoftwoconcentricbaffles.Anouter,widerbafflelookslikea
doughnut,whilsttheinnerbaffleisshapedlikeadisk.Thistypeofbaffleforcesthefluidtopass
aroundeachsideofthediskthenthroughthedoughnutbafflegeneratingadifferenttypeoffluid
flow.

Fixedtubeliquidcooledheatexchangersespeciallysuitableformarineandharshapplicationscanbe
assembledwithbrassshells,coppertubes,brassbaffles,andforgedbrassintegralendhubs.[3](See:
Copperinheatexchangers).

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Plateheatexchangers

Anothertypeofheatexchangeristheplateheatexchanger.
Theseexchangersarecomposedofmanythin,slightlyseparated
platesthathaveverylargesurfaceareasandsmallfluidflow
passagesforheattransfer.Advancesingasketandbrazing
technologyhavemadetheplatetypeheatexchangerincreasingly
practical.InHVACapplications,largeheatexchangersofthis
typearecalledplateandframewhenusedinopenloops,these
heatexchangersarenormallyofthegaskettypetoallowperiodic
disassembly,cleaning,andinspection.Therearemanytypesof
permanentlybondedplateheatexchangers,suchasdipbrazed,
vacuumbrazed,andweldedplatevarieties,andtheyareoften
specifiedforclosedloopapplicationssuchasrefrigeration.Plate
heatexchangersalsodifferinthetypesofplatesthatareused,
andintheconfigurationsofthoseplates.Someplatesmaybe
stampedwith"chevron",dimpled,orotherpatterns,whereothers Conceptualdiagramofaplateand
mayhavemachinedfinsand/orgrooves. frameheatexchanger.

Whencomparedtoshellandtubeexchangers,thestackedplate
arrangementtypicallyhaslowervolumeandcost.Another
differencebetweenthetwoisthatplateexchangerstypically
servelowtomediumpressurefluids,comparedtomediumand
highpressuresofshellandtube.Athirdandimportantdifference
isthatplateexchangersemploymorecountercurrentflowrather
thancrosscurrentflow,whichallowslowerapproach
temperaturedifferences,hightemperaturechanges,andincreased
efficiencies.
Asingleplateheatexchanger
Plateandshellheatexchanger

Athirdtypeofheatexchangerisaplateandshellheat
exchanger,whichcombinesplateheatexchangerwithshelland
tubeheatexchangertechnologies.Theheartoftheheat
exchangercontainsafullyweldedcircularplatepackmadeby
pressingandcuttingroundplatesandweldingthemtogether.
Nozzlescarryflowinandoutoftheplatepack(the'Plateside'
flowpath).Thefullyweldedplatepackisassembledintoanouter
shellthatcreatesasecondflowpath(the'Shellside').Plateand
shelltechnologyoffershighheattransfer,highpressure,high
operatingtemperature,ulingandcloseapproachtemperature.In
particular,itdoescompletelywithoutgaskets,whichprovides
securityagainstleakageathighpressuresandtemperatures.

Adiabaticwheelheatexchanger

Afourthtypeofheatexchangerusesanintermediatefluidor Aninterchangeableplateheat
solidstoretoholdheat,whichisthenmovedtotheothersideof exchangerappliedtothesystemofa
theheatexchangertobereleased.Twoexamplesofthisare swimmingpool

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adiabaticwheels,whichconsistofalargewheelwithfinethreadsrotatingthroughthehotandcold
fluids,andfluidheatexchangers.

Platefinheatexchanger

Thistypeofheatexchangeruses"sandwiched"passagescontainingfinstoincreasetheeffectivenessof
theunit.Thedesignsincludecrossflowandcounterflowcoupledwithvariousfinconfigurationssuchas
straightfins,offsetfinsandwavyfins.

Plateandfinheatexchangersareusuallymadeofaluminumalloys,whichprovidehighheattransfer
efficiency.Thematerialenablesthesystemtooperateatalowertemperaturedifferenceandreducethe
weightoftheequipment.Plateandfinheatexchangersaremostlyusedforlowtemperatureservices
suchasnaturalgas,heliumandoxygenliquefactionplants,airseparationplantsandtransportindustries
suchasmotorandaircraftengines.

