Fracture Identification by Log Intepretation

harap tulisan ini di konfirmasi dengan buku-buku interpretasi log yang ada !!!
dan hanya untuk referrensi pribadi saja (short cut)

::: writer not responsible for any miss correction :::
FRACTURE IDENTIFICATION
Natural fractures in reservoir rocks contribute significantly to productivity. Therefore, it

is important to glean every scrap of information from open hole logs to locate the
presence and intensity of fracturing. This appendix deals with fracture identification from
open hole logs.
Even though some modern logs, such as the formation micro-scanner and televiewer, are
the tools of choice for fracture indicators, many wells lack this data. Thus all known
fracture location techniques are described.
Naturally fractured reservoirs contain secondary or induced porosity in addition to their

original primary porosity. Induced porosity is formed by tension or shear stresses causing
fractures in a competent or brittle formation. Fracture porosity is usually very small.
Values between 0.0001 and 0.001 of rock volume are typical (0.01% to 0.1%). Fracture
related porosity, such as solution porosity in granite or carbonate reservoirs, may attain
much larger values, but the porosity in the actual fracture is still very small.
Fracture analysis literature in the 1970s suggested that fractures might contribute as
much as a few to several percent porosity. More modern work using fracture aperture
calculated from resistivity micro-scanner logs indicates much lower numbers. To
appreciate this, consider fractures with 1 millimeter aperture spaced 1 meter apart. This
gives a porosity of 0.001 fractional (0.1%). This is a very large open fracture. Most are
only microns in width, so even 10 fractures of 10 microns each only give 0.0001
fractional porosity (0.01%. The term secondary porosity also includes rock-volume
shrinkage due to dolomitization, porosity increase due to solution or recrystalization, and
other geological processes.
Secondary porosity should not be confused with fracture porosity. Porosity formed in
this way can be determined from modern log suites without difficulty except for porosity
formed by fractures, which is too small to detect with conventional logs. Fracture
porosity is found accurately only by processing the formation micro-scanner curves for
fracture aperture and fracture frequency (fracture intensity). All other methods, including
the well known dualporosity model, are extremely inaccurate. These models either
over-estimate fracture porosity by several orders of magnitude, or cannot be applied
because the log data does not fit the model.
The effect of fracture porosity on reservoir performance, however, is very large due to its
enormous contribution to permeability. As a result, naturally fractured reservoirs behave
differently than unfractured reservoirs with similar porosity, due to the relative high flow
capacity of the secondary porosity system. This provides high initial production rates,
which can lead to extremely optimistic production forecasts and sometimes, economic
failures when the small reservoir volume is not properly taken into account. Reservoir
simulation software that accounts for the fracture system is often termed a dual
porosity model. While this is strictly true, it would be better to think of them as dual
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permeability models, since the fracture permeability fed by the matrix or reservoir
permeability is far more important than the relative storage capacity of the fractures and
matrix porosity. A reservoir with only fracture porosity is quickly depleted; a decent
reservoir in the matrix rock feeding into fractures will last much longer. In order to
understand the behavior of naturally fractured reservoirs, estimates must be made of
hydrocarbons-in-place within both the primary (matrix rock) and secondary (fracture-
only) porosity systems. To do this, we must first be able to detect the existence of
fractures.
Definition of Fractures
A fracture is a surface along which a loss of cohesion in the rock texture has taken place.
A fracture is sometimes called a joint and, at the surface, are expressed as cracks or
fissures in the rocks. The orientation of the fracture can be anywhere from horizontal to
vertical. The rough surface separates the two faces, giving rise to fracture porosity. The
surfaces touch at points called asperities. Altered rock surrounds each surface and
infilling minerals may cover part or all of each surface. Minerals may fill the entire
fracture, converting an open fracture to a healed or sealed fracture.
Fractures are caused by stress in the formation, which in turn usually derives from
tectonic forces such as folds and faults. These are termed natural fractures, as opposed to
induced fractures. Induced fractures are created by drilling stress or by purposely
fracturing a reservoir by hydraulic pressure from surface equipment. Both kinds of
fractures are economically important. Induced fractures may connect the wellbore to
natural fractures that would otherwise not contribute to flow capacity.
Natural fractures are more common in carbonate rocks than in sandstones. Some of the
best fractured reservoirs are in granite often referred to as unconventional reservoirs.
Fractures occur in preferential directions, determined by the direction of regional stress.
This is usually parallel to the direction of nearby faults or folds, but in the case of
overthrust faults, they may be perpendicular to the fault or there may be two orthogonal
directions. Induced fractures usually have a preferential direction, often perpendicular to
the natural fractures.
A fracture is often a high permeability path in a low permeability rock, or it may be filled
with a cementing material, such as calcite, leaving the fracture with no permeability.
Thus it is important to distinguish between open and healed fractures. The total volume
of fractures is often small compared to the total pore volume of the reservoir.
Most natural fractures are more or less vertical. Horizontal fracture may exist for a short
distance, propped open by bridging of the irregular surfaces. Most horizontal fractures,
however, are sealed by overburden pressure. Both horizontal and semi-vertical fractures
can be detected by various logging tools.
The vertical extent of fractures is often controlled by thin layers of plastic material, such
as shale beds or laminations, or by weak layers of rock, such as styolites in carbonate
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sequences. The thickness of these beds may be too small to be seen on logs, so fractures
may seem to start and stop for no apparent reason.
To be an aid in production, fractures must be connected to a reasonable hydrocarbon