Advantagesofplateandfinheatexchangers:

Highheattransferefficiencyespeciallyingastreatment
Largerheattransferarea
Approximately5timeslighterinweightthanthatofshellandtubeheatexchanger.
Abletowithstandhighpressure

Disadvantagesofplateandfinheatexchangers:

Mightcausecloggingasthepathwaysareverynarrow
Difficulttocleanthepathways
AluminumalloysaresusceptibletoMercuryLiquidEmbrittlementFailure

Pillowplateheatexchanger

Apillowplateexchangeriscommonlyusedinthedairyindustryforcoolingmilkinlargedirect
expansionstainlesssteelbulktanks.Thepillowplateallowsforcoolingacrossnearlytheentiresurface
areaofthetank,withoutgapsthatwouldoccurbetweenpipesweldedtotheexteriorofthetank.

Thepillowplateisconstructedusingathinsheetofmetalspotweldedtothesurfaceofanotherthicker
sheetofmetal.Thethinplateisweldedinaregularpatternofdotsorwithaserpentinepatternofweld
lines.Afterweldingtheenclosedspaceispressurisedwithsufficientforcetocausethethinmetalto
bulgeoutaroundthewelds,providingaspaceforheatexchangerliquidstoflow,andcreatinga
characteristicappearanceofaswelledpillowformedoutofmetal.

Fluidheatexchangers

Thisisaheatexchangerwithagaspassingupwardsthroughashoweroffluid(oftenwater),andthe
fluidisthentakenelsewherebeforebeingcooled.Thisiscommonlyusedforcoolinggaseswhilstalso
removingcertainimpurities,thussolvingtwoproblemsatonce.Itiswidelyusedinespressomachines
asanenergysavingmethodofcoolingsuperheatedwatertouseintheextractionofespresso.

Wasteheatrecoveryunits

Awasteheatrecoveryunit(WHRU)isaheatexchangerthatrecoversheatfromahotgasstreamwhile
transferringittoaworkingmedium,typicallywateroroils.Thehotgasstreamcanbetheexhaustgas
fromagasturbineoradieselengineorawastegasfromindustryorrefinery.
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Largesystemswithhighvolumeandtemperaturegasstreams,typicalinindustry,canbenefitfrom
steamRankinecycle(SRC)inawasteheatrecoveryunit,butthesecyclesaretooexpensiveforsmall
systems.Therecoveryofheatfromlowtemperaturesystemsrequiresdifferentworkingfluidsthan
steam.

AnorganicRankinecycle(ORC)wasteheatrecoveryunitcanbemoreefficientatlowtemperature
rangeusingrefrigerantsthatboilatlowertemperaturesthanwater.Typicalorganicrefrigerantsare
ammonia,pentafluoropropane(R245faandR245ca),andtoluene.

Therefrigerantisboiledbytheheatsourceintheevaporatortoproducesuperheatedvapor.Thisfluidis
expandedintheturbinetoconvertthermalenergytokineticenergy,thatisconvertedtoelectricityinthe
electricalgenerator.Thisenergytransferprocessdecreasesthetemperatureoftherefrigerantthat,in
turn,condenses.Thecycleisclosedandcompletedusingapumptosendthefluidbacktothe
evaporator.

Dynamicscrapedsurfaceheatexchanger

Anothertypeofheatexchangeriscalled"(dynamic)scrapedsurfaceheatexchanger".Thisismainly
usedforheatingorcoolingwithhighviscosityproducts,crystallizationprocesses,evaporationandhigh
foulingapplications.Longrunningtimesareachievedduetothecontinuousscrapingofthesurface,thus
avoidingfoulingandachievingasustainableheattransferrateduringtheprocess.

Phasechangeheatexchangers

Inadditiontoheatinguporcoolingdownfluidsinjusta
singlephase,heatexchangerscanbeusedeithertoheata
liquidtoevaporate(orboil)itorusedascondenserstocool
avaporandcondenseittoaliquid.Inchemicalplantsand
refineries,reboilersusedtoheatincomingfeedfor
distillationtowersareoftenheatexchangers.[4][5]

Distillationsetupstypicallyusecondenserstocondense
distillatevaporsbackintoliquid.

Powerplantsthatusesteamdriventurbinescommonlyuse
Typicalkettlereboilerusedforindustrial
heatexchangerstoboilwaterintosteam.Heatexchangersor
distillationtowers
similarunitsforproducingsteamfromwaterareoftencalled
boilersorsteamgenerators.

Inthenuclearpowerplantscalledpressurizedwater
reactors,speciallargeheatexchangerspassheatfromthe
primary(reactorplant)systemtothesecondary(steam
plant)system,producingsteamfromwaterintheprocess.
Thesearecalledsteamgenerators.Allfossilfueledand
nuclearpowerplantsusingsteamdriventurbineshave
surfacecondenserstoconverttheexhauststeamfromthe
turbinesintocondensate(water)forreuse.[6][7]

Toconserveenergyandcoolingcapacityinchemicaland Typicalwatercooledsurfacecondenser
otherplants,regenerativeheatexchangerscantransferheat
fromastreamthatmustbecooledtoanotherstreamthat

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mustbeheated,suchasdistillatecoolingandreboilerfeedpreheating.

Thistermcanalsorefertoheatexchangersthatcontainamaterialwithintheirstructurethathasa
changeofphase.Thisisusuallyasolidtoliquidphaseduetothesmallvolumedifferencebetweenthese
states.Thischangeofphaseeffectivelyactsasabufferbecauseitoccursataconstanttemperaturebut
stillallowsfortheheatexchangertoacceptadditionalheat.Oneexamplewherethishasbeen
investigatedisforuseinhighpoweraircraftelectronics.

HeatexchangersfunctioninginmultiphaseflowregimesmaybesubjecttotheLedinegginstability.

Directcontactheatexchangers

Directcontactheatexchangersinvolveheattransferbetweenhotandcoldstreamsoftwophasesinthe
absenceofaseparatingwall.[8]Thussuchheatexchangerscanbeclassifiedas:

Gasliquid
Immiscibleliquidliquid
Solidliquidorsolidgas

MostdirectcontactheatexchangersfallundertheGasLiquidcategory,whereheatistransferred
betweenagasandliquidintheformofdrops,filmsorsprays.[2]

Suchtypesofheatexchangersareusedpredominantlyinairconditioning,humidification,industrialhot
waterheating,watercoolingandcondensingplants.[9]

Continuous Driving Changeof

Phases[10] Examples
phase force phase
Gas
Gas Gravity No Spraycolumns,packedcolumns
Liquid
Yes Coolingtowers,fallingdropletevaporators
Forced No Spraycoolers/quenchers
Spraycondensers/evaporation,jet
Liquidflow Yes
condensers
Liquid Gravity No Bubblecolumns,perforatedtraycolumns
Yes Bubblecolumncondensers
Forced No Gasspargers
Directcontactevaporators,submerged
Gasflow Yes
combustion

Microchannelheatexchangers

Microheatexchangers,Microscaleheatexchangers,ormicrostructuredheatexchangersareheat
exchangersinwhich(atleastone)fluidflowsinlateralconfinementswithtypicaldimensionsbelow
1mm.Themosttypicalsuchconfinementaremicrochannels,whicharechannelswithahydraulic
diameterbelow1mm.Microchannelheatexchangerscanbemadefrommetal,ceramic,[11]andeven
lowcostplastic.[12]Microchannelheatexchangerscanbeusedformanyapplicationsincluding:

highperformanceaircraftgasturbineengines[13]

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heatpumps[14]
airconditioning[15]
heatrecoveryventilators[16]

Optimization
Therearethreegoalsthatarenormallyconsideredintheoptimaldesignofheatexchangers:(1)
Minimizingthepressuredrop(pumpingpower),(2)Maximizingthethermalperformanceand(3)
Minimizingtheentropygeneration(thermodynamic).Seeforexample:[17]

HVACaircoils
Oneofthewidestusesofheatexchangersisforairconditioningofbuildingsandvehicles.Thisclassof
heatexchangersiscommonlycalledaircoils,orjustcoilsduetotheiroftenserpentineinternaltubing.
Liquidtoair,orairtoliquidHVACcoilsaretypicallyofmodifiedcrossflowarrangement.Invehicles,
heatcoilsareoftencalledheatercores.

Ontheliquidsideoftheseheatexchangers,thecommonfluidsarewater,awaterglycolsolution,steam,
orarefrigerant.Forheatingcoils,hotwaterandsteamarethemostcommon,andthisheatedfluidis
suppliedbyboilers,forexample.Forcoolingcoils,chilledwaterandrefrigerantaremostcommon.
Chilledwaterissuppliedfromachillerthatispotentiallylocatedveryfaraway,butrefrigerantmust
comefromanearbycondensingunit.Whenarefrigerantisused,thecoolingcoilistheevaporatorinthe
vaporcompressionrefrigerationcycle.HVACcoilsthatusethisdirectexpansionofrefrigerantsare
commonlycalledDXcoils.SomeDXcoilsare"microchannel"type.[18]

OntheairsideofHVACcoilsasignificantdifferenceexistsbetweenthoseusedforheating,andthose
forcooling.Duetopsychrometrics,airthatiscooledoftenhasmoisturecondensingoutofit,except
withextremelydryairflows.Heatingsomeairincreasesthatairflow'scapacitytoholdwater.Soheating
coilsneednotconsidermoisturecondensationontheirairside,butcoolingcoilsmustbeadequately
designedandselectedtohandletheirparticularlatent(moisture)aswellasthesensible(cooling)loads.
Thewaterthatisremovediscalledcondensate.