bearing reservoir with sufficient volume to warrant exploitation. If there is no reservoir
volume, a lot of fractures wont help much unless there is sufficient fracture related
solution porosity to hold an economic reserve. This can be determined by normal log
analysis techniques. In reasonable nonfractured reservoirs, it is usually possible to
estimate permeability, and hence productivity, but this is not always possible in fractured
reservoirs. Although both the presence of fractures and the presence of a reservoir can be
determined from logs, a production test will be needed to determine whether economic
production is possible. The test must be analyzed carefully to avoid over optimistic
predictions based on the flush production rates associated with the fracture system. Local
correlations between fracture intensity observed on logs and production rate are also used
to predict well quality.
Sometimes the primary reservoir and the fracture system may be so poorly connected that
they are saturated with different fluids. Production from fractures full of hydrocarbons in
a water bearing formation may initially be very good but very short lived. A more
desirable scenario is a primary reservoir with appreciable hydrocarbon saturation and a
fracture system that is full of water close to the borehole, showing invasion and hence
good permeability, but full of hydrocarbon in the virgin formation.
General Methods For Identification Of Fractures

Most well logs respond in some way to the presence of fractures. Each major log type is
discussed in the following sections with respect to its fracture response. Not all logs
detect fractures in all situations, and very few see all fractures present in the logged
interval. Bear in mind that other borehole and formation responses will be superimposed
on each log. Moreover, it is not normal to analyze a single log in isolation, but to review
all log curves together to synthesize the best, most coherent, result.
Logs to run today for fractured reservoir evaluation:

Dual laterolog (DLL) or azimuthal resistivity image (ARI) log with micro-SFL
and gamma ray - required for fracture detection and water saturation, ARI helpful
for fracture orientation
Density neutron log (CNL-LDT) with photo-electric effect, gamma ray, and
caliper- required for matrix porosity, lithology, helpful for fracture detection
Dipole shear sonic image log (DSI) with gamma ray, caliper, amplitude,
waveform or variable density display - required for porosity and mechanical
properties calculation, helpful for fracture detection and orientation
Natural gamma ray spectral log (NGT) -helpful for fracture detection, certain
areas only, helpful in granite reservoirs to identify granite type
Formation micro-scanner image log (FMI) with gamma ray plus fracture aperture
and frequency post-processing (FracVue) - strongly recommended, required for
quantitative fracture porosity and permeability, required for fracture orientation
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OR. Ultra-sonic borehole imager (UBI) or televiewer log with gamma ray plus
dipmeter post-processing - cheaper than micro-scanner but less sensitive, not
quantitative
OR. Stratigraphic high resolution dipmeter (SHDT) with gamma ray, displayed in
fracture identification mode plus dipmeter post-processing - lowest cost, not
quantitative
Usually at least two of these would be run for confirmation, but the microscanner or
televiewer are often sufficient when run alone. Caliper, gamma ray, porosity, and
resistivity logs are usually available as well, so there is no shortage of data!
There is extensive literature on the subject, especially on well testing, which should be
referred to. However, the log analyst needs to be aware of the possibility and
confirmation of fractures from these sources:
1. Drilling characteristics: occurrence of lost circulation or mud loss (overbalanced

drilling), abrupt drilling breaks, bit bouncing or torqueing, mud weight reduction, well
kicks, oil on the mud pit surface, large de-gasser volumes, oil or gas shows on mud logs,
calcite in well cuttings coming from fracture incrustations or veins may be indications of
fractures. A review of the well history file is an important source of knowledge for the
log analyst.
2. Sample descriptions: observation of fractures, slickensides, calcite in healed fractures,

blocky or fissile texture may indicate fractures.
3. Inflatable packers: an impression of the borehole wall can be imprinted on the rubber
when the packer is set in place. If fractures are present, they will be seen, but there is no
way to tell if they were induced by drilling or were present before drilling.
4. Drill stem testing: analysis of pressure transient data from flow and buildup tests has
been used extensively to indicate the presence of fracturing.
Fracture Identification From Underbalanced Drilling (UBD) Operation

Production from a reservoir during UBD brings some information which could tell what
exactly happened in openhole section drilled. A flush production event is characterized
by a sudden increase in return fluid rate possibly caused by drilling into a fracture or a
very productive feature. Flush production occurs during underbalanced penetration of a
fracture or high permeability interval where reservoir deliverability increases
significantly. The primary indicators of a flush production event are: drilling breaks,
sharp increases in bottom hole pressure followed by a decrease (gas expands as it travels
towards surface), sudden changes in surface pressure are the primary indicators of
potential flush production events or in the other word the significant increases in
Productivity Index While Drilling (PIWD) recorded are attributed to drilling into high
permeability features (fractures or high quality sand) and encountering flush production.
This information should be process properly to deliver some value to improve well
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recovery. By the ability to identify water fracture and complete the well with smart
completion to shut-off the fracture is one of the values and goals of this proposed method.
Fracture Identification From Core Analysis