Formanyclimates,waterorsteamHVACcoilscanbeexposedtofreezingconditions.Becausewater
expandsuponfreezing,thesesomewhatexpensiveanddifficulttoreplacethinwalledheatexchangers
caneasilybedamagedordestroyedbyjustonefreeze.Assuch,freezeprotectionofcoilsisamajor
concernofHVACdesigners,installers,andoperators.

Theintroductionofindentationsplacedwithintheheatexchangefinscontrolledcondensation,allowing
watermoleculestoremaininthecooledair.Thisinventionallowedforrefrigerationwithouticingofthe
coolingmechanism.[19]

Theheatexchangersindirectcombustionfurnaces,typicalinmanyresidences,arenot'coils'.Theyare,
instead,gastoairheatexchangersthataretypicallymadeofstampedsteelsheetmetal.Thecombustion
productspassononesideoftheseheatexchangers,andairtoheatontheother.Acrackedheat
exchangeristhereforeadangeroussituationthatrequiresimmediateattentionbecausecombustion
productsmayenterlivingspace.

Helicalcoilheatexchangers

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Althoughdoublepipeheatexchangersarethesimplesttodesign,
thebetterchoiceinthefollowingcaseswouldbethehelicalcoil
heatexchanger(HCHE):

ThemainadvantageoftheHCHE,likethatfortheSHE,is
itshighlyefficientuseofspace,especiallywhenits
limitedandnotenoughstraightpipecanbelaid.[20]
Underconditionsoflowflowrates(orlaminarflow),such
thatthetypicalshellandtubeexchangershavelowheat
transfercoefficientsandbecominguneconomical.[20]
Whenthereislowpressureinoneofthefluids,usually HelicalCoilHeatExchangersketch,
fromaccumulatedpressuredropsinotherprocess whichconsistsofashell,core,and
equipment.[20] tubes(ScottS.Haraburdadesign).
Whenoneofthefluidshascomponentsinmultiplephases
(solids,liquids,andgases),whichtendstocreatemechanicalproblemsduringoperations,suchas
pluggingofsmalldiametertubes.[21]Cleaningofhelicalcoilsforthesemultiplephasefluidscan
provetobemoredifficultthanitsshellandtubecounterparthoweverthehelicalcoilunitwould
requirecleaninglessoften.

Thesehavebeenusedinthenuclearindustryasamethodforexchangingheatinasodiumsystemfor
largeliquidmetalfastbreederreactorssincetheearly1970s,usinganHCHEdeviceinventedbyCharles
E.BoardmanandJohnH.Germer.[22]ThereareseveralsimplemethodsfordesigningHCHEforall
typesofmanufacturingindustries,suchasusingtheRamachandraK.Patil(etal.)methodfromIndia
andtheScottS.HaraburdamethodfromtheUnitedStates.[20][21]

However,thesearebaseduponassumptionsofestimatinginsideheattransfercoefficient,predicting
flowaroundtheoutsideofthecoil,anduponconstantheatflux.[23]Yet,recentexperimentaldata
revealedthattheempiricalcorrelationsarequiteinagreementfordesigningcircularandsquarepattern
HCHEs.[24]Duringstudiespublishedin2015,severalresearchersfoundthattheboundaryconditionsof
theouterwallofexchangerswereessentiallyconstantheatfluxconditionsinpowerplantboilers,
condensersandevaporatorswhileconvectiveheattransferconditionsweremoreappropriateinfood,
automobileandprocessindustries.[25]

Spiralheatexchangers
Amodificationtotheperpendicularflowofthetypical
HCHEinvolvesthereplacementofshellwithanothercoiled
tube,allowingthetwofluidstoflowparalleltooneanother,
andwhichrequirestheuseofdifferentdesign
calculations.[26]ThesearetheSpiralHeatExchangers
(SHE),whichmayrefertoahelical(coiled)tube
configuration,moregenerally,thetermreferstoapairof
flatsurfacesthatarecoiledtoformthetwochannelsina
counterflowarrangement.Eachofthetwochannelshasone
longcurvedpath.Apairoffluidportsareconnected
tangentiallytotheouterarmsofthespiral,andaxialports
arecommon,butoptional.[27] Schematicdrawingofaspiralheat
exchanger.