Conventional core analysis can provide much information about fractures. Visual
observation of open and healed fractures, stylolites, slickensides, fracture density, and
fracture dip angle can be made at the wellsite or in the laboratory. They can also be
described from core photographs under natural light and when oil is present, under
ultraviolet light.
If the core itself is not available for direct observation, you may find clues in the core
analysis report or core descriptions, where the words fractured, frac, rubble, or lost core
are clues to the presence of fractures. Descriptive information may not be transferred into
all data bases, so it pays to check the original documents.
A high permeability value in an otherwise low permeability environment is another clue,

as is an asterisk in the permeability column, indicating a fractured core sample in which
permeability could not be measured. Large differences between maximum horizontal,
minimum horizontal, and vertical permeability also may indicate fractures not seen by
eye.
The dip direction and strike can be determined, if the core has been oriented with
directional data. Cores can also be oriented by comparing observed bedding plane and
fracture dips with those from a dipmeter analysis or by paleomagnetic orientation.
Bedding plane and fracture plane dip angle and direction are determined by tracing the
visible portion of the plane on the core surface with a goniometer, a fancy word for a
three axis (X-Y-Z) digitizer. Originally mechanical devices, they are now electronic and
interfaced to computers for calculation of the best fit dip plane and subsequent
presentation of data listings and displays.
Special core analysis techniques are used in fractured reservoirs, in addition to those
normally performed to obtain porosity, permeability, and electrical characteristics. The
major technique involves epoxy injection at formation pressure to fill all pores and open
fractures. Whole slabs or thin sections are viewed or photographed under plane or
ultraviolet light. Pore structure, fracture connections to isolated pores, fracture intensity,
width, extent, and direction, and anhydrite or calcite filled fractures are recorded. Results
are plotted versus depth and on rose diagrams.
X-ray tomography of cores, a non destructive, non invasive technique, may see fractures
not visible to the naked eye. Open fractures with sufficient width and macro porosity
appear as dark (fluid filled) pixels on the computer screen. Both horizontal slices and
vertical reconstructed slices can be viewed on the computer screen. Micro porosity and
narrow fractures may not be distinctly visible because the resolution is on the order of a
millimeter or larger, not as good as the photomicrographs described above.
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Fracture Identification From Spontaneous Potential Logs
The spontaneous potential normally does not develop well in carbonate rocks, due to high
resistivity and the long distance to a nearby shale. However, some SP excursion is usually
seen opposite very porous or permeable carbonate zones, or opposite lower porosity
fractured zones. Fracture detection by the SP is possible in a low porosity or low
permeability bed if fracturing has occurred and if the fractures contain a formation water
of a different salinity than that in the borehole. Development of an SP is not a direct
measurement of porosity or permeability.
The SP is a voltage generated by electrochemical reactions between the mud filtrate,

formation water, and a nearby impermeable shale barrier. No fluid movement takes place.
In addition, a streaming potential can be generated when mud filtrate passes through the
mudcake. It is primarily dependent upon mud resistivity and differential pressure. As
differential pressure increases, streaming potential increases for a constant mud
resistivity. Either the normal SP or the streaming potential can be indicators of
permeability and fractures. A streaming potential only exists while fluid is flowing and is
not normally seen in a stable wellbore.
Another SP method is to compare the character of the SP to that of a gamma ray log over
the zone. If the SP develops in a zone which shows relatively high radioactivity on the
gamma ray, this could be an indication of a permeable fractured zone in which uranium
salts have been precipitated.
Many factors influence the SP and it is difficult to identify fractures directly using this
method alone, but often it aids in confirming the possibility of a fractured zone. Care
must be taken not to interpret random variations or drift in the SP baseline as evidence of
permeability.
Fracture Identification From Caliper Logs

In competent formations, the borehole will often become oblong when it intersects a
fracture. This looks like a hole washout on a two or three arm caliper, but a 4 or 6 arm
caliper will show the oblong shape. The long axis of the hole is usually parallel to the
strike of folds or faults.
This method is best when a sensitive caliper with sharp wall contacts is used. Calipers
recorded with most surveys are not very sensitive and serve purposes other than
measuring the hole size. Their design does not allow for detection of small abrupt
changes. Examples are the the three arm bow spring type calipers recorded with sonic
and density log which provide centralization as well as hole size measurements. The
caliper logs which are most helpful are recorded with the dipmeter, microlog, and modern
dual axis calipers on density neutron logs. Special purpose, very sensitive, calipers are
available from most service companies.
The caliper recorded with the microlog is designed to float on top of the mudcake. It will
respond and measure the thickness of the mudcake, instead of measuring borehole
rugosity. The presence of mudcake should be more conclusive of permeability and
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possible fracturing than rugosity alone. Dipmeter pads are pressured to cut through
mudcake and usually measure the rough hole if it is present. Other dipmeter curves are
also used to identify fractures.
Mud rings sometimes form even in front of impermeable zones. Therefore, mudcake
indicators of permeability must be confirmed with another log if possible.
Rough, large, or irregular borehole in otherwise competent rock usually indicates

fractures. Mudcake opposite very low porosity usually indicates fractures. Hole caving
due to stress release is very common, but open fractures are not always present. Not all
washouts indicate fractures; shale, salt, and unconsolidated sands often erode, but their
presence can usually be distinguished by other log characteristics.
Remember that a two arm caliper would probably see the long diameter. The enlarged
hole is a clue for fractures if the other log curves indicate competent rock. A three arm
caliper would average the two diameters, and the hole enlargement may not be as
obvious.
Fracture Identification From Micro Resistivity Logs

Micro resistivity logs, such as microlog and micro SFL, indicate fractures by showing
low resistivity spikes opposite open fractures, and high resistivity spikes opposite healed
fractures and tight or highly cemented layers. In older wells, the microlog, caliper, and an
ES may be the only logs available for use in fracture detection, and for porosity and
permeability for that matter.
The microlog is one of the most conclusive indications of permeability. When the dotted
curve (2 inch micro normal) reads higher than the solid curve (1 inch micro inverse),
there is some permeability. This effect is called positive separation. The caliper curve
accompanying the microlog resistivity measurements is also available for mudcake
location and thickness determinations. Mudcake is another indication of permeability.
If the micro resistivity curves are smooth, permeability is due to porosity; if low
resistivity spikes are present, fractures are indicated. The microlog is a very reliable
fracture indicator, but like all single pad devices, it only sees a few of the fractures. If the
zone is known to be a carbonate or tight sand, and the hole size is larger than bit size, an
elongated hole and probable fractures are indicated.
Fracture Identification From Dipmeter Logs

High resolution dipmeters with 4, 6, or 8 micro-conductivity log curves, 2 or 3 opposed
calipers, plus directional and orientation data can indicate fractures by visual observation
of log curve characteristics and from individual dip magnitude and direction calculations.
Each dipmeter pad provides a recording of changes in resistivity which occur along the
borehole, usually related to porosity variations, bedding planes, or fractures. One pad is
selected as reference and its position relative to north is continually recorded. The other
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pads are numbered clockwise looking from the top down. This determines the orientation
of all the pads.
The log is analyzed in a similar fashion to a micro resistivity log. However, four, six, or
eight pads and better focusing make the dipmeter a popular choice in modern wells,
because it is more sensitive and covers more of the borehole wall. The more elaborate
micro-scanner log has superceded the dipmeter log in many areas and most comments
about the dipmeter also apply to the micro-scanner.
Fracture intensity counts are made by counting the number of spikes per unit length.
Modern thought now suggests that there is no such thing as a horizontal fracture; they are
considered to be poorly indurated laminations. Regardless of their proper name, they
often contribute to well performance and are easily found with the dipmeter.
Semi-vertical fractures usually cause a relatively long conductive anomaly on two

opposite pads, or on one pad if the fracture is off axis enough to be missed by the
opposite pad. This kind of analysis is normally done on expanded scale playbacks of the
raw dipmeter curves. Notice that the grid lines in these examples are two feet apart,
displayed at 1:20 or 1:40 depth scales. Total length of vertical fractures compared to total
interval is a useful measure of vertical fracture intensity.
To amplify the fracture detection capability, the dipmeter curves may have to be rerun or
replayed with a different scale to show all non-fractured zones as saturated (ie.,
displaying a constant maximum resistivity). The log should be recorded in the usual way
to get the best dipmeter data. Then with the aid of the computer in the logging truck, the
curves can be displayed in different formats to emphasize fractures. On existing logs, this
can be done in the computer center if the data tapes can be located.
An easy way to analyze fractures with the dipmeter consists of comparing the values of
one pad to values of the other pads by replaying adjacent curve pairs on top of each other.
The curves are normalized in tight, high resistivity zones. The magnitude of the
separation of the curves provides a qualitative indication of the fracture intensity. This
visual overlay technique has been dubbed the Fracture Identification Log (FIL) by
Schlumberger. Many other semi-horizontal fractures and permeable bedding planes are
also present, and contribute to production.
The FIL presentation can be made for most types of dipmeters if the data tapes can be
located. For older, pre-tape, dipmeters eyeball techniques must be used. The Stratigraphic
High Resolution Dipmeter (SHDT), with 8 conductivity curves, is a little more difficult
to use than standard high resolution tools. Vertical fractures may influence both
electrodes on a single pad. An FIL presentation can be made by turning off one curve
from each pad or by presenting two sets of FIL overlays.
Since pad orientation is known from the directional data, the fracture azimuth can be
determined. This will indicate the preferential permeability direction. The azimuth of pad
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1 is recorded directly on low angle dipmeters, but the magnetic declination must be taken
into account.
DIPMETER MATH
For low angle dipmeter
1: PAZ = AZ1 + MAGD
For high angle dipmeters:
2: PAZ = AHD + RBR + MAGD
Calculate fracture azimuth:
3: FAZ = PAZ + 90 * (PAD# - 1)
Adjust angle to fit between 0 and 360 degrees:
4: FAZ = 360 * Frac ((FAZ + 360) / 360)
Where:
AHD = azimuth of hole deviation (degrees)
AZ1 = azimuth of pad number one on log (degrees)
FAZ = azimuth of fracture (degrees)
MAGD = magnetic declination (degrees)
PAZ = azimuth of pad one relative to true north (degrees)
PAD# = pad number on which fracture anomaly occurs
RBR = relative bearing azimuth on log (degrees)
Under normal conditions, it is easy to read AZ1 on the log opposite the fracture, add the
magnetic declination, and put the result in the range 0 to 360 degrees, using mental
arithmetic.
Fracture Identification From Density, Neutron, and PE Logs

If the density log shows high porosity spikes that are not seen by the neutron log, usually
fractures, large vugs, or caverns exist. Broken out borehole also causes the same effect,
but fractures are often present when this occurs.
Because the density tool only looks at a small fraction of the borehole circumference,
only a few of the fractures present will be logged. The depth of investigation is rather
shallow, so mudcake and borehole rugosity can have an appreciable effect on the total
measurement, despite the fact that it is a pad type contact device with some borehole
compensation applied.
Large density correction values in competent rock, especially when weighted muds are
used, is a fracture indicator. The fracture network usually does not increase the total
porosity appreciably, but the resultant increase in compensation, due to the rugosity,
mudcake, or fluid in the fractures, provides an indication of fracturing.
Both density and density correction curves show fractures better if the log is recorded
with a short time constant. This makes the log look noisy and possibly useless for its
normal purpose. The time constant on existing logs can only be changed by reprocessing
raw count rate data from the original data tape.
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Large PE values, greater than 5.0 cu., especially when weighted muds are used, is a
fracture indicator. Barite has a very large photoelectric cross section, 267 as compared
with 5.0 for limestone and 3.1 for dolomite. Thus the PE curve should exhibit a very
sharp peak in front of a fracture filled with barite loaded mud cake. In Figure 28.14, two
very sharp peaks on the PE curve correspond to fractures. The density correction curve
also has a bump for the presence of heavy mud. Corroboration from other sources is
essential. In light weight muds, an abnormally low PE value, less than 1.7, indicates,
fractures, bad hole condition, or coal.
The compensated neutron log looks at the entire circumference of the well bore, but is
usually decentralized to minimize borehole effect. It is not a useful fracture indicator by
itself. However, neutron porosity values are often compared with other sources to
indicate either lithology or the possibility of fractures.
The sidewall neutron log sees only a small portion of the borehole wall and may be
affected by borehole break out in the same way as the density log. Break out is often
associated with fractures.
No one would go out of their way to run a density neutron log combination to identify
fractures. However, it is the most common log suite run today, and must be used if no
other fracture logs have been run. Fortunately the resistivity log, which is nearly always
available, can also help identify fractures and this helps confirm density and PE
anomalies.
Fracture Identification From Gamma Ray Logs