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ThemainadvantageoftheSHEisitshighlyefficientuseofspace.Thisattributeisoftenleveragedand
partiallyreallocatedtogainotherimprovementsinperformance,accordingtowellknowntradeoffsin
heatexchangerdesign.(Anotabletradeoffiscapitalcostvsoperatingcost.)AcompactSHEmaybe
usedtohaveasmallerfootprintandthuslowerallaroundcapitalcosts,oranoversizedSHEmaybe
usedtohavelesspressuredrop,lesspumpingenergy,higherthermalefficiency,andlowerenergycosts.

Construction

Thedistancebetweenthesheetsinthespiralchannelsismaintainedbyusingspacerstudsthatwere
weldedpriortorolling.Oncethemainspiralpackhasbeenrolled,alternatetopandbottomedgesare
weldedandeachendclosedbyagasketedflatorconicalcoverboltedtothebody.Thisensuresno
mixingofthetwofluidsoccurs.Anyleakageisfromtheperipherycovertotheatmosphere,ortoa
passagethatcontainsthesamefluid.[28]

Selfcleaning

Spiralheatexchangersareoftenusedintheheatingoffluidsthatcontainsolidsandthustendtofoulthe
insideoftheheatexchanger.ThelowpressuredropletstheSHEhandlefoulingmoreeasily.TheSHE
usesaselfcleaningmechanism,wherebyfouledsurfacescausealocalizedincreaseinfluidvelocity,
thusincreasingthedrag(orfluidfriction)onthefouledsurface,thushelpingtodislodgetheblockage
andkeeptheheatexchangerclean."Theinternalwallsthatmakeuptheheattransfersurfaceareoften
ratherthick,whichmakestheSHEveryrobust,andabletolastalongtimeindemanding
environments."Theyarealsoeasilycleaned,openingoutlikeanovenwhereanybuildupoffoulantcan
beremovedbypressurewashing.

SelfCleaningWaterfiltersareusedtokeepthesystemcleanandrunningwithouttheneedtoshutdown
orreplacecartridgesandbags.

Flowarrangements

Therearethreemaintypesofflowsinaspiralheatexchanger:

CountercurrentFlow:Fluidsflowinoppositedirections.Theseareusedforliquidliquid,
condensingandgascoolingapplications.Unitsareusuallymountedverticallywhencondensing
vapourandmountedhorizontallywhenhandlinghighconcentrationsofsolids.
SpiralFlow/CrossFlow:Onefluidisinspiralflowandtheotherinacrossflow.Spiralflow
passagesareweldedateachsideforthistypeofspiralheatexchanger.Thistypeofflowis
suitableforhandlinglowdensitygas,whichpassesthroughthecrossflow,avoidingpressureloss.
Itcanbeusedforliquidliquidapplicationsifoneliquidhasaconsiderablygreaterflowratethan
theother.
DistributedVapour/Spiralflow:Thisdesignisthatofacondenser,andisusuallymounted
vertically.Itisdesignedtocaterforthesubcoolingofbothcondensateandnoncondensables.
Thecoolantmovesinaspiralandleavesviathetop.Hotgasesthatenterleaveascondensatevia
thebottomoutlet.

Applications

TheSpiralheatexchangerisgoodforapplicationssuchaspasteurization,digesterheating,heat
recovery,preheating(see:recuperator),andeffluentcooling.Forsludgetreatment,SHEsaregenerally
smallerthanothertypesofheatexchangers.Theseareusedtotransfertheheat.

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Selection
Duetothemanyvariablesinvolved,selectingoptimalheat
exchangersischallenging.Handcalculationsarepossible,
butmanyiterationsaretypicallyneeded.Assuch,heat
exchangersaremostoftenselectedviacomputerprograms,
eitherbysystemdesigners,whoaretypicallyengineers,or
byequipmentvendors.

Toselectanappropriateheatexchanger,thesystem
designers(orequipmentvendors)wouldfirstlyconsiderthe
designlimitationsforeachheatexchangertype.Thoughcost
isoftentheprimarycriterion,severalotherselectioncriteria
areimportant:
High/lowpressurelimits
Thermalperformance
Temperatureranges
Productmix(liquid/liquid,particulatesorhighsolids
liquid)
Pressuredropsacrosstheexchanger
Fluidflowcapacity
Cleanability,maintenanceandrepair
Materialsrequiredforconstruction
Abilityandeaseoffutureexpansion
Materialselection,suchascopper,aluminum,carbonsteel,stainlesssteel,nickelalloys,ceramic,
polymer,andtitanium.
Acomparisonbetweentheoperationsand
effectsofacocurrentanda
countercurrentflowexchangesystemis
depictedbytheupperandlowerdiagrams
respectively.Inbothitisassumed(and
indicated)thatredhasahighervalue(e.g.
oftemperature)thanblueandthatthe
propertybeingtransportedinthechannels
thereforeflowsfromredtoblue.Notethat
channelsarecontiguousifeffective
exchangeistooccur(i.e.therecanbeno
gapbetweenthechannels).