The natural gamma ray spectral log provides a quantitative measurement of the three
primary sources of natural radioactivity observed in reservoir rocks: potassium, uranium,
and thorium. The usual gamma ray log records the sum of these three radioactive sources.
This log should not be confused with the (induced) gamma ray spectral log, which is a
form of pulsed neutron log run in cased hole to evaluate lithology and water saturation.
Most productive formations show a low content of all three radioactive isotopes. The
radioactivity associated with potassium and thorium is normally attributed to clays in the
formation. Since uranium salts are soluble in both water and oil, zones of high uranium
content indicate fluid movement, subsequent mineral deposition, and thus a probable
zone of permeability, usually a fractured zone.
Sandstones are sometimes radioactive because of clay or feldspars, not fractures. This can
be confirmed by sample descriptions.
In thinly laminated sand-shale series, the zone will appear radioactive due to the shale,
but may also contain uranium in fractures. To locate fractures in these beds using the
gamma ray method, calculate shale volume independent of the natural radioactivity, then
compare this to the actual radioactivity, some of which may be due to uranium in
fractures. If a spectral log is available, the assessment is easier.
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The natural gamma ray spectral log is one of only three methods that can be used in cased
hole to locate fractures. The others are the array sonic and temperature logs, to be
described later. CAUTION: In some areas, fractures are never radioactive, so this method
is not always suitable.
Fracture Identification From Resistivity Logs

On older wells that do not have porosity, caliper, or gamma ray logs, the shallow
resistivity log is used to help find fractures. The shallow resistivity log may read the
resistivity of drilling mud in washed out borehole sections caused by the presence of
fracturing. Check the log heading and compare the mud resistivity, corrected for the
temperature of the borehole, with the actual log reading. If they are similar in clean
formations, a large borehole may be suspected. Use the SP to find clean zones and use the
deep resistivity to check the resistivity of shales or water zones.
Another method, applicable to both old and new logs, is to look for cross over of the
shallow and deep resistivity. If mud resistivity is less than the formation resistivity, as is
true in many cases, then the shallow resistivity curve will cross over the deep resistivity
in a fractured interval and read lower resistivity, due to invasion of the fractures.
Normally the shallow curve reads higher than the deep, except in salt mud systems. The
shallow curve may also appear noisy or spiky.
Remember that the deep resistivity logs are averaging 5 or more vertical feet of rock and
that the shallow sees about 1.5 feet, so the differences between the two logs is subdued by
this. In thinly laminated shaly sands, the cross over is probably due to shale, not fractures.
Check the sample descriptions.
For improved resolution, an even shallower focused measurement can be made with a
proximity, microlaterolog, or micro spherically focused log, and compared with the deep
resistivity log.
All are pad type instruments and survey a smaller portion of the borehole, but all have
been successfully used to aid fracture detection. Pad type devices do not see the entire
borehole, so only a few of the fractures are logged. However, if the borehole is oval
because of fractures, most of them will be seen because they are located on the long axis
of the hole, where the pad rides. The sharp conductivity anomalies may, at first be
confused with a loss of pad contact. Check to see that the tool is reading higher than mud
resistivity.
The dual laterolog has been designed to provide resistivity measurements in wells drilled
with highly conductive drilling fluids. However, it is the contrast between the resistivity
of the formation, and the resistivity of the drilling mud that is most important. When the
ratio of formation to mud resistivity is greater than about 50, better results can be
expected from the laterolog than with induction or electrical surveys. Due to the high
resistivity of most tight fractured reservoirs, the dual laterolog microlaterolog
combination is the preferred resistivity log for such zones.
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Focused logs such as the laterolog, spherically focused log, and even the 16 inch normal
on old ES and induction logs read resistivity vertically through the formation. Induction
logs read horizontally. Therefore there can be a significant difference between the two
log readings when vertical fractures are present and invaded with low resistivity drilling
fluid. Normally, the induction log ignores any vertical fractures and hydrocarbon filled
horizontal fractures. On the other hand a horizontal fracture filled with conductive mud or
formation water may produce a rather large conductivity anomaly. When a laterolog or
micro device reads less than an induction resistivity in the same zone, vertical fractures
are indicated. The induction and ES are not useful in salt mud, so the technique is not
available in that case.
If the dual laterolog is used, as recommended above, we lose the advantage of being able
to compare the horizontal measurements with the vertical measurements, but the
crossover effect due to invasion is still common. Note that recent resistivity literature
states that all these tools actually measure vertically, contrary to previous conventional
wisdom. The newest induction logs, dubbed 3-D resistivity logs, truly measure both
vertical and horizontal resistivity. Comparisons of curve response assists in solving
anisotropic resistivity problems, as in laminated shaly sands, and may help determine
fracture orientation.
Both methods are more conclusive in thick beds. Since invasion improves the responses,
any fracture system detected should be permeable. Thin or high angle beds, along with
the normal effects of borehole fluid and size changes on the resistivity measurements,
should be considered when using this method.
Fracture Identification From Temperature Logs

Mud fluid invasion into a fractured zone can lower its temperature. If logged before it can
return to the geothermal temperature, the presence of fractures or, at least, invasion can
be confirmed. It is possible that the invasion is merely a function of porosity, but usually
the effect is smaller than for fractures.
Bas evolving into the mud system, often from tight fractured reservoirs, may be seen if
the mud system is static and under balanced for sufficient time. The cooling anomaly
should disappear above and below the fracture zone, and will disappear everywhere in a
few hours if no additional flow or invasion takes place.
In perforated cased holes, and in open hole or barefoot completions, an injection profile
can be run by increasing pressure on the well head and then logging several passes with a
temperature log spaced over a few hours. The pressure will force fluid above the zone
downward, injecting cooler fluid into the formation. The larger temperature anomalies
are often associated with fractures or the best permeability zones.
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Fracture Identification From Sonic Logs
There is much literature concerning the effect of fractures on acoustic wave propagation
in porous and fractured rock. Unfortunately, much of it is theoretical and not always
supported by field examples; often it is contradictory. Nevertheless, the sonic log is the
best fracture finder in older wells because other, more modern, methods were unavailable
at the time.
Today, dipmeter and formation micro-scanner images provide more information, but at
higher cost, so sonic logs are still used extensively for fracture identification. The modern
full wave or array sonic and dipole shear sonic tools provide much new information,
including shear wave travel time and amplitude plus full wave-train digitization This
allows the wave train to be further processed.
In theory, the normal compressional interval transit time is little affected by fractures so
long as there is a free matrix path between transmitter and receivers, as would be
expected for vertical fractures. In practice, large vertical and most sub-horizontal
fractures, create cycle skipping on the compressional transit time curve on all sonic logs
that rely on detection of the first energy arrival. This is due to reduction in amplitude of
the sound pulse by reflection at the fracture face, and by destructive interference caused
by other propogation modes generated at the fracture. In addition, refraction caused by
near vertical fractures diverts energy from the receivers, again reducing amplitude.
Cycle skipping makes the sonic travel time too long. Thus simple theory is overwhelmed
by the complexity of sound transmission in a heterogeneous medium.
On the array and dipole shear sonic logs, travel time is found by waveform correlation
and not by first arrival detection. Therefore, it is less likely to skip a cycle due to low
amplitude. Amplitude curves are presented as a matter of routine, so fractures can be
identified by low compressional and shear amplitudes. Sonic curves on the array or
dipole sonic can disappear or be shown as straight lines where amplitude is too low to
obtain a waveform correlation.
The cause of the skipping can be checked; if the skips occur only in a competent zone
and not in the surrounding shales, gas in the formation or fractures are the only
possibilities. Cycle skipping is more common on long spaced than on short spaced sonic
logs in hard formations, because of lower sound amplitude on longer tools. The reverse is
often true in softer sands and shales, due to rock alteration near the wellbore.
To differentiate between fractures and other causes of skipping, a number of different

logging tool designs and presentations of sonic data have been developed. Special
presentations include the sonic amplitude, sonic wavetrain, and variable intensity
(variable density) displays, discussed below.
The sidewall acoustic instrument was introduced to improve the bed resolution and
measurement of acoustic properties, but it was not widely available or used. It is an
acoustic pad device containing one transmitter and two receivers designed to reduce
13
attenuation in the borehole and through the rock. The distance from the transmitter to the
first receiver is 9 inches, and the spacing between the receivers is 6 inches. These
dimensions allow for better bed definition for porosity measurements and improved wave
forms for fracture studies.
Fractures are more readily identifiable from this short spaced measurement than from
devices which measure and average a longer distance. However, the measurement is
affected by borehole rugosity and only surveys a small portion of the borehole
circumference. It is best suited for thin bedded formations.
Fracture Identification From Sonic Waveform Logs