Smalldiametercoiltechnologiesarebecomingmorepopularinmodernairconditioningand
refrigerationsystemsbecausetheyhavebetterratesofheattransferthanconventionalsizedcondenser
andevaporatorcoilswithroundcoppertubesandaluminumorcopperfinthathavebeenthestandardin
theHVACindustry.Smalldiametercoilscanwithstandthehigherpressuresrequiredbythenew
generationofenvironmentallyfriendlierrefrigerants.Twosmalldiametercoiltechnologiesarecurrently
availableforairconditioningandrefrigerationproducts:coppermicrogroove[29]andbrazedaluminum
microchannel.[30]

Choosingtherightheatexchanger(HX)requiressomeknowledgeofthedifferentheatexchangertypes,
aswellastheenvironmentwheretheunitmustoperate.Typicallyinthemanufacturingindustry,several
differingtypesofheatexchangersareusedforjustoneprocessorsystemtoderivethefinalproduct.For
example,akettleHXforpreheating,adoublepipeHXforthecarrierfluidandaplateandframeHX
forfinalcooling.Withsufficientknowledgeofheatexchangertypesandoperatingrequirements,an
appropriateselectioncanbemadetooptimisetheprocess.[31]

Monitoringandmaintenance
Onlinemonitoringofcommercialheatexchangersisdonebytrackingtheoverallheattransfer
coefficient.Theoverallheattransfercoefficienttendstodeclineovertimeduetofouling.

U=Q/ATlm

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Byperiodicallycalculatingtheoverallheattransfercoefficientfromexchangerflowratesand
temperatures,theowneroftheheatexchangercanestimatewhencleaningtheheatexchangeris
economicallyattractive.

Integrityinspectionofplateandtubularheatexchangercanbetestedinsitubytheconductivityor
heliumgasmethods.Thesemethodsconfirmtheintegrityoftheplatesortubestopreventanycross
contaminationandtheconditionofthegaskets.

MechanicalintegritymonitoringofheatexchangertubesmaybeconductedthroughNondestructive
methodssuchaseddycurrenttesting.

Fouling

Foulingoccurswhenimpuritiesdepositontheheat
exchangesurface.Depositionoftheseimpuritiescan
decreaseheattransfereffectivenesssignificantlyovertime
andarecausedby:

Lowwallshearstress
Lowfluidvelocities
Highfluidvelocities
Reactionproductsolidprecipitation
Precipitationofdissolvedimpuritiesduetoelevated
walltemperatures

Therateofheatexchangerfoulingisdeterminedbytherate
ofparticledepositionlessreentrainment/suppression.This
modelwasoriginallyproposedin1959byKernandSeaton.
Aheatexchangerinasteampowerstation
CrudeOilExchangerFouling.Incommercialcrudeoil contaminatedwithmacrofouling.
refining,crudeoilisheatedfrom21C(70F)to343C
(649F)priortoenteringthedistillationcolumn.Aseriesof
shellandtubeheatexchangerstypicallyexchangeheatbetweencrudeoilandotheroilstreamstoheat
thecrudeto260C(500F)priortoheatinginafurnace.Foulingoccursonthecrudesideofthese
exchangersduetoasphalteneinsolubility.Thenatureofasphaltenesolubilityincrudeoilwas
successfullymodeledbyWieheandKennedy.[32]Theprecipitationofinsolubleasphaltenesincrude
preheattrainshasbeensuccessfullymodeledasafirstorderreactionbyEbertandPanchal[33]who
expandedontheworkofKernandSeaton.

CoolingWaterFouling.Coolingwatersystemsaresusceptibletofouling.Coolingwatertypicallyhasa
hightotaldissolvedsolidscontentandsuspendedcolloidalsolids.Localizedprecipitationofdissolved
solidsoccursattheheatexchangesurfaceduetowalltemperatureshigherthanbulkfluidtemperature.
Lowfluidvelocities(lessthan3ft/s)allowsuspendedsolidstosettleontheheatexchangesurface.
Coolingwateristypicallyonthetubesideofashellandtubeexchangerbecauseit'seasytoclean.To
preventfouling,designerstypicallyensurethatcoolingwatervelocityisgreaterthan0.9m/sandbulk
fluidtemperatureismaintainedlessthan60C(140F).Otherapproachestocontrolfoulingcontrol
combinetheblindapplicationofbiocidesandantiscalechemicalswithperiodiclabtesting.