Compressional waves travel faster than shear waves and theoretically can be seen
separately on a display of sonic waveforms. Waveforms are a record of sonic energy
level versus arrival time. In practice the two waves, and others, interfere with each other
to some extent.
The amplitude of both waves are affected by the rock type, porosity, borehole rugosity,
tool centralization, formation fluid, and fracture size and orientation. The fractures may
be only those induced near the borehole wall by drilling or may be in-situ. Closed
fractures reduce the amplitude less than open fractures. Refracted waves traveling other
than direct ray paths can also reduce amplitude and give false impressions of fracturing.
The usual way to record these amplitude values is to present the amplitude of the first
energy arrival, which is from the compressional wave, in the form of a log curve, or to
present the entire wavetrain, or both. On the newer array and dipole shear sonic, the shear
amplitude is also displayed. On older logs, some attempts were made to measure shear
travel time and amplitude by adjusting gate times and trigger levels on the instrument
panel. These logs were not too reliable, so take care if trying to use them.
Numerous versions of these logs have been developed over the years, with little
standardization. Names such as Micro-seismogram, Fracture Finder, 3-D Velocity,
Acoustic Parameter, Shear Sonic, Variable Density, and Frac Log were used by various
suppliers. We will use the generic term sonic amplitude log to cover all of these.
The sonic amplitude log is a curve representing the first arrival energy, measured in
millivolts. Energy varies with many factors, so absolute values mean little, but low
amplitude often means fractures. All the things that cause cycle skipping, described
above, cause low amplitude, so fractures are only one possibility.
The sonic wavetrain log is a display of the recorded energy presented as wiggly trace
signatures, usually one for every 6 inches to 2 feet of borehole. The variable intensity
display, sometimes called a variable density log, displays the same waveform
information, but the amplitude of the positive peaks are shaded gray or black and
negative peaks are white. When plotted continuously, dark and light bands representing
peaks and valleys are displayed versus depth. Conventions have varied, and arrival time
has been plotted increasing right to left or left to right, with the latter used today.
14
Reflections from fractures cause changes in amplitude and travel time of the main signal,
and some waves arrive at later times, out of phase, thus causing irregular interference
patterns on the waveform. Usually chevron patterns spanning several feet can be seen,
indicating reflections from near horizontal fractures. Chevrons are difficult to see at best,
and are not necessary diagnostic tools. Low amplitude is all that is needed. Other
interfering effects, such as Stoneley waves and rough borehole cause jittery patterns.
Vertical fractures create less disturbance.
On modern logs, the shear travel time and shear amplitude are recorded, along with
complete waveform displays and other diagnostic curves. Stoneley wave travel time and
attenuation are also shown. Colour images of the waveform correlation amplitude or
colour versions of the waveform display are now common .
Normal presentation of older sonic amplitude log includes:

1. 3 ft. spacing borehole compensated compressional travel time
2. 3 ft. spacing compressional amplitude curve
3. 5 ft. spacing variable density display of entire wave train amplitude
4. 3 ft. spacing single receiver compressional travel time
Fractures are indicated when:

1. amplitude of compressional first arrivals is low
2. single receiver travel time skips or does not track compressional travel time
3. high frequency chevron patterns are seen on variable intensity display
4. amplitude of shear wave arrivals is low
Note that single receiver travel time may vary, often indicating poor tool centralization.
A circumferential sonic log has also been developed but was not widely available. Sound
pulses travel around the borehole wall and are attenuated most by vertical fractures, due
to reflection at the fracture surface. Few examples exist outside the well logging
literature. Both the sidewall and circumferential sonic rely on waveform analysis for
fracture identification. By alternating between the two transmitters, four separate
wavetrain or variable intensity displays are created, one for each quadrant around the
hole.
Evaluation of any acoustic measurement is still complicated because many factors other
than a fracture system can cause attenuation or distortion of the wave. Washout zones
should be identified before a fracture interpretation is made because they give similar
responses. In some shales, the compressive amplitude is larger than the shear amplitude,
which again looks like a fractured zone. A gamma ray or SP log should be used to
identify such zones.
On the full wave or array sonic log, we can measure travel time and attenuation of the
compressional, shear, and Stoneley wave energies, instead of merely the compressional
energy as on conventional sonic logs.
15
Another cause of energy reduction is poor acoustic coupling in zones with vuggy
porosity. This attenuation is due to acoustic wave scattering as it is being transmitted
through the vuggy porosity. Analysis of acoustic energies must be supported by porosity
information to distinguish this situation. Acoustic energy is not severely attenuated by
normal intercrystalline porosity.
Suitable processing of the digitally recorded waveforms can enhance the visibility of
fractures. One example is to plot the velocity cross correlations to observe the
compressional, shear, and Stoneley energy on a time versus velocity crossplot. The peaks
of the contoured correlation amplitudes show where the sonic energy is located .
Another method involves filtering the waveforms to enhance the chevron patterns caused
by mode conversion interference. This is similar to F-K or velocity filtering on seismic
data. The dipole array sonic sharpens the chevron patterns naturally, due to the different
propagation path of the directional acoustic beam compared to the omni-directional
pattern of the monopole array sonic. Stoneley reflection coefficients, computed from
adjacent Stoneley velocities, also help to pinpoint fractures.
Fracture Identification From Formation Micro-scanner Logs

The formation micro-scanner (FMS) or the newer formation micro-imager (FMI) is an
array of electrodes on pads used to produce an electrical image of the formations seen on
the borehole wall. On earlier tools, the image arrays were on only two of the four pads, so
several logging passes of the tool had to be merged together for better borehole coverage.
Using this technique, from forty to eighty percent wellbore coverage could be achieved.
Newer tools now have four or eight active imaging pads, reducing the need for repeat
passes to obtain 100% coverage of the borehole wall.
In addition to the array electrodes, the tool also has ten standard dipmeter electrodes (8
measure electrodes plus 2 speed buttons) as well as a directional cartridge containing
accelerometers and magnetometers for orientation input to the standard dip computations.
The electrical images are made by applying a gray scale to the resistivity wiggle-traces
produced from the electrodes on the tool. In this way, low resistivity zones appear dark
and high resistivity, low porosity intervals appear white. Since the array on each pad is
two and a half inches wide, irregular features, such as vugs and fractures, show up as
dark spots and lines on the images. Colour tones may be used instead of grey.
Fractures should produce a higher contrast anomaly than other porosity features because
the fractures are flushed with conductive borehole fluid and there is exaggeration of the
anomaly due to breakout of the wellbore on the fracture. The fractures are sometimes
masked, however, by extremely conductive vugs, so both the gray scale images and the
electrical wiggle-trace data are analyzed to identify fractures. Resolution of the micro-
scanner is about 10 mm, but contrast between fractures and rock is so good that thinner
events, as thin as a few microns, can often be seen.
16
Micro-scanner images give a very good visual correlation to core and allow the
interpretation of small and large scale sedimentary features in the formations. The
identification of fractures, along with fracture orientation, and the ability to differentiate
them from high angle bedding features is possible.
Further processing of the images to generate fracture frequency and fracture aperture is
now routinely applied to the newest formation micro-imaging (FMI) logs. Older logs can
be reprocessed for frequency and aperture only if data tapes still exist. The product of
frequency and aperture is fracture porosity.
Fracture Identification From Borehole Televiewer Logs