Maintenance

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Plateandframeheatexchangerscanbedisassembledandcleanedperiodically.Tubularheatexchangers
canbecleanedbysuchmethodsasacidcleaning,sandblasting,highpressurewaterjet,bulletcleaning,
ordrillrods.

Inlargescalecoolingwatersystemsforheatexchangers,watertreatmentsuchaspurification,addition
ofchemicals,andtesting,isusedtominimizefoulingoftheheatexchangeequipment.Otherwater
treatmentisalsousedinsteamsystemsforpowerplants,etc.tominimizefoulingandcorrosionofthe
heatexchangeandotherequipment.

Avarietyofcompanieshavestartedusingwaterborneoscillationstechnologytopreventbiofouling.
Withouttheuseofchemicals,thistypeoftechnologyhashelpedinprovidingalowpressuredropin
heatexchangers.

Innature
Humans

Thehumannasalpassagesserveasaheatexchanger,whichwarmsairbeinginhaledandcoolsairbeing
exhaled.Itseffectivenesscanbedemonstratedbyputtingthehandinfrontofthefaceandexhaling,first
throughthenoseandthenthroughthemouth.Airexhaledthroughthenoseissubstantiallycooler.[34][35]
Thiseffectcanbeenhancedwithclothing,by,forexample,wearingascarfoverthefacewhilebreathing
incoldweather.

Inspeciesthathaveexternaltestes(suchashumans),thearterytothetestisissurroundedbyameshof
veinscalledthepampiniformplexus.Thiscoolsthebloodheadingtothetestis,whilereheatingthe
returningblood.

Birds,fish,marinemammals

"Countercurrent"heatexchangersoccurnaturallyin
thecirculationsystemoffish,whalesandother
marinemammals.Arteriestotheskincarryingwarm
bloodareintertwinedwithveinsfromtheskin
carryingcoldblood,causingthewarmarterialblood
toexchangeheatwiththecoldvenousblood.This
reducestheoverallheatlossincoldwaters.Heat Countercurrentexchangeconservationcircuit
exchangersarealsopresentinthetongueofbaleen
whalesaslargevolumesofwaterflowthroughtheir
mouths.[36][37]Wadingbirdsuseasimilarsystemtolimitheatlossesfromtheirbodythroughtheirlegs
intothewater.

Carotidrete

Thecarotidreteisacountercurrentheatexchangingorganinsomeungulates.Thebloodascendingthe
carotidarteriesonitswaytothebrain,flowsviaanetworkofvesselswhereheatisdischargedtothe
veinsofcoolerblooddescendingfromthenasalpassages.ThecarotidreteallowsThomson'sgazelleto
maintainitsbrainalmost3C(5.4F)coolerthantherestofthebody,andthereforeaidsintolerating
burstsinmetabolicheatproductionsuchasassociatedwithoutrunningcheetahs(duringwhichthebody
temperatureexceedsthemaximumtemperatureatwhichthebraincouldfunction).[38]

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Inindustry
Heatexchangersarewidelyusedinindustrybothforcoolingandheatinglargescaleindustrial
processes.Thetypeandsizeofheatexchangerusedcanbetailoredtosuitaprocessdependingonthe
typeoffluid,itsphase,temperature,density,viscosity,pressures,chemicalcompositionandvarious
otherthermodynamicproperties.

Inmanyindustrialprocessesthereiswasteofenergyoraheatstreamthatisbeingexhausted,heat
exchangerscanbeusedtorecoverthisheatandputittousebyheatingadifferentstreamintheprocess.
Thispracticesavesalotofmoneyinindustry,astheheatsuppliedtootherstreamsfromtheheat
exchangerswouldotherwisecomefromanexternalsourcethatismoreexpensiveandmoreharmfulto
theenvironment.

Heatexchangersareusedinmanyindustries,including:

Wastewatertreatment
Refrigeration
Wineandbeermaking
Petroleumrefining
nuclearpower

Inwastewatertreatment,heatexchangersplayavitalroleinmaintainingoptimaltemperatureswithin
anaerobicdigesterstopromotethegrowthofmicrobesthatremovepollutants.Commontypesofheat
exchangersusedinthisapplicationarethedoublepipeheatexchangeraswellastheplateandframe
heatexchanger.