The borehole televiewer image is similar in appearance to a formation micro-scanner, but
uses an ultrasonic derived, directionally oriented, 360 degree view of the borehole wall.
Such an image, created by a conventional televiewer, has sufficient resolution to see
major fracture systems in good hole conditions. The hole must be round, smooth, and
filled with light weight mud to get really good images. The tool must be well centered.
These requirements are not met in most fractured zones, but logs are still run for fracture
identification and they are useful in many cases. Trade names for these tools are not as
well known as others: CBIL (pronounced Cybill) stands for Continuous Borehole Image
Log and UBI for Ultrasonic Borehole Imager. Versions of these tools are also used for
cement evaluation in cased holes.
The televiewer log of the wellbore is a representation of the amount of acoustic energy
received at the transducers, which is dependent upon rock impedance, wall roughness,
wellbore fluid attenuation, and hole geometry. For example, a smooth surface reflects
better than a rough surface, a hard one better than a soft one. A surface perpendicular to
the transducers reflects better than one that is skewed. Therefore, any irregularities such
as fractures, vugs and irregular porosity will reduce the amplitude of the reflected signal.
In addition to the amplitude image, the travel time image is also recorded on modern
logs. This is the travel time from tool to wellbore wall and back to the detector through
the mud. This image is effectively an acoustic caliper log, and is used to locate breakouts.
Considerable research is being conducted to enhance the televiewer images, using both
arrival time and amplitude of the sound waves, plus computer methods for image
enhancement, especially edge enhancement to resolve fractures and bed boundaries.
Modern televiewer logs can be used effectively in more rugged boreholes than older
versions because of the new processing techniques.
Since the televiewer image is oriented to magnetic north, we can determine the dip
direction of a fracture or bedding plane from the azimuth of the troughs of the sinusoid.
The dip angle can be calculated from the same equation as given for the microscanner.
Fracture or bedding dip from micro-scanner or televiwer

1: Angle of Dip = Arctan (Y / D)
17
CAUTION: The direction scale on the top of the image varies between service
companies. One uses a scale with North in the center of the image (same as for FMS and
FMI), another puts South in the center.
The televiewer has a few advantages over the formation microscanner. These are the
ability to see 360 degree image of the borehole, no need for pad contact, ease of use in oil
base muds, high resolution acoustic caliper, and better steep bed definition due to shallow
investigation. The microscanner has better resolution in rough hole and has higher
dynamic range due to using resistivity contrast instead of acoustic impedance contrast.
Modern FMI tools also see 360 degrees around the hole.
In Conclusion
Fractures are an important economic component in many reservoirs, and may be the only
socially redeeming factor in most tight reservoirs. Fractures can be found in nearly all
sedimentary basins and in nearly all types of traps. Many are unsuspected until an
anomalous production test is run or a production history match fails on a reservoir
simulator.
Most open hole logs show some indication of the fractures, although the effect may be
subtle, and hard to see. Some logs show fractures better than others, and these should be
run if fractures form a significant fraction of the reservoir permeability.
The mere presence of fractures, however, is usually a good sign, unless the fractures also
penetrate the water leg of the pool. In this case it is difficult to stop water from being
produced with the oil or gas. A good quantitative analysis of the porosity and water
saturation will help prevent completions too close to the water contact.
18

Fracture Identification by Log Intepretation

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harap tulisan ini di konfirmasi dengan buku-buku interpretasi log yang ada !!!

dan hanya untuk referrensi pribadi saja (short cut)

Natural fractures in reservoir rocks contribute significantly to productivity. Therefore, it

Naturally fractured reservoirs contain secondary or induced porosity in addition to their

To be an aid in production, fractures must be connected to a reasonable hydrocarbon

General Methods For Identification Of Fractures

Logs to run today for fractured reservoir evaluation:

1. Drilling characteristics: occurrence of lost circulation or mud loss (overbalanced

2. Sample descriptions: observation of fractures, slickensides, calcite in healed fractures,

Fracture Identification From Underbalanced Drilling (UBD) Operation

Fracture Identification From Core Analysis

A high permeability value in an otherwise low permeability environment is another clue,

The SP is a voltage generated by electrochemical reactions between the mud filtrate,

Fracture Identification From Caliper Logs

Rough, large, or irregular borehole in otherwise competent rock usually indicates

Fracture Identification From Micro Resistivity Logs

Fracture Identification From Dipmeter Logs

Semi-vertical fractures usually cause a relatively long conductive anomaly on two

Fracture Identification From Density, Neutron, and PE Logs

Fracture Identification From Gamma Ray Logs

Fracture Identification From Resistivity Logs

Fracture Identification From Temperature Logs

To differentiate between fractures and other causes of skipping, a number of different

Fracture Identification From Sonic Waveform Logs

Normal presentation of older sonic amplitude log includes:

Fractures are indicated when:

Fracture Identification From Formation Micro-scanner Logs

Fracture Identification From Borehole Televiewer Logs

Fracture or bedding dip from micro-scanner or televiwer

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