Inaircraft
Incommercialaircraftheatexchangersareusedtotakeheatfromtheengine'soilsystemtoheatcold
fuel.[39]Thisimprovesfuelefficiency,aswellasreducesthepossibilityofwaterentrappedinthefuel
freezingincomponents.[40]

Currentmarketandforecast
EstimatedatUS$42.7billionin2012,theglobaldemandofheatexchangerswillexperiencerobust
growthofabout7.8%annuallyoverthenextyears.ThemarketvalueisexpectedtoreachUS$57.9
billionby2016andtoapproachUS$78.16billionby2020.Tubularheatexchangersandplateheat
exchangersarestillthemostwidelyappliedproducttypes.[41]

Amodelofasimpleheatexchanger
Asimpleheatexchange[42][43]mightbethoughtofastwostraightpipeswithfluidflow,whichare
thermallyconnected.LetthepipesbeofequallengthL,carryingfluidswithheatcapacity (energy
perunitmassperunitchangeintemperature)andletthemassflowrateofthefluidsthroughthepipes,
bothinthesamedirection,be (massperunittime),wherethesubscriptiappliestopipe1orpipe2.

Temperatureprofilesforthepipesare and wherexisthedistancealongthepipe.Assumea

steadystate,sothatthetemperatureprofilesarenotfunctionsoftime.Assumealsothattheonlytransfer
ofheatfromasmallvolumeoffluidinonepipeistothefluidelementintheotherpipeatthesame
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position,i.e.,thereisnotransferofheatalongapipeduetotemperaturedifferencesinthatpipe.By
Newton'slawofcoolingtherateofchangeinenergyofasmallvolumeoffluidisproportionaltothe
differenceintemperaturesbetweenitandthecorrespondingelementintheotherpipe:

(thisisforparallelflowinthesamedirectionandoppositetemperaturegradients,butforcounterflow
heatexchangecountercurrentexchangethesignisoppositeinthesecondequationinfrontof
)

,where isthethermalenergyperunitlengthandisthethermalconnectionconstantperunit
lengthbetweenthetwopipes.Thischangeininternalenergyresultsinachangeinthetemperatureof
thefluidelement.Thetimerateofchangeforthefluidelementbeingcarriedalongbytheflowis:

where isthe"thermalmassflowrate".Thedifferentialequationsgoverningtheheat
exchangermaynowbewrittenas:

Notethat,sincethesystemisinasteadystate,therearenopartialderivativesoftemperaturewith
respecttotime,andsincethereisnoheattransferalongthepipe,therearenosecondderivativesinxas
isfoundintheheatequation.Thesetwocoupledfirstorderdifferentialequationsmaybesolvedto
yield:

where , ,

(thisisforparallelflow,butforcounterflowthesigninfrontof isnegative,sothatif ,for

thesame"thermalmassflowrate"inbothoppositedirections,thegradientoftemperatureisconstant
andthetemperatureslinearinpositionxwithaconstantdifference alongtheexchanger,
explainingwhythecountercurrentdesigncountercurrentexchangeisthemostefficient)

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andAandBaretwoasyetundeterminedconstantsofintegration.Let and bethetemperaturesat

x=0andlet and bethetemperaturesattheendofthepipeatx=L.Definetheaverage
temperaturesineachpipeas:

Usingthesolutionsabove,thesetemperaturesare:

Choosinganytwoofthetemperaturesaboveeliminatestheconstantsofintegration,lettingusfindthe
otherfourtemperatures.Wefindthetotalenergytransferredbyintegratingtheexpressionsforthetime
rateofchangeofinternalenergyperunitlength:

Bytheconservationofenergy,thesumofthetwoenergiesiszero.Thequantity isknownas
theLogmeantemperaturedifference,andisameasureoftheeffectivenessoftheheatexchangerin
transferringheatenergy.

Seealso
Architecturalengineering
Chemicalengineering
Coolingtower
Copperinheatexchangers
Heatpipe
Heatpump
Heatrecoveryventilation
Jacketedvessel
Logmeantemperaturedifference(LMTD)
Marineheatexchangers
Mechanicalengineering
Microheatexchanger
Movingbedheatexchanger
PackedbedandinparticularPackedcolumns
Pumpableicetechnology
Reboiler
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Recuperator,orcrossplateheatexchanger
Regenerator
Runaroundcoil
Steamgenerator(nuclearpower)
Surfacecondenser
Toroidalexpansionjoint
Thermosiphon
Thermalwheel,orrotaryheatexchanger(includingenthalpywheelanddesiccantwheel)
Wasteheat

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nes/guideline24_en.html)
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ww.dtic.mil/dticasd/sbir/sttr04/m010b.pdf)(PDF)

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